11.

4 Sexual reproduction

Essential idea: Sexual reproduction involves the

development and fusion of haploid gametes.

Both sperm and egg cells are the product of reduction division
and it is the process of fertilisation that creates a unique diploid
(zygote) cell which can develop into a new organism.

By Chris Paine
https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/files/2015/06/sperm_egg.jpg
Understandings, Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two
divisions of meiosis and differentiation.
11.4.U2 Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of
gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.
11.4.S1 Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages
of gametogenesis.
11.4.U3 Fertilization in animals can be internal or external.
11.4.U4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy. Fertilization involves the acrosome
reaction, fusion of the plasma
membrane of the egg and sperm and
the cortical reaction.
11.4.U5 Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the
continuation of pregnancy.
11.4.A1 The average 38-week pregnancy in humans can be positioned on a graph
showing the correlation between animal size and the development of the
young at birth for other mammals.
11.4.U6 HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy.
11.4.U7 The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and
fetus.
11.4.U8 Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has
formed.
11.4.U9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin.
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

Structure of the mature sperm Can you match the annotations to the labels?

Contains protein fibres and microtubules to strengthen

and allow the tail to move respectively.

Haploid (n), contains 23 chromosomes to be passed

from father to child

Contains enzymes which can digest the zona pellucida

Possesses helical mitochondria with provide the ATP

(energy) for swimming (and other processes)
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

Structure of the mature sperm

Contains enzymes which can digest the zona pellucida

Haploid (n), contains 23 chromosomes to be passed

from father to child

Possesses helical mitochondria with provide the ATP

(energy) for swimming (and other processes)

Contains protein fibres and microtubules to strengthen

and allow the tail to move respectively.
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.
Semen production
11.4.S1 Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of gametogenesis.

divide to produce spermatocytes

spermatogonia
11.4.S1 Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of gametogenesis.

spermatogonia
divide to produce spermatocytes
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/007249
5855/student_view0/chapter28/animation__spe
rmatogenesis__quiz_1_.html

http://www.cengage.com/biology/discipline_content/ani
mations/spermatogenesis.html
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.
Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis
Sperms are produced at the rate of about 120million/day. Seminiferous tubule has a wall
with an outer layer of germinal epithelial cells (2n)

a. MITOSIS –germinal epithelial cell (2n) Spermatogonia (2n)

These cells mitotically produce spermatogonia

b. GROWTH
Spermatogonia increase the size to form 1 ̊spermatocyte (2n) process of growth

c. MEIOSIS I
1 ̊spermatocyte undergo the 1st meiotic division to form haploid 2 ̊spermatocyte (n)

d. MEOSIS II
2nd meiotic division happen to 2 ̊spermatocytes to form haploid spermatids
(secondary spermatocytes become embedded in many infoldings of the cell surface
membranes of Sertoli cells + develop into spermatids before passing to the tops of
the cells next to the lumen of the tubule)

e. CELL DIFFERENTIATION (spermiogenesis)

Here they are differentiated into sperm (spermatozoas) by a process called
differentiation spermiogenesis
11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

Structure of the mature egg Can you match the annotations to the labels?

Haploid (n) contains 23 chromosomes to

be passed from mother to child

Makes the zona pellucida impenetrable to

sperm (after fertilisation) to prevent
polyspermy*
Cortical
Consists of a glycoprotein that protects granules
the egg and prevents the entry of sperm.

Contains nutrients to support the early

development of fertilised egg Not required – will break down

Provides nutrients to support the early

development of fertilised egg

Diagram from: http://www.slideshare.net/gurustip/reproduction-ahl-1062218

11.4.S2 Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

Structure of the mature egg

Provides nutrients to support the early
development of fertilised egg

Consists of a glycoprotein that protects

the egg and prevents the entry of sperm.

Not required – will break down

Haploid (n) contains 23 chromosomes to

be passed from mother to child

Contains nutrients to support the early

Cortical
development of fertilised egg
granules
Makes the zona pellucida impenetrable to
sperm (after fertilisation) to prevent
polyspermy*

Diagram from: http://www.slideshare.net/gurustip/reproduction-ahl-1062218

11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

outer layer of cells in the ovary

contains the primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of supporting

follicle cells
contains the secondary oocyte, ready for ovulation
#Mature follicle= Graafian Folicle
Medullary region consists of blood vessels &
connective tissue
11.4.S1 Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of gametogenesis.
11.4.S1 Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of gametogenesis.

outer layer of cells in the ovary

contains the primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of supporting
follicle cells
contains the secondary oocyte, ready for ovulation
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

Human ovulation captured on film:

https://youtu.be/2-VKgdhfNpY
Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of
meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body.
1. Unlike the spermatogenesis, which begins at puberty, the production of eggs in female begins before
birth. Oogenesis is the production of an egg.
2. The process:
a. Germinal epithelial cells divide to form oogonia (2n) by mitosis.

b. Oogonia grows into larger cells called primary oocytes (2n) which is surrounded by primordial
follicles.

c. Primary oocytes (2n) start the first meiotic division and stop at prophase I. The primary oocytes (2n)
and a single layer of follicle cells around form a primary follicle. ( When the baby girl is born, the
ovaries contain about 400,000 primary follicles, but only 450 ever develop into secondary oocytes)

d. Every menstrual cycle (after puberty), a few primary follicles start to develop. Only one primary
oocyte completes the first meiotic division, forming two haploid nuclei. The cytoplasm of the primary
oocyte is divided UNEQUALLY forming a large secondary oocyte (n) and a small polar body/cell (n).
The secondary oocyte is surrounded by secondary follicle which later becomes tertiary follicle.

e. The secondary oocyte starts the second meiotic division but stops at Prophase II. The tertiary follicle
cells are proliferating and follicular fluid (antrum) is forming, called Graafian / mature follicle.

f. When the follicle burst, during ovulation, the secondary oocyte is released. After fertilization,
secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form an ovum and a second polar body. The first and
second polar cells are degenerated.

g. The remaining Graafian follicle becomes Corpus Luteum to secrete progesterone

11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

Oogenesis production of ova (female gametes) 5 polar bodies eventually degenerate

1 during fetal development large
numbers of oogonia are formed by
mitosis.

2 oogonia enlarge (growth)

and undergo meiosis, but
stop in prophase I (until
puberty). They are now
termed primary oocytes
and are held in primary
follicles.

3a
(at puberty) some follicles develop each month in response to
FSH:
• the oocyte completes the first meiotic division 4 The oocyte completes meiosis II
• Division of the cytoplasm is unequal creating a polar body (forming the ovum) if the cell is
• the secondary oocyte continues into meiosis II and halts fertilized and another polar body
at prophase II

3b Secondary oocytes develop along with the follicle. When the follicle is mature it
rupture to release the secondary oocyte with a small number of cells (the mature
egg) into the fallopian tube. The remaining follicle cells remain in the ovary to form
the corpus luteum (which secretes progesterone).
Image edited from: http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/oogenesis_med.jpeg
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

Oogenesis resources:

http://www.wiley.com/college/jenkins/0470227583/ani
mations/index_25_03_01.html

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/00724958
55/student_view0/chapter28/animation__maturat
ion_of_the_follicle_and_oocyte.html

http://highered.mheducation.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::6
40::480::/sites/dl/free/0072495855/63089/28_02_1.swf::Structure%2
0of%20the%20Ovary%20and%20the%20Developmental%20Sequence
%20of%20the%20Ovarian%20Follicles
11.4.U1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. AND 11.4.U2
Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

Compare and contrast the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis (8 marks)

Oogenesis Spermatogenesis
Cell division Begin with mitosis and later on involve meiosis
Growth Involve cell enlargement before meiosis
Product Haploid cells (gametes)
Differentiation Produce specialised gametes
Location Eggs/2 oocyteproduced in the ovaries Sperm produced in the testes
Initiated During development of fetus During puberty
Pauses During prophase I (1 oocyte) and None
prophase II (2 oocyte)
cytokinesis Unequal, producing polar bodies Equal
Number of One egg from one oogonium, polar Four sperms from one spermatogonium
gametes bodies degenerate
Release 14th day, midpoint of the menstrual Continuous production, released during
cycle ejaculation
Ceases At the menopause Continuous until death
Gametes are produced in humans by spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Compare spermatogenesis and
oogenesis. (5)

Aspects Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

one per month/menstrual
number of
many / millions per day cycle/28 days / about 400
gametes produced
eggs per life time;

products of four / equal division of the cytoplasm / one / unequal division of the
meiosis no polar bodies cytoplasm / polar bodies;
begins during fetal
start of process at puberty
development;
duration of
throughout adult life ends at menopause;
production
released at ovulation / in the
produced continuously / released during
timing of release middle of the menstrual
ejaculation
cycle;
both spermatogenesis and oogenesis involve meiosis;
both produce haploid cells/nuclei;
both occur in gonads occurs in testes occurs in ovaries;
11.4.U3 Fertilization in animals can be internal or external.

Internal and external Fertilization

Terrestrial animals (e.g. reptiles, birds and

In some aquatic species fertilisation is mammals) are mostly internal fertilisers to
external (e.g. fish and amphibians) ; prevent dehydration of gametes or the
eggs are released followed shortly by developing embryo. Sperm is deposited into
sperm. This method of fertilisation is the female, in easy reach of the ova, during
susceptible to environmental variation intercourse.
and therefore animals that use it often
produce large quantities of eggs and
sperm to compensate for losses. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/q50Yphp1gzI/maxresdefault.jpg
http://www.bio1100.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/SAVE/ch31/31_08.jpg
Nature of science: Assessing risks and benefits associated with scientific research—the risks to human male fertility were
not adequately assessed before steroids related to progesterone and estrogen were released into the environment as a
result of the use of the female contraceptive pill. (4.8)
Assessing risks and benefits associated with scientific research: pollution
from the female contraceptive pill
Use these and other links. How serious is the pollution
threat from the female contraceptive pill?

Out for the count: Why levels of sperm

in men are falling http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/out-for-the-cou
nt-why-levels-of-sperm-in-men-are-falling-1954149.html

Don't blame the pill

for estrogen in drinking water
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101208125813.htm

Birth Control Hormones In Water:

Separating Myth From Fact
https://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/co
ntraception-journal/august-2011
£30bn bill to purify
water system after toxic impact of
contraceptive pill http://www.theguardian.com/envir
onment/2012/jun/02/water-syste
m-toxic-contraceptive-pill
11.4.U4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.

There is more to fertilisation than the fusion of the gametes

Why can only a single sperm fertilise an egg,

what prevents polyspermy?

How does the sperm penetrate the zona

pellucida?

What causes the pause in the egg’s meiosis

process to continue?
http://www.abpischools.org.uk/res/coResourceImport/
modules/genome/en-flash/fertilisation.swf
11.4.U4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.

Fertilisation
1. The sperm pushes through the
follicular cells and binds to
receptors in the zona pellucida
2. Enzymes are released from the
acrosome and digest the
glycoprotein based zona pellucida

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/path
phys/reprod/fert/fert.html

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acrosome_reaction_diagram_en.svg
11.4.U4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.

Fertilisation
1. The sperm pushes through the
follicular cells and binds to
receptors in the zona pellucida
2. Enzymes are released from the
acrosome and digest the
glycoprotein based zona pellucida

3. The membranes of the sperm and

the egg fuse this stimulates:
a. By exocytosis cortical granules
(vesicles) release proteases (enzymes)
into the zona pellucida causing the
zona pellucida to ‘harden’ and
become inpenetrable to (subsequent)
sperm, preventing polyspermy.

b. An influx of Ca2+ into the egg which

prompts the completion of meiosis II

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbo
oks/pathphys/reprod/fert/fert.html

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acrosome_reaction_diagram_en.svg
11.4.U4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.

Fertilisation
1. The sperm pushes through the
follicular cells and binds to
receptors in the zona pellucida
2. Enzymes are released from the
acrosome and digest the
glycoprotein based zona pellucida

3. The membranes of the sperm and

the ova fuse this stimulates:
a. By exocytosis cortical granules
(vesicles) release proteases (enzymes)
into the zona pellucida causing the
zona pellucida to ‘harden’ and
become inpenetrable to (subsequent)
sperm, preventing polyspermy.

b. An influx of Ca2+ into the egg which

prompts the completion of meiosis II
4. The nucleus of the sperm cell is deposited into
the egg’s cytoplasm and subsequently fuses
with the egg’s nucleus forming a diploid
zygote (cell).
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acrosome_reaction_diagram_en.svg
1. The process:

i) Arrival of sperm:
The first sperm to break through the layers of follicle cells (corona radiata) then binds to the
zona pellucida to triggers the acrosome reaction

ii) acrosome reaction:

The content of acrosome is released, by the separation of the acrosomal cap from the sperm.
Protease and hyaluronidase enzymes from acrosome digest a route for the sperm through
zona pellucida, allowing the sperm to reach plasma membrane of the egg.

iii) Fusion:
The plasma membrane of the sperm and egg fuse and the sperm nucleus enters the egg and
joins the egg nucleus. (tail and mitochondria remain outside) fusion causes the cortical
reaction. Once sperm nucleus enters the cytoplasm of the egg, Meiosis II is completed to
form ovum and 2nd polar body. An influx of Ca2+ into the egg which prompts the completion
of meiosis II

iv) Cortical reaction:

Lysosomes called cortical granules move to plasma membrane of the egg and fuse with it,
releasing their content by exocytosis. Enzymes from the cortical granules cause cross-linking
of glycoprotein in the zona pellucida, making it hard and preventing the entry of any more
sperm
-2 nuclei (pronuclei) fuse to form a new diploid nucleus to (2n) zygote
11.4.U5 Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy.

Implantation of the blastocyst

A ball of cells called a morula form after a series
of mitotic divisions
The ball of cells continues to divide, but
unequally forming a fluid-filled cavity in the
middle - this is now termed a blastocyst which
consists of:
• Inner mass of cells (develops into the Blastocyst formation occurs in the fallopian
embryo) tubes and uterus prior to implantation.
• Outer layer (develops into the placenta)
• A fluid filled cavity When the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it
will embed itself in the endometrium.

Once implanted the developing embryo will

gain nutrients and oxygen from the
endometrium tissue fluid which is supplied,
in turn, by a the endometrium’s capillary
network.

http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sraylman/physiology/cleavage_impl
ant.swf
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/blastocyst_med.jpeg
a. After fertilisation in oviduct, zygote starts to move towards the uterus, swept by peristaltic
contractions of oviduct & movements of cilia lining oviduct.

b. At the start of the journey, zygote goes through the first stage of embryonic development
called cleavage (2 cells, 4 cells etc).
c. Cleavage: special cell division; cells divide repeatedly without increasing the amount of
cytoplasm; no growth.

d. By the time, it reaches the uterus (4th day), zygote has developed into a solid mass of cells
called a MORULA.

e. It continues to divide to form a hollow fluid-filled ball of about 100 cells→ BLASTOCYST.
Blastocyst travels and appears to burrow its way into uterus lining (endometrium wall) by the
action of trophoblast cells.

f. Trophoblast cells have finger-like projections (trophoblast villi) which penetrate the
endometrium wall (7th day). They will digest uterine cells & obtain nourishment from them.

g. The blastocyst soon becomes firmly embedded among the glands and blood vessels in the
endometrium wall →IMPLANTATION.

h. Implantation then completed about 11/12 days after conception.

11.4.U6 HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy.
1. After implantation, the embryo (trophoblast cells) starts to secrete
HCG hormone (additional sex hormone).

2. Appears in the urine from about 7 days after conception.

HCG is initially secreted by trophoblast but later (up to 16 weeks of
pregnancy) it comes entirely from the growing placenta. The
function:
a) prevents degenerations of the corpus luteum which would
happen at the end of a menstrual cycle.
b) stimulate corpus luteum to grow and continue secretion of
oestrogen + progesterone – (essential to allow the pregnancy to
continue).
c) By the middle of the pregnancy, corpus luteum starts to
degenerate but by then the placenta are secreting oestrogen +
progesterone.
11.4.13 State that fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

A mass of cells within the trophoblast will eventually form the baby and its surrounding
membrane.

A fetus is surrounded by amniotic fluid which in turn surrounded by the amniotic sac-that keeps
the fluid from leaking out and protects the baby from mechanical harm and provide cushion
against mechanical injury.

11.4.14 State that materials are exchange between maternal and fetal blood in the placenta.

After implantation, trophoplast (now called chorion) develops blood circulation and continues
growing into uterus.

The chorion comes into contact with uterine blood vessels which it gains nourishment.
Blood vessels of chorion and mother grow and expand together to form placenta.
About 4/5 weeks after conception, blood circulation of chorion becomes linked to that of the
deleveloping embryo into fetus.

From then, until the end of pregnancy, embryo derives its life support from mother via placenta.
Materials are exchange between maternal (mother’s) & fetal blood in the placenta.
PLACENTA; composed of cells derived from fetus and the mother.
11.4.U8 Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed.

*The placenta takes over the hormonal role of the corpus luteum at about
week ten of the pregnancy:
• HCG initially maintains the corpus luteum
• Estrogen maintains the lining of the uterus
• Progesterone maintains the endometrium and prevents contractions
11.4.U7 The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus.

Chorionic villi increase surface area for

exchange of substances

Placental (chorionic) cells secrete

hormones, e.g. HCG, oestrogen and
progesterone.
1. Myometrium: Muscular wall of the uterus, contracts during
childbirth.
2. Intervillous space : maternal blood flows through these
spaces, brought by uterine/maternal’s arteries and carried
away by uterine veins
3. 2 Umbilical arteries: (stated)
4. Umbilical veins : (stated)
5. Chorionic villi : small projections that gives a large SA (14m2)
for the exchange of gases and other substances between the
mother and the fetus. The blood of the mother will not mix
with the fetal’s blood. It is blocked by the membrane of the
villi
6. Endometrium: the place where the placenta grow.
PLACENTA: STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Structure:
1. Placenta is composed of fetal and maternal tissue
2. Villi increase SA
3. Capillaries within villi
4. Intervillus space through which maternal blood flows
5. Connected to the fetus by umbilical cord
6. Intervillus space separate fetal’s and maternal’s blood

Function:
1. Transfer food/nutrients/glucose from mother to fetus
2. Fetal gas exchange/transfer of oxygen from mother to fetus
3. Transfer of excretory products/ CO2 from fetus to mother
4. Transfer of antibodies/hormones from mother to fetus
5. Secretion of estrogen and progesterone
6. Secretion of HCG and prostaglandin
Explain how the structure and functions of the placenta, including its hormonal role in secretion of
estrogen and progestrone, maintain pregnancy.

a. Placenta composed of maternal tissue and fetal tissue (diagram )

b. Disc shape, contain embryonic and maternal blood vessels
c. It is nutritive for respiratory and excretory by the third (12 weeks ) months of
pregnancy.
d. It is a barrier to prevent mixing of fetal and maternal blood.
e. It is an acquired passive immunity for the fetus where antibodies from mother cross the
placenta.
f. From the fourth week of development until birth, the placenta; transport nutrients,
respiratory gases and wastes between the fetus and the mother.
g. Maternal blood enters the placenta in arteries, flows through blood pools / intervillous
space in the endometrium and via veins.
h. Embryonic / fetal blood which remains in vessels, enters the placenta trough arteries,
passes through capillaries in fingerlike chorionic villi, where O₂ and nutrients are
required.
i. The fetus capillaries and villi project into the maternal portion of the placenta.
j. Fetal blood leaves the placenta through veins leading back to the fetus.
k. Materials are exchange by diffusion, active transport, and selective reabsorption
between the fetal capillaries bed and maternal blood pools.
l. a) (picture: fetus with chorion, amnion, placenta, villi of placenta and umbilical cord) b) (
picture of placenta, umbilical cord, umbilical vein )
11.4.U9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin. (DIAGRAM ON THE WHITE
BOARD).
Hormonal control of birth The process of birth is stimulated by the rise in
estrogen levels.

As estrogen increases it is no longer inhibited by

progesterone and therefore it initiates
contracting in the (smooth) muscular wall of the
uterus.

The contractions stimulate stretch receptors

signal the brain to release oxytocin from the
pituitary gland.

Oxytocin also stimulates the muscle of the

Positive uterine wall and contractions to grow stronger.
feedback
The contractions again stimulate stretch
receptors causing more oxytocin

Contractions continue for short time after birth to

eject the placenta. As the stretch receptors are
no longer stimulated oxytocin levels fall and
contractions cease.
 promotes

Estrogen
11.4 U.9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and
oxytocin.

Estrogen
Outline the process of birth, and its hormonal control, including progesterone and
oxytocin
1- The hormones are
HCG : Secreted by the developing embryo
: Maintain corpus luteum (± 16 weeks)

Progesterone : Secreted by corpus luteum ( 12 weeks)

: Secreted by placenta (after 12-38/40 weeks)
: Maintains endometrium
: Inhibits uterine contraction

Estrogen : Secreted by corpus luteum (early) then placenta

: Maintains endomentrium
: Prepare mammary gland for lactation
: very high levels increase the sensitivity of uterus to oxytocin (increase the
number of oxytocin receptors) and induces labour

Oxytocin : Triggers by the engaging of baby’s head

: Secreted by hypothalamus, stored in pituitary gland.
: Stimulates more contractions during labour
 The process of birth
1. During weeks 38 to 40, placenta losses its competency due
to the fall of progesterone ( the peak of estrogens, triggers
the onset of labour by increasing the sensitivity of the
uterus to oxytocin.)
2. Oxytocin – stimulates more and more contractions – it will
be secreted more and more by positive feedback
mechanism
3. This, causes more dilations and contractions ( becomes
stronger and frequent)
4. The onset of contractions of the uterine wall marks the
beginning of labour pains and there are 3 stages of labour
(handout)
5. After birth, the levels of these hormones decline and
anterior pituitary gland increases its secretions of prolactin
to maintain lactation during the period of infant nursing.
11.4.A1 The average 38-week pregnancy in humans can be positioned on a graph showing the correlation
between animal size and the development of the young at birth for other mammals.

Adult size and development of newborn young in mammals

Altricial mammals give birth to

(days)
relatively helpless, incompletely
developed offspring. Precocial humans
mammals give birth to offspring
that are mobile and able to defend
themselves. These are in reality
extremes on a scale.
The graph shows the relationship
between (adult) body mass and
gestation period (pregnancy) in a
range of mammals.

Although there is a definite positive

correlation between body mass and
gestation period there are mammals
with the same gestation period but
widely varying body masses (by an
order greater than 103).
(g)
The general rule is that animals with a long gestation
periods give birth to offspring who are more
developed at the time of birth.

http://jeb.biologists.org/content/208/9/1731