2

9
8
3
0
6
6
0
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9
Variable differential transformer (LVTD)

pp
The LVDT is a variable-reluctance device, where a primary center coil establishes a

ts
magnetic flux that is coupled through a mobile armature to a symmetrically-wound

ha
secondary coil on either side of the primary.

w
Two components comprise the LVDT: the mobile armature and the outer

on
transformer windings. The secondary coils are series-opposed; wound in series but
in opposite directions.
e
m

OFEICIA
ge

Standuy
OFFICIAL
sa
as

Primary
NOTIC
m
se

Seconday
ur

LLrbaiar
co

When the moving armature is centered between the two series-opp0sed secondaries, equal magnetic
on

flux couples into both secondaries; the voltage induced in one half of the secondary winding is 180
ti

degrees out-of-phase with the voltage induced in the other half of the secondary winding.
ta

When the armature is moved Out of that position, a voltage proportional to the displacement appears
en

source: www.sensorland.com
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9
Capacitive angle or position measurement

pp
ts
ha
w
on
e
A
m

C
d
ge

movable
sa
as

capacitance is evaluated
m

modifying the frequency of

an oscillator
se
ur
co

fixed
on
ti
ta
en

EPF
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Industrial Automation 12/52 2.1 Instrumentation

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SMALL POSITION measurmenf sfrain guage

9
Small position measurement: strain gauges

pp
ts
Dehnungsmessstreifen (DMS), jauges de contrainte

ha
Principle: the resistance of a wire increases when this wire is stretched:

w
)A on
e
m

2
R P 12
ge

=P
A V
sa
as

volume = constant, p = constant

m
se

measurement in bridge
Gif U = 0:
R,R, = R,R)
ur

R
co

measuree

(U) temperature compensation

on

JULL by "dummy" gauges

ti

R2
ta

compensation frequently used in buildings, bridges,

en

dams for detecting movements.

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 2
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3
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0
ICIAL
NOTICE

0
9
OFFICIAL

pp
Piezo-electrical effect
LON

ts
ha
OFFICc7
Piezoelectric materials (crystals) change form when an electrical field is applied tot

w
Conversely, piezoelectric materials produce an electrical field when deformed.
on
e
m

Quartz transducers exhibit remarkable properties that justify their large

Longitudinal
ge

scale use in research, development, production and testing. Elfect

They are extremely stable, rugged and compact.
sa

Of the large number of piezoelectric materials available today, quartz is

as

employed preferentially in transducer designs because of the following

m

Transvers e
excellent properties: Effect
se

high material stress limit, around 100 MPa (~14 km water depth)
ur

temperature resistance (up to 500c) 44 Shear

co

Effect
very high rigidity, high linearity and negligible hysteresis
on

almost constant sensitivity over a wide temperature range

ti

ultra high insulation resistance (10+14 ohms) allowing low

ta

frequency measurements (<1 Hz)

en

Source: Kistler
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9
Force measurement

pp
ts
ha
Force/Torque /Weight / Pressure is measured by small displacements (F = k* x):

w
- piezo-electrical transducers
-
strain gauges on
e
m

Acceleration is measured by way of force/ displacement measurement (F = M*7)

ge
sa
as
m
se
ur
co
on
ti
ta
en

EPF
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Industrial Automation 15/52 2.1 Instrumentation

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FICIALNOTICE

9
Principle of optical encoding

pp
OFFICIAL

ts
ha
LON
w
on NOT
Collimated Grating Mask
e
Detector
Light Source OFFIC AL
m
ge

Optical encoders operate by means of a grating that moves between a light source and a
sa

detector. The detector registers when light passes through the transparent areas of the grating.
as

For increased resolution, the light source is collimated and a mask is placed between the grating
m

and the detector. The grating and the mask produce a shuttering effect, so that only when their
se

transparent sections are in alignment is light allowed to pass to the detector.

ur

An incremental encoder generates a pulse for a given increment of shaft rotation (rotary encoder),
co

or a pulse for a given linear distance travelled (linear encoder). Total distance travelled or shaft
angular rotation is determined by counting the encoder output pulses.
on

An absolute encoder has a number of output channels, such that every shaft position may be
ti

described by its own unique code. The higher the resolution the more output channels are
ta

required.
en

courtesy Parker Motion & Control

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Absolute digital position: Grey encoder

pp
straight binary: if all bits were to change at about the same time: glitches

ts
ha
w
LSB

on
e
m

MSB
ge
sa
as

Grey: only one bit changes at a time: no glitch

m
se
ur

LSB
co
on
ti

MSB
ta
en

Grey disk (8 bit)

EPF
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Industrial Automatioon 17/52 2.1 Instrumentation

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Analog speed measurement: tachometer

9
pp
angular speed o

AA
ts
ha
N
V
w
O

on
e
analog: 4..20 mA
m

Ui do/ dt, | transducer

ge

digital:010110110
sa
as

a simple tachometer is a rotating permanent magnet that induces a voltage into a stator winding.
m
se

this voltage is converted into an analog voltage or current, which can later be converted to a digital value,
ur

alternatively, the frequency can be measured to yield directly a digital value

co
on
ti
ta
en

EPF
m

Industrial Automation 18/52 2.1 Instrumentation

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9
2.1.3.2 Temperature measurement

pp
ts
ha
the most frequently measured value in industry

w
on Protection and
head assembly
e
m
ge
sa

Extension Assemblies
as
m
se
ur
co

Thermowel
on

THERMOcoUPLE
ti
ta
en

www.omega.com
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TEMPRATURE MEASURMENTFICIAL

9
OTICE
Temperature measurement

pp
Thermistance (RTD resistance temperature detector):
-
OFFICIAL

ts
metal whose resistance depends on temperature:

ha
+cheap, robust, high temperature range (-180°C..600°C), LON

w
require current source, needs linearisation.
-
OFFIC
Thermistor (NTC negative temperature coefficient):
-
on
semiconductor whose resistance depends on temperature:
e
m

+very Cheap, sensible,

ge

low temperature, imprecise, requires current source, strongly non-linear

Thermo-element (Thermoelement, thermocouple)
sa

pair of dissimilarmetals that generate a voltage proportional to the

as

temperature difference between warm and cold junction (Seebeck effect)

m

+high precision, high temperature, punctual measurement

se

-low voltage, requires cold junction compensation, high amplification, lineaization

ur

Spectrometer:
co

measures infrared radiation by photo-sensitive semiconductors

+ highest temperature, measures surfaces, no contact
on

highest price
-
ti
ta

Bimetal (Bimetal, bilame)

en

mechanical (yes/no) temperature indicator using the difference in the dilatation

coefficients of two metals, very cheap, widely used (toasters..)
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Thermo-element and Thermo-resistance

pp
Thermo-element

ts
(Thermocouple)

ha
extension 2 3

w
two dissimilar
Fe wire Cu 4.20 mA
electrical
conductors on U (,-0,
e
Constantan
m

Cu
Fe-Const
measured temperature reference temperature
ge

also: PtURh Pt (hot junction) (cold junction)

sa
as
m
se

Platinum (Pt 100)

Thermoresistance
ur

(semiconductor or metal) 4..20 mA

co

www.ww
i
Constant
one material whose
U0
on

resistance is
2,3-or 4-wire connection
******
ti

temperature- *****

**********
ta

dependent
en

2 or 4 wire connection (to compensate voltage drop)

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FREE INSTRUMENTATION COURS

9
2.1.3.3 Hydraulic measurements

pp
ts
Flow,

ha
FREE INSTRUMENTATION

Mass Flow, AND CONTRO

w
ENGINEERING coURSE
Level,
Pressure,
Conductivity,
on
e
pH-Sensor,
m

Viscosity
ge

Humidity,
sa
as
m
se
ur
co
on
ti
ta
en

special requirements: intrinsic safety = explosive environment, sea floor = high pressure
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FREE INSTRUMENTATION COURSE

9
Level measurement

pp
ts
FREE INSTRUMENTATION

ha
ANDCONTROL
ENGINEERING COURSE

w
pulsed laser
on
load cell
e
m

pulsed microwave
ge
sa

nuclear
as
m

ultrasonic (40-60 kHz)

se

low power ultrasonic

ur

F mg
co

detector
row
on
ti
ta
en

see Control Engineering, Aug 2003

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9
Flow velocity measurement: differential pressure

pp
ts
FREE INSTRUMENTATION
AND CONTRO

ha
piezo-electric ENGINEERING COURSE

membrane
sensor

w
fluid of
on
e
viscosityp
m

P2 P1
ge
sa

V
as
m

Occultation
se

(Blende) 1
(Bernoulli effect)
2
ur

P2-P1 PV
co
on
ti

the flow velocity is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference
ta
en
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FREE INSTRUMENTATION COURSE

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9
Flow measurement

pp
ts
ha
Typical Paddiewheel Flawmeter Instnlation Typical Turbine Flowmeter Design

w
on
e
Plkip ctilwlssd wi
How sabtte ar
m

Piekap col iiezd wina

and er angar
Tuirtke rata
ge

-Padehed rtar
sa
as

FEH
m

SRConi Enyats
se

Bcuwisi: Carei Es Hatar srat

ur

Other means
co

Magnetic-dynamic
on

Coriolis
ti

Ultra-sound
ta
en
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9
Flow measurement in a plant

pp
T
ts
ha
w
on
e
m
ge
sa
as
m
se
ur
co
on
ti
ta
en

EPF
m

Industrial Automation 26/52 2.1 Instrumentation

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