2.

0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Briquetting Process

A briquette is a block of compressed coal, biomass or charcoal dust that is used as fuel to start and maintain

fire (Grainger et al, 1981).

Briquetting is a mechanical compaction process for increasing the bulk density of materials. This process is

used for forming fine particles into a designed shape. It can be regarded as a waste control measure in the

case of production of briquettes from agricultural wastes such as arachis hypogaea. However, depending on

the material of interest, briquetting can be used to provide fuel source as a preventive measure to many

ecological problems. Briquetting is a high-pressure process which can be done at elevated temperature

(Zhanbin, 2003) or at ambient temperature (Mohammad, 2005) depending on the methodology one wants to

employ.

During this process, fine material is compacted into regular shape and size which does not separate during

transportation, storage or combustion. In some briquetting techniques, the materials are simply compressed

without addition of adhesive or binder (Mangena and Cann, 2007) while in some, binding material is added

to help in the cohesion of the particles of the material together.

In generally, briquette making process has focused more on the production of smokeless solid fuels from

charcoal and agricultural wastes. There are various techniques which have been used to produce smokeless

solid fuel from coal fine. The most common technique is the use of roller press using only moderate pressure

and binder. Note that the machines employed for this process are also used to make other kind of non-fuel

briquettes from inorganic materials such as metal ores. However, briquettes making from organic materials

(agricultural wastes) require significantly higher pressure as additional force is needed to overcome the

natural bounciness of these materials. Essentially, this involves the destruction of the cell walls through

some combination of heat and pressure. High pressure involved in this process suggests that organic

briquetting has higher cost implication than coal (inorganic) briquettes.

Various briquetting machines have developed in two directions, mechanically compression (hydraulic or

pistons) and worm screw pressing types which have been designed, ranging from very simple types which

are manually operated to more complex ones mechanically or electrically powered.

2.2 Historical Background of Briquetting Process

Although, compaction and densification of loose combustible materials for fuel making purposes is a

technique which has been in existence thousands of years ago but industrial method of briquetting seems to

be dated back to eighteenth century. In 1865, report was made on machines used for making fuel briquettes

from peats and are recognized as the predecessors of the present briquetting machines. Since then, there has

been a wide spread use of briquettes made from brown coal and peat etc.

The use of organic briquettes (biomass briquettes) started more recently compared to coal briquette. It seems

to have been common during world war and during the 1930s depression. The modern mechanical piston

briquetting machine was developed in Switzerland based upon German development in the 1930s.

Briquetting of saw dust are widespread in many countries in Europe and America during World War 11

because of fuel shortages. However, after the World War, briquettes were gradually phased out of the

market because of availability and cheapness of hydrocarbon fuels.

Common types of briquettes so far in use are coal briquettes, rice, peat briquettes, charcoal briquettes, and

biomass briquettes such as rice husk briquettes, groundnut shelland sawdust etc. Most recently, researchers

have studied the effect of blending of coal and biomass such as enhancing the properties of coal briquettes

using spear grass (Onuegbu et al, 2010a), Enhancing the heating properties of agricultural waste

briquettes(Oyelaran, et al.,(Olorunfemi, et al., 2018). (Sanusi, et al., 2018), Adeyinka Oke, 2018),

(Fagbemigun, et al., 2018)but, studies are yet to emerge on the use of only arachis hypogaea wastes (shell

and stake) for briquetting, which this paper will focus on.

2.3 Advantages of Briquette Production:

Briquette production will:

i. Create employment opportunities for people since people will be needed to operate the briquette machine,

get the raw materials (i.e. cassava and arachis hypogaea wastes, etc.), sell the briquettes produced, etc

(Bhattacharya, 1985).
ii. Provide a good means of converting arachis hypogaea wastes into a resourceful substance of economic

value.

iii. Provide a cheap source of fuel for domestic purposes, which will be affordable by all Nigerians.This will

in turn reduce particulate emission that result from the use of fuel wood which seems to degrade the

ecosystem for sometime due to green house gases.

iv. Help to conserve some of natural resources since it is a good substitute for fire wood. Therefore, it will

help to reduce the quantity of firewood, oil and gas that is used in the production of energy for domestic uses

and generating plants.

2.3.1 Effect of Binder on Properties of Briquettes

Binders are substances, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, that can hold (bind) two things or

something together. Two types are combustible and non-combustible binders.

Combustible binders are binders that support combustion and can burn. Examples are starch, petroleum

residues, molasses, cottonseed oil etc. Non-combustible binders are binders that cannot support combustion

examples are clay, cement, limestone, etc. Starches have proved very satisfactory as binders.

There are various biomass resources available for production of biomass briquettes. Some of them are straw,

sugar bagasse (fibrous residue of processed sugar cane), corn stalk, groundnut – shell, wheat straw, palm

husk, rice husks, corn cob, forest wastes, and other agricultural wastes. Several researches on biomass

briquette have been carried out using some of these biomass resources.

Binder is an adhesive material which helps to hold the particles of the material together in the briquette.

Apart from its function to hold the particle from separation, it also protects the briquette against moisture in

case of long storage. There are several binders that can be used some of them are starch (from various

starchy root such as cassava, and cereals), molasses, clay and tree gum etc. Some chemical substances have

also been used as binding agent for production of briquettes. Some of them are asphalt, magnesia and pitch.

Though, the use of starch as binder is satisfactory in every respect, it disintegrates under moist or tropical

condition. However, the use of small additional hydrocarbon binder such as pitch or bitumen has been

reported to improve the water resisting property (Wilfred, et al.,1980) and (Martin,et al 1980). Moreover,
the nature of the binder has influence in the combustibility of the briquette produced. For instance, briquette

produced using clay takes longer time to ignite than the one produced using starch.

2.4 Starches as a Binder for briquetting

Starch is a white granule organic chemical compound that occurs naturally in all green plants. The

percentage of occurrence varies with plant and in different parts of the same plant. The natural function of

the starch is to provide a reserve food supply for the plant. Starch can be extracted from many kinds of

plants, only a few plants can yield starch in commercial quantities. Such plants are maize, potato, rice,

sorghum and cassava, etc.

Cassava plants are the major source of starch. The plant thrives in the equatorial region between the tropics

of capricom, and as well it thrives very well in Nigeria. There are many varieties of cassava plants of which

two varieties-bitter and sweet varieties are widely grown for the purpose of manufacturing of starch. They

contain high content of starch which ranges from 12-33%. A typical composition of the cassava root is

moisture (70%), starch (24%), fiber (2%), protein (1%) and other substance including mineral materials

(3%) (US Department of Agriculture, 2016)

When starch is cooked, it gelatinizes to form viscous solution with water. The starch granules begin to swell

as they are heated in water until they absorb most of the water and starch paste which differs in clarity,

texture and gelling strength is formed. Cassava starch has numerous industrial uses. They are used as an

additive in cement to improve the setting time. It is used to improve the viscosity of drilling moulds in oil

wells. It is used to seal the walls of bore holes and prevent fluid loss. It is used in the main raw material in

glue and adhesive industries. In briquetting industries, it is widely used as a binder. Briquette produced

using starch as the binder is easily ignitable and burns with less ash deposit.

2.5 Process of Producing Briquettes from Arachis Hypogaea Wastes

Briquettes production from Arachis Hypogaea Wastes is very simple and cost effective. The raw materials;

shell and stakes are crushed to a size of approximately 3mm, and then dried. Research showed that 0-5mm is

the optimum particle size of the raw materials for a briquette. The dried crushed materials, a desulphurizing

agent and binder are mixed together in varyig proportions of shell and stakes, and are compressed with
briquette machine into a designed shape. The type of briquetting machine determines the size and shape of

the briquette that is produced. Some briquetting machines have small mould while some have larger mould.

For a large mould, there is always a facility which make hollow in the briquettes when formed. These

cavities are necessary for efficient combustion of the briquette. It allows for proper flowing of air needed to

maintain the combustion.

In this production process, high temperature is not required. The process is simple, safe and does not require

skilled operating technique. Hence the process can easily be adopted and sustained in Nigeria.

2.5.1 Characteristics of Arachis Hypogaea Wastes Briquettes

(1) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaeadecreases the generation of soot up to one-tenth that of direct

combustion of fuel wood (http:www.nedo.go.jp/sekitan/cc.eng-pdf/2-3c3pdf). Combustion of fuel wood

generates soot because, during the burning, the volatile components of the wood are released at low

temperature (200-400oC) as incomplete combusted volatile matter.

(2) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaeahave a significant shorter ignition time when compared with

wood or conventional coal briquette Biomass has low ignition time.

(3) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaeahave superior combustion-sustaining properties. Because of

low expansibility and caking properties of biomass briquette, sufficient air flow is maintained between the

briquettes during combustion in a fire-place. Hence it has very good combustion-sustaining properties and

does not die out in a fireplace or other heater even when the air supply is decreased. This property offers the

opportunity of adjusting the combustion rate of the biomass briquette easily.

(4) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaea emit less SO2. It contains desulphurizing agent and the high

pressure involved in the process enables the shell and stake particles to adhere strongly to the desulphurizing

agent. During combustion, the desulphurizing agent effectively reacts with the sulphur content of the coal to

form a solid compound instead of being released as oxides of sulphur to the atmosphere. However, it is

widely accepted that biomass briquette technology is one of the most promising technologies for the

reduction of SO2 emission associated with burning of farmlands and agricultural wastes (Patomsok, 2008).
(5 Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaeahas high breaking strength for easy transportation. The high

pressure involved in the process coupled with the binder, compressed the raw material into a rigid mass

which does not break easily, hence can be stored and transported safely.

(6) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaea usually generate sandy ash can be utilized in agriculture for

soil improvement. In the briquette, since the fibrous biomass particles are intertwined, the resulted ash after

combustion does not adhere or form clinch-lump; therefore, the ash is always sandy.

(7) Briquettes produced from arachis hypogaeaburns nearly perfect; therefore the flame has significant

higher temperature than simple biomass burning or coal (Hayami, 2001).

Arachis Arachis hypogaeastakes

hypogaeashell (leaves and stem)

Briquetting Pressure: 110 to 140MPa

Drying Temperature: room temp.
Cutting

Drying
Crushing Drying

Mixing Crushing
Desulphurizer, cassava-starch
binder, water.
Storage

Fig 1: The basic flow process arachis hypogaea briquette production.

2.6 Biomass Resources available in Nigeria

The biomass resources of Nigeria can be identified as wood, forage, grasses and shrubs, animal waste, and

waste arising from forest, agricultural, municipal and industrial activities as well as aquatic biomass.

Biomass is organic non-fossil material of biological origin. Biomass can be converted into energy either by

thermal or biological process.

Biomass energy resources base in Nigeria is estimated to be about 144 million tons per year. Nigeria has

about 71.9 million hectares of land considered to be arable and grasses of different kinds are among the

major agricultural produce. The potential for the use of biomass as green energy source in Nigeria is very

high.

However, owing to the fact that firewood is the energy choice of the rural dwellers and the urban poor,

pressure is mounted on the forest in search of fuel wood while on the other hand, vast majority of other

biomass resources in form of agricultural wastes are wasted either deliberately or unknowingly. Meanwhile,

researches have shown that this category of biomass resources can be converted to better fuel sources

compared to fire wood, and at the same time, act as pollution control measures.

Biomass may be used directly as energy source for heating or are better converted to a cleaner fuel source.

For-instance, conversion of coconut shell into charcoal and biomass based briquettes is always encouraged.

Other energy sources that are got from biomass include: biogas, biodiesel and bio-ethanol etc. All these

energy sources have been proven to have better combustion characteristics and are more environmental

friendly than direct open burning of fuel wood.

Among the things to include in this chapter are:

- Nigeria’s energy overview

- Sources of energy in Nigeria – this will include hydropower, wind, solar, biomass etc

- History and background of biomass

- Biomass conversion process

- Briquetting machines

- Advantages of briquetting

- Process variables that affects briquetting – effect of pressure, temperature, moisture content, particle

size, binder etc

- Measurement of strength and durability of briquettes – compressive strength, impact resistance etc

- Reviews of works done on briquettes

- Summary of literature reviews

 - There are several types of briquette machines with different working principles, they work
on different pressures and suitable for different materials. So how they work differently?
What are there advantage and disadvantages? Let’s follow the article.
- What is a briquette machine
- A briquette machine is used to turn the waste powder to a regular shape block, which can
help to improve the conditions for those powder, make them easy for transportation,
storage, and more useful for further usage.
- The briquette system is able to deal with all kinds of materials with suitable size and
moisture.
- Briquetting work always work with the binder as it needs the binding effect to get enough
strength for the finished briquette. Biomass and industrial waste are different from each
other due to their binder sources.
- Types of briquette machines and how they work

Screw type

The screw type briquette machine uses the auger to press the raw material, with different
materials; it can be equipped with or without the heating system to output briquettes. The
heating system is a special design for machines that deals with materials containing lignin.
Lignin which is a natural binder can be found on biomass such as wood. Other materials
like coal, charcoal always require binder when briquetting with the screw type briquetting
machine.

https://briquettesolution.com/

The granulated biomass is fed to the hopper and then conveyed by the rotating screw inside
the machine which then takes the material from the feed port, and compact it against a die
which assists the build-up of a pressure gradient along the screw. Finished briquette output
may assume a square, round or plum blossom shape.

As the screw briquette machine works with a moderate pressure, binders are sometimes
needed to form the briquette. This machine may be equip with a heating system that assist
the biomass material melt the internal lignin and turn it to a high-performance binder.
Besides, other materials also work with this briquetter like coal, charcoal, etc. These
materials should be well mixed with the binder to get the briquette forms.

-  differ
ent screws
- Examples:

- Screw bio briquettes machine

- Briquette extruder
-

Hydraulic type

Hydraulic type works with a hydraulic pump station which supplies an enormous amount of
pressure. Because this high pressure, nearly all the materials can be briquette with this system.
The working principle of this machine is base on a chamber where materials are fed into, where
materials are formed into briquettes under a very high pressure. It causes their plasticity and
makes them binding firmly together as a block.

Hydraulic type takes a long pressure keeping time on the briquette, this prevents the short-time
material deformation rebound and will cause a special heating for those materials like sawdust for
melting its internal lignin, make the briquette with higher strength.

Examples:

- Hydraulic briquetting machine

- Biomass brick briquetter

-

Piston type

The piston type uses the rotary power of the mechanical device or the thrust of the hydraulic
cylinder to reciprocate the piston (or the plunger), and the piston (or plunger) drives the ram to
reciprocate in the forming sleeve to generate a pressing force to form the material to briquette.
 -

A big pressure will be generated as the movement of the flywheel and punch the briquette time
after time in a short time, it raises the temperature of the raw material. As the raw material
moves, it fractionates with the inside, another kind of heat – friction heat generates. With the
action of these two kinds of heat, material raises its own temperature to a high level and melt
the lignin. Particle materials then bind together and become strong enough.

The honeycomb briquette machine is a simple type of piston briquette machine, it uses the wheel
as well but briquette only punched once to form.

- Examples:

- Log briquette maker

- Honeycomb briquette machine

-

- Roller Type
- Roller press works with two close rotating rollers at the same speed but with opposite
direction. The two rollers, with the same width and diameter, have holes on the surface. 
When they move, the same two holes on the different roller will coincide at the intersection
of the midline and the briquette will be pressed there.
 -
- With different pressure requirement, roller press can be designed to several types.
- A normal roller press will use a  wedge iron to fix the movable roller as it works on a low
pressure. The hydraulic pump station is also can be used to fix the roller and supplies a
much bigger but flexible support to the roller to work stable on big pressure.

Advantages of briquetting

Reduction in volume

Saves space, time and costs for handling, storage and transport

Lower disposal costs

Lower staff costs

Higher revenues from the sale of briquettes

Recovery of expensive cooling lubricants when briquetting metal and aluminium chips

Higher smelting yield

Defined qualities

Cleanliness at the workplace

Volume reduction

Increased revenues from the sale of briquettes

Reduce logistics expenditure

Minimise disposal costs

Environmentally friendly

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performance

Abstract
The knowledge of water resistance capacity of briquettes is important in order to determine how
sensitive the produced briquettes are to moisture change during storage. The relative changes in length
and diameter of briquettes during immersion in water for 6 hours were investigated. This was conducted
to determine hygroscopic property of produced briquettes under process variables levels of binder (10,
20, 30, 40, and 50%) by weight of residue, compaction pressure (3.0, 5.0, 7.0, and 9.0 MPa) and particle
size (0.5, 1.6, and 4 mm of dried and ground water hyacinth). Data was statistically analysed using
Analysis of Variance, the Duncan Multiple Range Test, and descriptive statistics. The relative change in
length of briquettes with process variables ranged significantly from % to % (binder), % to %
(compaction pressure), and % to % (particle size) (). Furthermore, the relative change in diameter of
briquettes with binder, compaction pressure, and particle size varied significantly from % to %, % to %,
and % to %, respectively (). This study suggests optimum process variables required to produce
briquettes of high water resistance capacity for humid environments like the Niger Delta, Nigeria, as
50% (binder proportion), 9 MPa (compaction pressure), and 0.5 mm (particle size).

1. Introduction
Biomass is an important source of energy for the majority of the population in the developing countries.
In Africa, it accounts for 75% of the total energy consumption [1]. In Nigeria, Ethiopia, Uganda, and
Tanzania, biomass accounts for more the 80% of total energy consumption. The most important sources
of biomass fuels in Africa are wood (fuelwood and charcoal), crop and wood residues, and dung [2].
Fuelwood is undoubtedly, the most prominent source of biomass energy, and because of its increasing
scarcity, it is a subject of major concern in most developing countries in Africa.

Water hyacinth is an aquatic weed that grows at an extremely rapid rate, and its production is about 2
tons of biomass per acre and doubles every 5–15 days [3]. Water hyacinth is abundant in most of the
fresh water bodies in the Niger Delta areas. Water hyacinth has a potential biomass for production of
biofuel because of its high growth yield and availability in large amount throughout the year and all
over the world [4]. Water hyacinth was reported to be difficult to control due its spread by physical,
chemical, and biological means, and substantial amounts of money have been spent on their control
annually throughout the world [3].

The utilization of water hyacinth as an alternative source of energy is an important way of managing the
weed problem and contributing to environment management. This might enhance rural economic
development, farm income, business diversification, reduction in agricultural surplus, international
competitiveness, reduced negative environmental impact, and creation of employment opportunities in
the area of production, harvesting, and processing.

The majority of the rural areas dwellers of Nigeria depend on firewood as a source of energy for
cooking [5]. Bioenergy is an alternative and cheap source of energy which can easily be made available
to the fish processors in rural areas especially in the Niger Delta in view of fuelwood scarcity.

A binder (additive) can be liquid or solid that forms a bridge, film, matrix, or causes chemical reaction
to make a strong interparticle bonding. The strength and durability of densified products depend on the
physical forces that bind the particles together [6]. There are three categories of binders, namely,
organic, inorganic and heavy petroleum products binders. The binding force that acts between the
individual particles in densified products is categorized into five groups. They are solid bridge,
attraction forces between solid particles, mechanical interlocking bonds, adhesion and cohesion forces,
interfacial forces, and capillary pressure.

In Lindley and Vossoughi [7], briquettes made from sunflower stalk, wheat straw, and flax straw
absorbed about 9.9, 32.3, and 38.1% of water after immersion for 30 seconds in water at room
temperature. Li and Liu [8] reported biomass logs made from oak sawdust, pine sawdust, and
cottonwood sawdust disintegrated less than 5 minutes after being immersed in water at room
temperature. The biomass logs swelled rapidly in the water and disintegrated within a few minutes.
These studies showed that short-term exposure to rain would be detrimental to the physical quality of
the densified products. The percentage water resistance penetration of carbonized cashew shell, rice
husk, and grass briquettes were investigated when immersed in water at 27°C for 30 seconds. It was
observed that the briquetted fuel from carbonized cashew shell had low percentage water resistance
penetration of less than 10% as compared to the briquetted fuel from carbonized rice husk and grass that
had percentage water resistance penetration of about 35 and 45%. The briquetted fuel from carbonized
cashew shell required minimum energy for production and low water absorption properties [9].

Tabil [10] reported that increase in moisture content by more than 3–5% due to storage under high
relative humidity (70–90%) had detrimental effect on durability of alfalfa pellets. During storage, an
increase in the moisture content of alfalfa pellets from 7.5% wet basis (w.b.) to about 12.5% (w.b.)
increased the durability of pellets from 81 to 85%. Furthermore, an increase in the moisture content of
alfalfa pellets from 7.5% (w.b.) to about 19.0% (w.b.) reduced the durability of pellets from 81 to 75%.
That study suggested that a small percentage of increase in moisture content (about 4%) could have
helped strengthen the bond between the individual particles in the pellet due to the binding forces of
water molecules. However, increasing moisture content by more than 4% increased the volume of the
pellet and free water in the particles, which could have reduced the binding forces between the
individual particles in the pellet and, thus, a decrease in the durability of pellets.

The water absorption capacity of pellet stored in the environment chamber having a temperature 28°C
and relative humidity (90%) for the period of 50 to 80 days after the production showed different water
resistance capacities depending on binders and exposure duration to water [9]. The pellet hardness was
more sensitive to moisture change during storage than pellet durability [8]. The quality of the briquettes
can be affected by the moisture content [7, 11]. It was observed that strength and bulk density of the
briquettes increased with increasing moisture content until an optimum level is reached. Moisture acts
as both lubricant and binding agent, but beyond the optimum level of moisture content, the briquetted
material would not be compacted, regardless of the pressure level. This could be attributed to the excess
water present in the particle surfaces which causes reduction or even complete loss of the surface
tension [7]. The moisture content below 20% was recommended to have stable and durable briquettes
[11].

The objectives of this study are to investigate the optimum binder proportion, compaction pressure, and
particle size that will produce briquettes with the highest water resistance capacity. Also, this study
assessed the suitability of water hyacinth briquettes in high relative humidity areas such as the Niger
Delta of Nigeria.

2. Materials and Methods

The study area was Port Harcourt, Nigeria. It is a coastal city located at 4.77742 (latitude in decimal
degrees) and 7.0134 (longitude in decimal degrees). The average elevation of Port Harcourt, Nigeria, is
468 meters. This City being an equatorial humid area has the highest rainfall value in Nigeria (2000–
4000 mm per-annum). High relative humidity values (RH >80%) are encountered in the wet and dry
seasons. Low humidity (<60%) is only experienced during the Harmattan period.

The water hyacinth samples were harvested manually from a fish pond. Water hyacinth samples were
cleaned of foreign matters (i.e., stone, dust, and other plant materials) prior drying. The samples were
sundried and milled using hammer mill. A Ro-Tap sieve shaker was used to determine the particle size
[12]. The water hyacinth grind was mixed with binders produced from plantain peels until a
homogenous mixture was formed. The percentages of binders used in the mixture were 10, 20, 30, 40,
and 50% by weight of residue, while compaction pressure and particle size ranged from 3.0–9.0 MPa
and 0.5 mm–4.0 mm, respectively (Table 1). The method adopted followed that of Bolufawi [13].
Plantain peels were sundried, ground into powder (particle size 0.075 mm) using hammer mill, and
sieved with Tyler sieve. It was hydrated with a predetermined quantity of hot water to form colloidal
solution of the binder and later boiled. The colloidal solution was constantly stirred until smooth paste
was formed. This facilitated the proper agglomeration of the particle. The consistency of the binder was
maintained at a fixed level with its concentration in the sample mixture varied at 10, 20, 30, 40, and
50% levels of the residue.
Table 1 
Process variables at different levels of the produced water hyacinth briquettes.

Prior to briquetting, the moisture content of the mixed samples was determined using ASABE standard
method [14]. Compaction tests on the blend samples were carried out using hydraulic press machine
with maximum capacity of 20 tons. A steel cylindrical die of dimension 14.3 cm length and 4.7 cm
diameter was used for this study. The die was freely filled with pre-determined weight of each sample
mixture (charge). A known pressure was applied at a time on the material in the die and was allowed to
stay for 45 seconds (dwell time) using stopwatch before released, and the briquettes formed were then
be extruded. The prepared briquettes were kept for two weeks in the laboratory conditions of
temperature °C and relative humidity of %; hence the briquettes could be stabilized. The briquettes were
subjected to hygroscopic tests for assessing the water resistance capacity. The relaxed briquettes were
immersed in a circular glass container filled with distilled water at temperature of °C for the period of
six hours. Measurements were taken for the length and diameter changes of the briquettes [5, 11]. Each
of the experiments was replicated three times. Figure 1 shows water hyacinth briquettes.

Figure 1 
Water hyacinth briquettes.
2.1. Data Analysis

The experimental design for this study was  Randomized Complete Block Design. Each experimental
set-up was arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications per experiment. A
total of 180 experiments were conducted. Data was subjected to statistical analyses for analysis of
variance (ANOVA), Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT), and descriptive statistics.

3. Results and Discussion

The relative change in the length of briquettes during immersion in water for 6 hours was investigated.
This was conducted to determine the water absorption capacity (hygroscopic property) of the produced
briquettes under process variables of binder, pressure, and particle size. The relative change in length of
briquettes ranged between % () and % (), and the variation was significant () (Figure 2). The
hygroscopic property of briquettes at different binder proportions showed an increase in water resistance
capacity with increased quantity of binder utilized. This is an indication that water hyacinth had high
affinity for water compared to the binder (plantain peels). The implication of this observation is that, in
high relative humidity areas such as the Niger Delta of Nigeria, briquettes made up of 50% binder ()
might be more suitable and appropriate for production of briquettes. The postimmersion linear
expansion of the briquettes ranged between 0 and 10% after 72 hours of immersion in water for
production of briquettes from paper and coconut husk. Briquettes that fall within this range are grouped
as low water absorption briquettes [5].
Figure 2 
Effect of binder on relative change in length and diameter of briquettes.

The influence of binder on the relative change in diameter of briquettes is shown in Figure  2. The values
varied from % () to % (), and the difference in these values was significant (). This is an indication that
plantain peels as binder improved the water resistance capacity of the briquettes. The obtained values
were lesser than the range obtained for relative change in the length of briquettes. The implication is
that, in high relative humidity areas such as the Niger Delta,  binder level might be more pliable,
suitable, and appropriate for production of briquettes.

The effect of compaction pressure on the water resistance capacity of the briquettes was investigated,
and it revealed that increase in pressure decreased the water absorption capacity. The values of relative
change in length varied between % () and % () (Figure 3). These values were significantly different ().
The voids between particles inside the briquettes might have sealed up, preventing water infiltration and
passage. The recorded maximum compaction pressure () provided the highest water resistance capacity
of the briquettes. Compaction pressure  might have brought the particles sizes closer so that the forces
acting between them became stronger. This could have provided more strength to the densified bulk
material so that the product would have sufficient strength to withstand rough handling and humid
condition. Thus in a highly humid environment such as the study area pressure  is recommended.

Figure 3 
Effect of compaction pressure on relative change in length and diameter of briquettes.

The interaction between particle sizes and relative change in length varied from % () to % (), and there
was significant variation of the values () (Figure 4). The relationship between the particle sizes and
relative change in the length of briquettes indicated direct correlation. The particle size is one of the
major factors that determine the water absorption capacity of any briquette. The smaller the particle
sizes of briquette, the lower the relative change in the length of briquettes. The reason for this
observation could be due to particles having interparticle bonding with nearly no inter-particle pores.
The briquettes had relatively the highest water resistance characteristic for particle size of 0.5 mm. The
implication of this investigation is that the briquettes produced with particle size 4.0 mm and lower
pressure (3 MPa) cannot be stored under high humidity environments such as the Niger Delta areas of
Nigeria; hence production of these briquettes are not recommended based on low water resistance and
high water absorption capacity of the briquettes.

Figure 4 
Relative change in length and diameter of briquette and particle size. Means of different letters are significantly
different ().

The effect of compaction pressure on relative change in the diameter of the briquettes immersed in
water (Figure 3) varied significantly between % () and % () (). The hygroscopic property of briquettes at
different compaction pressure levels decreased with increased water absorption capacity.

The values of relative change in diameter ranged from % () to % () (Figure 4). The effect of particle size
on the relative change in diameter revealed direct proportional. The obtained values of the relative
change in diameter of the briquettes were significant (). This study showed that short-term exposure to
rain would not be detrimental to the physical quality of the briquettes.
 4. Conclusion
The briquettes that had the highest percentage of water resistance characteristic in terms of length and
diameter were obtained from binder level 50%, compaction pressure 9.0 MPa and particle size 0.5 mm.
The hygroscopic property of briquettes at different binder proportions showed increase in water
resistance capacity with increased quantity of binder utilized. The smaller the particle sizes of
briquettes, the lower the relative change in the length and diameter of briquettes. The water resistance
capacity of briquettes progressively improved with increase in binder inclusion and compaction pressure
and decrease in particle sizes. It can be concluded that good quality water hyacinth briquettes of high
water resistance capacity for humid environments such as the Niger Delta, Nigeria, should be produced
with 50% binder, 9 MPa compaction pressure, and 0.5 mm particle size.

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Physical and thermal properties of briquettes produced by recycling charcoal dust under different processing
conditions have been reported in this study. The main aim was to investigate the effects of the binder and
processing conditions on the properties of briquettes. The effect of adding molasses binder on combustion
properties of the briquette was first assessed. Then by fitting experimental data, mathematical models to
predict gross calorific value, ash content, moisture content, relaxed density and shatter index with respect to
binder mass fraction, drying temperature and compaction pressure were developed. All briquettes properties
were predominantly affected by amount of molasses used. Molasses mass fraction increment in briquette
results in significant increment in ash content, moisture content, relaxed density and shatter index and
significant reduction in gross calorific value. Drying temperature did not have major influence on briquette
properties except moisture content. Compaction pressure (50–150 MPa) used in this study had negligible
influences on all briquette properties. Therefore, such high pressure which involves energy consumption is
not necessary during production of charcoal dust briquettes. Optimized values of gross calorific value and
shatter index were 29.031 MJ/kg and 80.363%, respectively, for 50 MPa compaction pressure, 29.512 °C
drying temperature and 10% molasses mass ratio.

Introduction
Biomass fuel is the main source of energy for most Kenyan population. In fact, according to Energy
Commission of Kenya [1], 70% of the Kenya energy demand is contributed by biomass and more than 90%
of the rural households depend on it for their energy needs. These fuels are normally used in various forms,
viz.; solid wood, wood chips, wood pellets, charcoal, crop residue, sawdust, briquette, etc. Charcoal and
firewood are the principal fuels used in Kenya [2, 3]. Even though there is a large amount of biomass waste
generated in Kenya (4.5 million tonnes per year [4]), its usage in the form of briquette fuels is still low [5].
Charcoal dust is among these unexploited resources [2].

In Kenya, charcoal is produced in rural areas and transported to urban area where its consumption rate
stands at 82% [6]. Along charcoal supply chain, some of it ends up being waste in the form of fine char
particles (charcoal dust). This waste product arises from handling and transportation of charcoal. They are
available in abundance at charcoal vendors. For instance, Fig. 1 shows a photo of charcoal dust dumped
outside a charcoal vendor store in Nyeri, Kenya. According to Kenya Forestry Service report [7], charcoal
dust generated during charcoal production is between 10 and 15% of the total charcoal produced. Pure
charcoal dust has the same calorific values as the parent charcoal. Therefore, they have potential of
supplying more energy in places where they are readily available. They can be used in specialized boilers
which are designed to burn pulverized biomass fuel [8]. However, the authors noted that these boilers are
not common and the existing ones which are used for pulverized coal combustion need to be redesigned for
efficient pulverized biomass combustion. On the other hand, charcoal dust can be used to make briquettes
which are then burned in an ordinary stove for small-scale applications.

Fig. 1

A photo of charcoal dust dumped outside a charcoal vendor store in Nyeri, Kenya
REVIEW Full size image

Briquetting is the process of compressing loose fuel material to form a high densified product. As a result,
physical, chemical and combustion properties of the material are much improved [9,10,11]. In addition,
transportation and storage is enhanced. Numerous research [12,13,14,15,16] have been done on briquette
production and characterization. A lot of efforts have been made to study briquettes from different sources
[17,18,19,20,21]. Properties such as volatile matter, calorific value, relaxed density, compressed density, ash
content, durability, fixed carbon, dimensional stability, compressive strength, etc., vary with raw material,
binder type, compacting pressure and temperature. Therefore, these properties cannot be generalized. During
briquette making, some biomass naturally binds when subjected to favourable temperatures and pressures
because they have lignin [4, 22, 23]. However, if these conditions are not met then a binder is required to
complete the process. Some of the binders which are normally used include starch, molasses, clay, dung,
gum, among others. These binders have impact on briquette properties. For instance, Ngusale et al. [4]
reported that charcoal briquettes made from clay and red soil as binders emit a lot of smoke during
combustion.

Diversity of raw materials and binders for briquette making complicates its physical, chemical and thermal
characterization. Furthermore, properties of a briquette are altered by the ratio of binder to raw material.
Even though charcoal dust briquettes have been produced and use in Kenya [4], the effect of various binders
and processing conditions such as compression pressures and drying temperature on fuel properties have not
been fully assessed. This research is motivated by this fact and the need to identify the binder type together
with mixing ratio for optimum properties. Sugar cane molasses, which has relatively good combustion
properties as a binder [24] has been used in this study.

The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using sugar cane molasses as a binder on the
properties of briquette made from recycling charcoal dust. The impact of compaction pressure, drying
temperature and binder’s level on the physical and thermal properties of the briquette were evaluated.
Subsequently, the independent parameters that give optimum briquette’s performance in terms of gross
calorific value, fixed carbon, ash content, moisture content, relaxed density and shatter index were
determined through analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis (RA). Furthermore, a
mathematical model to predict each of these briquette properties as a function of input parameters was
developed.
Material and methods
Material

Eucalyptus charcoal was obtained from a charcoal

vendor in Nyeri, Kenya. The charcoal was grinded into
fine particles to represent the charcoal dust. The
charcoal dust was sieved with a 2 mm sized sieve, so
that dust with particles less than this size was used in
the tests. Raw sugarcane molasses was obtained from a
local shop in Nyeri, Kenya.
Briquette production

An experimental rig, shown in Fig. 2a was designed so

that it could be used on a hydraulic press (Tecnotest,
Modena Italy) available at civil department, DeKUT.
Figure 2b shows a mold that has been mounted on
hydraulic press. The internal diameter and length of the
mild steel mold was 25 and 100 mm, respectively. A
24.8 mm diameter by 100 mm long mild steel shaft was
used as a piston. During compression, the mold was
placed on a removable plate and the two pieces held
together by a compression spring as shown in Fig. 2a.
Once the sample was compressed to the required force,
the removable plate was removed and the mold placed
concentrically on top of ejection guide. The sample was
ejected from the mold by applying a small force on it.
Fig. 2
Schematic diagram of the briquette production mold,
hydraulic press and briquette samples
Full size image

Three different ratios by mass of charcoal dust to

undiluted sugarcane molasses, according to
experimental plans, were prepared for mixture. Since
molasses was a small fraction of the total mixture, it was
diluted with water (10% of the total mixture) to ensure
homogeneity in the properties of charcoal/molasses
mixture. The percentage of molasses/charcoal dust by
mass was set to range between 0 and 10%. For every
ratio, 20 ± 0.1 g of the mixture was compacted under
different pressure, namely, between 50 and 150 MPa.
The mass of charcoal dust, molasses and mixture were
determined using electronic weighing scale TP-B2000
with an accuracy of 0.1 g. A manually operated hydraulic
press was used to compact the mixture in the mold. The
pressing force was determined using in-build force
sensors attached to the punch and the readings obtained
on an analogue display. Once the desired force was
achieved, the punch was retracted and the briquette
ejected immediately from the mold. In total, five sets of
17 samples (according to Box-Behnken Design
methodology which is illustrated in Sect. “Design of
Experiments ”) shown in Fig. 2c are produced. Each set
was tested for moisture content, ash content, gross
calorific value, relaxed density and shatter index,
respectively. Each sample was dried on an electric oven
at the required temperature, according to the
experimental plan, for 2 h.
A different set of briquettes were used to evaluate the
effect of binder’s level alone on its combustion
properties. This set were produced at a pressure of
100 MPa and dried at 25 °C.
Agricultural wastes burn so rapidly that it is difficult to maintain a steady fire due to
difficulty in controlling the combustion process. Also, wastes do not fit in form and structure
for traditional coal pots and stoves. While recycled wood wastes had found some use as fuel
by burning them directly in retrofitted industrial boilers, direct burning of loose bulky
agricultural wastes is inefficient. They have low energy value per volume and hence are
uneconomical; they also cause problems for collection, transportation, storage, and handling.

One of the approaches that is being pursued in some parts of the world, for improved and
efficient utilization of agricultural residues, is their densification into solid fuel
pellets or briquettes. This involves reducing the size by pressing the bulky mass together.
The ease of storing and transporting such an improved solid fuel briquette (usually in log
form) of high specific weight makes them attractive for use at home and in industry. Unlike
the loose and bulky form, combustion of briquettes can be more uniform. This could make it
possible for briquetted materials to be burned directly as fuel in somewhat similar fashion as
the fuel wood and coal in domestic (perhaps retrofitted) stoves and ovens. Some developing
countries, e.g. India, Thailand, and a few places in Africa, have had experience of
substituting fuel briquettes for fuel wood and coal to reduce the problems of firewood
shortage and farm-waste disposal (Bhattacharya et al., 1989).

Briquetting improves the handling characteristics of the combustible material, increases the

volumetric value, and makes it available for a variety of applications – domestic and
industrial. Materials that can be briquetted and used as fuel in industry are not only limited to
agricultural wastes. There is a combination of varied forms of material including waste
wood, sawdust, agro-industrial residue, plastic, rubber, and various other forms of
combustible material which can be compressed by powerful industrial press machines.

The briquetting process is the conversion of agricultural waste into uniformly shaped

briquettes that are easy to use, transport, and store. The idea of briquetting is using materials
that are unusable, due to a lack of density, and compressing them into a solid fuel of a
convenient shape that can be burned like wood or charcoal. The briquettes have better
physical and combustion characteristics than the initial waste. Briquettes will improve
the combustion efficiency using the existing traditional furnaces, in addition to killing all
insects and diseases as well as reducing the destructive fire risk in the countryside.
Therefore, the main advantages of briquetting are that they:

Get rid of insects

Decrease the volume of waste
Produce efficient solid fuel of high thermal value
Have low energy consumption for production
Protect the environment
Provide job opportunities
Are less risk hazardous.
The raw materials suitable for briquetting are rice straws, wheat straws, cotton stalks, corn
stalks, sugar cane waste (bagasse), fruit branches, etc. However, in the suggested complex
explained later in this chapter cotton stalks and fruit branches are best utilized by briquetting.
The briquetting process starts with collection of wastes followed by size reduction, drying,
and compaction by extruder or press.

Briquetting quality parameters

Different agricultural residues have different structural and chemical properties. Briquetting
agricultural wastes for fuel are meant to improve the residue value as well as environmental
criterion; burning them in the field is being discouraged. Properties of the residue
and briquetting process determine briquette qualities – combustion, durability, stability, etc.
Among the parameters with which briquette quality is measured are bonding or compressive
strength, porosity, density, calorific value, and ash content.

Among the variable parameters that have been investigated by various authors (El-Haggar et
al., 2005) on various residues that thrive in different localities are briquetting applied
pressure, the material's moisture content, particle size, and temperature.

Applied pressure influences briquette density; the higher the density, the higher the calorific
value in kJ/kg. High pressure is assumed accompanied by some inherent rise in
temperature. Ndiema et al. (2002) stated that when the temperature of the material to be
briquetted is elevated (preheat) beyond the natural state, a low pressure would be required
for densification.

Increase in density, however, reduces ease of ignition (i.e. pre-combustion) of the solid fuel;
increasing density reduces porosity. The particle size of the material could have an effect on
the resulting briquette density and compressive strength. The nature of plant residue suitable
for briquettes is categorized into fine, coarse, and stalk types (Tripathi et al., 1998).

The level of moisture in the material at compression is an important processing parameter.

The significance of moisture content on biomass compaction was reported by numerous
researchers (Faborode and O'Callahan, 1987; Hill and Pulkinen, 1988). Excess moisture or
inadequate drying of residue decreases the energy content of the briquette. Studies revealed
that briquetting agricultural residues within a range of moisture content could improve a
briquette's stability, durability, and strength. On the other hand, excess moisture could hinder
briquette processing, lead to poor briquettes and increase energy requirement for grinding or
drying the material.

Another important quality determinant is the presence or absence of binding material.

Briquetting is done either with binder or is binderless. A binding agent is necessary to
prevent the compressed material from “springing” back and eventually returning to its
original form. In binderless briquetting, applied pressure and temperature ooze out the
natural ligneous material (binder) present in the material which helps in bonding.

When a residue lacks the natural lignin that helps in bonding (or the percentage of lignin is
low) the introduction of a binder will be necessary to improve briquette quality. However,
appropriate selection and amount of binder need to be made in order to prevent smoke, or
emission of volatile material that negatively impacts humans and the environment. Also,
material that lacks the natural binder can be mixed with those that have. Materials with the
natural binder include cotton stalk, saw dust, corn stalk, among others. Some artificial
binders include tar, starch, molasses, or cheap organic materials.

In conclusion, briquette quality can be determined by the following:

•Stability and durability in handling, transportation and storage; these are measurable by
changes to the weight, dimension, and ultimately the relaxed density and strength of the
briquettes.
•Combustion (energy value) or ease of combustion, and ash content.
•Environmental concern, i.e. the toxic emissions during burning.

Parameters that determine briquette quality are:

•Pressure and/or temperature applied during densification.
•Nature of the material:
Structure (e.g. size, fibrous, non-fibrous, etc.)
Chemical (e.g. lignin-cellulose content)
Physical (e.g. material particle size, density, and moisture content)
Purity (e.g. trace of element (sulfur), etc.).
Parameters that determine stability and durability of briquettes are:

•Compressive strength, impact strength.

•Compressive time.
•Relaxation: Moisture, length, density (post-briquetting parameter).
Briquetting process
Apart from the inherent properties of the raw material (agricultural waste), the briquetting
process could also have an effect on briquette quality (Ndiema et al., 2002). Briquettes from
different materials or processes differ in handling and combustion behavior; briquettes from
same material under different conditions can have different qualities or characteristics.
Moreover, the feed material, the storage conditions, the briquette geometry, its mass and the
mode of compression all have a bearing on the stability and durability of briquettes
(Ndiema et al., 2002).

Briquettes with low compressive strength may be unable to withstand stress in handling, e.g.
loading and unloading during transfer or transportation. Stability and durability of briquettes
also depend on storage conditions. Storing briquettes in high humid conditions may lead to
briquettes absorbing moisture, disintegrating and subsequently crumbling. This
disintegration is sometimes referred to as relaxation characteristic. The briquetting process
may be responsible for briquette relaxation. Drying may be accompanied by shrinkage;
expansion (increase in a briquette's length or width) is also possible.

The briquetting process primarily involves drying, grinding, sieving, compacting, and
cooling. The components of a typical briquetting unit are (1) preprocessing equipment; (2)
material handling equipment; and (3) briquetting press. Preprocessing equipment includes a
cutter/clipper, and drying equipment (dryer, hot air generator, fans, cyclone separator, and
drying unit). Among material handling equipment are screw conveyors, pneumatic
conveyors and holding bins.

In briquetting agricultural residue (or a blend of residues) for fuel purposes, optimum
combinations of parameters that meet desired briquette qualities for a particular application
(domestic or industrial fuel) should be the target. Effort needs to be made to determine a set
or a range of parameters (moisture content, particle size, and applied pressure or/and
temperature) which can bring about optimum or desired briquette quality (combustion,
durability and stability, smoke/emissions level).

Briquetting technology

Studies on briquette production cover availability of agricultural wastes (husks, stalks, grass,
pods, fibers, etc.) and agro-industrial wastes, and the feasibility of the technology and
processes for converting them into briquettes in commercial quantity. The technology used
to compress the biomass or agricultural waste are piston, screw extruder, pellet presses,
and hydraulic presses.
Much research has investigated the optimum properties and processing conditions of
converting agricultural residues (either alone or in combinations with other materials), with
or without binders, into quality fuel briquettes. The desired qualities for briquettes as fuel
include good combustion, stability and durability in storage and in handling (including
transportation), and safety to the environment when combusted. Measures of these properties
include the energy value, moisture content, ash content, density or relaxed density, strength,
ease of ignition, smoke and emissions.

In piston presses, pressure is applied by the action of a piston on material packed into a
cylinder against the die. They may have a mechanical coupling and flywheel or use hydraulic
action on the piston. The hydraulic press usually compresses to lower pressures.

In the screw extruder, pressure is applied continuously by passing the material through a
cylindrical screw with or without external heating of the die and conical screws. The heat
helps in reducing friction and the outer surface of the briquette is somehow carbonized with
a hole in the center. In both piston and screw technology, the application of high pressure
increases the temperature of the biomass and the lignin present in the biomass is fluidized
and acts as binder (Tripathi et al., 1998).

In the pellet presses, rollers run over a perforated surface and the material is pushed into the
hole each time a roller passes over. The dies are made out of either rings or discs. Other
configurations are also possible. Generally, presses are classified as low pressure (up to 5
MPa), intermediate (5–100 MPa), and high pressure (above 100 MPa).

Al Widyan et al. (2002) examined parameters for converting olive cake (12% moisture) into
stable and durable briquettes; olive cake being an abundant residue byproduct of olive oil
extraction in Jordan. Durability and stability were believed to be influenced by briquetting
pressures and moisture content of the material.

Cake of varying moisture was compacted into a 25 mm diameter cylindrical shape by

hydraulic press under varied pressures (15–45 MPa) and dwell times (5–20 seconds).
Through Design of Experiment (DOE), and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), significance of
applied pressure, moisture content, and dwell time were tested. A briquette's stability was
expressed in terms of relaxed density (mass to volume ratio) of the briquette after sufficient
time (about 5 weeks) had passed for their dimensions (diameter and length) to stabilize. For
the relative durability test each briquette was dropped four times from a height of 1.85
meters onto a steel plate. Durability was taken as the ratio of final mass retained after
successive droppings. The method was noted as unconventional; relaxed density was taken
as a better quantitative index for stability.

Ndiema et al. (2002) carried out an experimental investigation of briquetting pressure on

relaxation characteristics of rice straw using a densification plunger at differing pressures
between 20 and 120 MPa. Relaxation characteristics were taken as percentage elongation
and fraction void volume of sample at time t after briquette ejection from the die. Laboratory
condition was between 50 and 60% relative humidity. Time t was fixed at 10 seconds and 24
hours after ejection from the die. Both expansion and fraction void volume were noted to
decrease with increase in die pressure until a die pressure of about 80 MPa was reached.
Beyond 80 MPa compression, no significant change in briquette relaxation was noticed. The
study concluded that for a given die size and storage condition, there often exists a maximum
die pressure beyond which no significant gain in cohesion of the briquette can be achieved.