Characteristics of Carbon ⎯ function: f) Phosphate (-PO4)

1. give the molecule unique shape ⎯ phospholipids, DNA,

1. has four valence electrons; can
2. behave a certain way in RNA, and ATP
form four different bonds with
chemical reactions
other carbon atoms or other Organic Molecules
⎯ types:
atoms
a) Hydroxyl (-OH) ⎯ molecule that contains carbon atoms
2. can form chains, branches, rings
⎯ found in sugar molecules bonded to other carbon atoms
3. can form unique, 3-D shapes
4. can form strong and stable ⎯ makes it very polar
b) Carbonyl (-C=O) • Carbohydrates
bonds
⎯ found in sugar molecules ⎯ C, H, O (1:2:1)
5. forms single, double, triple
⎯ makes it very polar ⎯ simple Sugar: monomer
bonds
c) Carboxyl (-COOH) - hydroxyl groups and
6. not readily dissociate in water
carbonyl groups
7. no limit to size of the molecule ⎯ found in proteins and lipids
- purpose:
8. bond with a wide variety or ⎯ makes it very polar
1. Glucose is the
other elements and functional ⎯ has acidic properties
principle energy
groups d) Amino (-NH2, -NH3)
source of all living
9. has all of these characteristics ⎯ found in amino acid
organisms. It is
e) Sulfhydryl (-SH)
Hydrocarbon converted to ATP by
⎯ found in the amino acid
⎯ an organic molecule consisting only the mitochondria.
cysteine
of carbon and hydrogen 2. The carbon skeletons
⎯ forms disulfide bridges in
can serve as the raw
Functional Group the tertiary structure of a
materials for the
protein
⎯ small, specific group of atoms that synthesis of other
can be attached to a carbon skeleton types of biological
molecules
A. Monosaccharide the cell wall of Monomer
⎯ one molecule plants
⎯ smaller molecules that are the
⎯ sugars are transported as ii. chitin – used by
repeating subunits that are joined
monosaccharides in arthropods to
together to make polymers
animals build their
B. Disaccharide exoskeletons; Dehydration Reaction

⎯ two molecules used by fungi as ⎯ reaction that joins two monomers

⎯ sugars are transported the structural together; water molecule is removed
throughout a plant in the component of between two monomers; one
form of disaccharides their cell wall monomer contributes the “OH” and
C. Polysaccharide Glycosidic Linkage the other contributes the “H”
⎯ many molecules
⎯ covalent bond formed between 2 Hydrolysis Reaction
⎯ two types:
monosaccharides by a dehydration ⎯ are disassembled to monomers by
1. storage
reaction hydrolysis. The bonds are broken by
i. starch- how
plants store their Macromolecule the addition of a water molecules

excess glucose
⎯ “giant” molecules that are formed by
molecules
the joining of many smaller • Protein
ii. glycogen- how
molecules ⎯ C, H, O, N sometimes S
animals store
Polymer ⎯ amino acid: monomer
excess glucose;
- 20 types
liver ⎯ long molecule consisting of many
a. amino group (-NH2)
2. structural similar or identical building blocks
b. carboxyl group (-COOH)
i. cellulose – forms linked together by covalent bonds
c. carbon
the tough, fibrous
d. r group
material found in
⎯ function: to the formation of Peptide Bond- covalent bond
a. Enzymes hydrogen bonds at formed by a dehydration reaction
b. Hormones regular intervals that links the carboxyl group of one
c. Transport (hemoglobin) 3. Tertiary amino acid to the amino group of
d. Contractile (muscle tissue) - irregular contortions of another amino acid
e. Antibodies a protein due to
Polypeptide- chain of amino acids
f. Membrane structure bonding between side
held together by peptide bonds; not
g. Structural proteins chains; gives the
yet a fully functioning protein
⎯ “As proteins go, shape protein its shape; due
determines function.” to hydrophobic
⎯ Denatured protein interactions and • Lipids
- has lost its unique, 3-D disulfide bridges ⎯ C, H, O
shape; inactive and can no Hydrophobic Interaction- clustering ⎯ monomers:
longer carry out its of hydrophobic side chains at the 1. glycerol- 3 carbon
function center of the protein compound with hydroxyl
⎯ Levels of Organization on each carbon; no 1:2:1
Disulfide Bridges- Covalent bonds
1. Primary ratio
between the side chains of two
- unique sequence of 2. fatty acid- very long carbon
cysteine amino acids. The sulfur of
amino acids that are skeleton with a carboxyl
one cysteine bonds to the sulfur of the
put together by the group at one end
second.
ribosomes of the cell ⎯ use:
2. Secondary 4. Quaternary 1. good source of energy
- the initial folding and - two or more 2. used to insulate the body
shaping of the polypeptide subunits 3. cushion the internal organs
polypeptide. It is the combine to form a
repetitive folding due functional protein
 4. phospholipids are a in the tail wherever a 2. hydrophobic fatty
structural component of double formed is acid tail- point to
membranes found each other across
⎯ characteristics: - “kinky tails” prevent the middle of the
• nonpolar them from packing membrane; make
• insoluble too close together; the membrane

⎯ types: form liquids at room insoluble in water

a. Fat temperature
- vegetable oils • Nucleic Acid
i. Saturated Fatty Acid
b. Oil ⎯ C, H, O, N, P
- no carbon to carbon
c. Wax ⎯ types:
double bond; as
- used as a water 1. DNA
many hydrogen
proofing material on 2. RNA
atoms as possible are
leaves, fruits, ⎯ nucleotide
bonded to the carbon
atoms feathers, fur 1. sugar

- no kinks and will d. Phospholipid 2. phosphate

pack very closely - bilayer arrangement 3. nitrogenous base

together, forming 1. hydrophilic - ringed structure with

solids; may lead to glycerol head- carbon and nitrogen

cardiovascular found on the outer alternating in the ring;

diseases edge and the inner may have a single ring

- dairy product edge of the or a double ring

membrane; draw a. purine (single ring)
ii. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
- contain carbon to water - adenine

carbon double bonds; - guanine

there will be a “kink”

 b. pyrimidine (double ⎯ Some carbohydrates also contain • extremely soluble in water: –
ring) nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur. Despite their high molecular
- cytosine weights, the presence of large
- thymine o Polysaccharides serve for the storage of numbers of OH groups make the
energy (e.g. starch and glycogen). monosaccharides much more
⎯ Component for structural support: water-soluble than most
CARBOHYDRATES
• Plant (cellulose) molecules of similar MW.
⎯ are a group of naturally occurring • Crustacean cells/arthropods (chitin) • Glucose can dissolve in minute
carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or • Connective tissues in animals (acidic amounts of water to make a
ketones) that also contain several polysaccharides) syrup
hydroxyl group • Essential components of nucleic acid Monosaccharide
⎯ most abundant organic molecules in (D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose)
⎯ simplest group of carbohydrates and
nature and also referred to as
often called simple sugars since they
“saccharides” ⎯ building blocks of all carbohydrates are
cannot be further hydrolyzed
⎯ soluble in water and sweet in taste are simple sugars called monosaccharides
⎯ colorless, crystalline solid which are
called as “sugars”.
soluble in water and insoluble in a
⎯ a biological molecule consisting of o Monosaccharide can be a polyhydroxy
non-polar solvent.
carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen aldehyde (aldose) or a polyhydroxy
⎯ these are compound which possesses
(O) atoms ketone (ketose)
a free aldehyde or ketone group.
⎯ formula: Cn(H2O)m ⎯ Purpose:
⎯ The general formula is Cn(H2O)nor
⎯ not all carbohydrates have this general • have a sweet taste (fructose is
CnH2nOn
formula. Some contain few of oxygen sweetest; 73% sweeter than
⎯ are classified according to the number
atoms to fit in, some contain too many sucrose).
of carbon atoms they contain and also
oxygen, some also contain nitrogen • solids at room temperature.
on the basis of the functional group
present
 ⎯ The monosaccharides thus
3,4,5,6,7… carbons are called trioses,
tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses,
etc., and also as aldoses or ketoses
depending upon whether they contain
aldehyde or ketone group.
⎯ Examples: Glucose, Fructose,
Erythrulose, Ribulose.
Oligosaccharide
⎯ are compound sugars that yield 2 to
10 molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
⎯ monosaccharide units are joined by
glycosidic linkage
⎯ Based on the number
monosaccharide units, it is further
classified as disaccharide,
trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide etc.
⎯ Oligosaccharides yielding
molecules of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis is known as a disaccharide,
and the ones yielding 3 or 4
monosaccharides are known
trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides
respectively and so on.
with ⎯ Examples: Disaccharides include Heteropolysaccharides i.e.,
sucrose, lactose, maltose, etc. monosaccharides of different
types.
Polysaccharide
⎯ Examples of
⎯ called as “glycans” Homopolysaccharides are starch,
⎯ contain more than 10 glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
monosaccharide units and can be ⎯ Heteropolysaccharides are
hundreds of sugar units in length. Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin
⎯ differ from each other in the
Function of Carbohydrates:
identity of their recurring
monosaccharide units, in the • Living organisms use carbohydrates as
length of their chains, in the types accessible energy to fuel cellular
of bond linking units and in the reactions.
degree of branching. • Carbohydrates along with being the
⎯ primarily concerned with two chief energy source, in many animals,
of important functions ie. Structural are instant sources of energy. Glucose
functions and the storage of is broken down by glycolysis/Kreb’s
energy cycle to yield ATP.
⎯ They’re further classified • Serve as energy stores, fuels, and
2 depending on the type of metabolic intermediates. It is stored as
molecules produced as a result of glycogen in animals and starch in
hydrolysis. plants.
⎯ Homopolysaccharidese: • Stored carbohydrates act as an energy
as containing monosaccharides of source instead of proteins.
the same type • They form structural and protective
components, like in the cell wall of
 plants and microorganisms. Structural • Also, they help in the modulation of the
elements in the cell walls of bacteria immune system.
(peptidoglycan or murein), plants
(cellulose) and animals (chitin).
• Carbohydrates are intermediates in the
biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• Carbohydrates aid in the regulation of
nerve tissue and is the energy source for
the brain.
• Carbohydrates get associated with
lipids and proteins to form surface
antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins,
and antibiotics.
• Formation of the structural framework
of RNA and DNA (ribonucleic acid and
deoxyribonucleic acid).
• They are linked to many proteins and
lipids. Such linked carbohydrates are
important in cell-cell communication
and in interactions between cells and
other elements in the cellular
environment.
• In animals, they are an important
constituent of connective tissues.
• Carbohydrates that are rich in fiber
content help to prevent constipation.