UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

BUILDING SCIENCE AND

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS II
COURSE CODE: BLD102

YEAR I- SE MESTER II

THEORY

Version 1: December 2008

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

WEEK 1
1.0 Concert of heat
1.1 vibration of string (practical)

WEEK 2
2.0 Basic Principles of Sound Insulation and acoustic

WEEK 3
3.0 Characteristic of light

WEEK 4
4.0 Principles of Illumination

WEEK 5
5.0 Properties of Different Species of Timber
Week 6
6.0 preservation of timber
6.1site Visit (Preparation of Timber)
WEEK 7
7.0 ferrous and non ferrous metals
7.1 Tensile And Hardness Test for Ferrous And Non
Ferrous metals

WEEK 8
8.0 composition and properties of paint and varnishes
8.1 types of paint and manufacturing process

WEEK 9
9.0 Glass and Glass products
9.1 Site Visit (Manufacturing Process of Glass
Product).

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WEEK 10
10. 0 Asphalt and bitumen (properties)
10.1 site view of asphalt plant

WEEK 11
11.0 uses of asphalt and bitumen in building construction

WEEK 12
12.0 Adhesive Glue (chemicals composition and uses)

Week 13
13.0 Asbestos and Asbestos Products (manufacture and
uses)
13.1 site visit to asbestos company

WEEK 14
14.0 courses, effect and prevention of corrosion
14.1 practical (test on corrosion of iron)

Week 15
15.0 Causes of Termites in Building
15.1damage and destruction by termites and prevention

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BUILDING SCIENCE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS II

Week 1
MICROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF SOLID

Introduction
Semiconductor: Material able to conduct electricity at room temperature more readily
than an insulator, but less easily than a metal. Electrical conductivity, which is the
ability to conduct electrical current under the application of a voltage, has one of the
widest ranges of values of any physical property of matter. Such metals as copper,
silver, and aluminum are excellent conductors, but such insulators as diamond and
glass are very poor conductors (see Insulation).

Semiconductors

Substances which allow electricity to flow through them are called conductors.
Example of conductors are metals (such as copper, silver, iron among other) salts and
inorganic acids solutions. Substances which do not allow electricity to flow are called
insulators. Examples are plastic materials, glass, wood, air, rubber, etc. Insulators
therefore have high electric resistances while conductors have low electric resistances.
In other words, electric conductivity is high in conductors and low in insulators.
Certain materials have an electric resistance between the high value of the electric and
the low value of conductors. In other words, the electric conductivity of such
materials is intermediate in value between those of conductors and insulators. Such
materials are therefore called semiconductors. Examples of such semiconductors are
silicon and germanium.

Semiconductors: are materials which have an electric conductivity intermediate in

value between that of pure metal (good conductor) and that of good insulators.
Semiconductors are widely used in the electric industries, e.g. in computers and
communications. Semiconductors materials posses a crystalline structure, i.e. the
atoms are arranged in an orderly manner. In both germanium and silicon each atom
has four electrons orbiting in the outer most shell, and therefore are said to have four
valence electrons.
At low temperatures, pure semiconductors behave like insulators. Under higher
temperatures, or with the addition of impurities, or in the presence of light, the
conductivity of semiconductors can be increased dramatically. The physical properties
of semiconductors are studied in materials science and condensed-matter physics.

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 FIGURE 1.1

CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES

FIGURE 1.2

The common semiconductors include chemical elements and compounds such as

silicon, germanium, selenium, gallium arsenide, zinc solenoid, and lead telluride. The
increase in conductivity with temperature, light, or impurities arises from an increase
in the number of conduction electrons, which are the carriers of the electrical current.
In a pure, or intrinsic, semiconductor such as silicon, the valence electrons, or outer
electrons, of an atom are paired and shared between atoms to make a covalent bond
that holds the crystal together. (See Chemical Reaction). These valence electrons are
not free to carry electrical current. To produce conduction electrons, temperature or
light is used to excite the valence electrons out of their bonds, leaving them free to
conduct current. Deficiencies, or “holes”, are left behind that also contribute to the
flow of electricity. (These holes are said to be carriers of positive charge.) This is the
physical origin of the increase in the electrical conductivity of semiconductors with
temperature. The energy required to excite the electron and whole pair is called the
energy gap.

P-N Junction
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When p-type and n-type semiconductor regions are adjacent to each other, they form a
semiconductor diode, and the region of contact is called a p-n junction. (A diode is a
two-terminal device that has a high resistance to electric current in one direction but a
low resistance in the other direction.) The conductance properties of the p-n junction
depend on the direction of the voltage, which can, in turn, be used to control the
electrical nature of the device. Series of such junctions are used to make transistors
and other semiconductor devices such as solar cells, p-n junction lasers, rectifiers, and
many others. See Electronics; Rectification; Solar Energy.
Semiconductor devices have many applications in electrical engineering.
Microelectronic engineering developments have yielded small semiconductor chips
containing hundreds of thousands of transistors. These chips have made possible a
high degree of miniaturization and complexity of electronic devices. More efficient
use of such chips has been developed through what is called complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor circuitry, or CMOS, which consists of pairs of p- and n-channel
transistors controlled by a single circuit. Advanced layered semiconductor materials
can be made using techniques such as molecular-beam epitaxial.

6
WEEK 2

BUILDING STONE

Types of Building Stones

Gravel: for concrete mixture

Sandstone – concrete mixture or road work and walls
Chips –ashlartacin
Marble – Terrazzo
Limestone – cement

Uses of Stones

MARBLES

Marble is a typical building stone. The physical properties are always regarded as very
attractive and durable building stone. In recent years the use thin marble in the form of panel,
slabs, through the wall units in curtain walling structures as become more prevalent.
Commercially marble is any crystalline rock capable of taking a high polish and composed
predominantly of one or more of the following materials: calcite, dolomite, serpentine. The
physical properties of marble is the mean by laboratory, text are given in tables. Text also
shows that flexural strength of marble is reduced after aging to compensate for the effect. the
ultimate flexural strength of marble is considered to be half of each tested strength.

To calculate the allowable stress in the design of transversely loaded wall, multiply one half
the ultimate failure stresses by 40%. This produces a total safety of five which for marble
safety is recommended for temporary cutting wall and veneer design. Where marble is used
for stair treads, lintel or otherwise, as a load bearing materials, a safety factors of ten
recommended. The actual strength of the marble being used should be determined and this
value should be used for the final design.

Classification of Marble Stones

Marble has been classified by producers into four group A, B, C, D.

Group A: These are sand marbles and stones with uniform and favorable working quality.

Group B: There are marbles and stones similar to those of group A but with somewhat less
favorable working qualities. They may have occasional natural faults. A limited amount of
waxing and sticking may be necessary.

Group C: are marble and stone with certain various qualities, geological flaws, voids, veins,
lines of separation. Standard shop is to repair this variation of nature by sticking waxing or
filing.

Group D: are marbles and stones similar to group C subjects to the same method of finishing
and manufacture but with a layer proportional of natural fault. These marble are used for
monumental structural and veneer purposes. Marble which are exposed to the weather are
generally selected from group A. marbles in group B, C & D are usually selected for their

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color and decorative qualities. Occasionally carefully selected marble are use for surface
exposed to weather.

Lime Stone

This is an important building stone and made of different type of stones which includes the
following

a. Oalitic limestone – this is a calcite cement calcareous stone formed from shells, and
shell fragments particularly non-crystal in character. This limestone is free stone
without cleavage plane processing uniformity of composition and tension. It processes
high internal electricity adopting itself without damage to entrees temperature
changes.

b. Polonites types: This is a limestone rich in Mg C03 (Magnesium carbonate) frequently

somewhat crystal in nature. it is found in ledge formation in a wide variation of color
stones and texture. Generally speaking its crushing and tensile strength are greater
than orlitic stone and its appearances shoes greater variety in texture.

c. Crystal type: it is predominantly compose of calcium carbonate crystalline. Thus not

of real crystalline nature, it has

Characteristics of marbles

It is high in crushing and tensile strength very low in absorption and usually shows a slight
variation from a uniform light grey colour and smooth tension.

Sandstone

This is a sedimentary rock consisting usually of quartz cemented with silica iron oxide or
calcium carbonate. Sand stone is durable has a very high crushing and tensile strength and a
wide variation of crystal and tension. Sand stone are usually found in rich and mountain and
usually used for veneer in Ashlatacin construction either in form of random rubber or of a
regular facing.

Sandstone

Quartzite Stone
Quartzite stone compact granular rock compose of quartz crystal usually so homogenous and
as hard as any granite rock. the stone is usually quarreled rock in stratified layers the surface
of which are usually smooth. Its crisping and tensile strength are high the color range in wide.

Stone Walling

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Substitutes for natural stones are available in the form of cast-stone either as reconstructed or
artificial stones or in form of worked stone such as Ashlars and Rubble walling in order to
reduce the cost.

Reconstructed Stone: Natural stone, sand and cement form the basic material sand
reinforcement can be introduce during casting, special facing mixes permit a wide range of
finishes. It eliminates the defect of natural stone but problem may arise through crazing
(formation of fine hair cracks).

Composite Walling: consist partly a facing material and partly of a structural Concrete. The
facing is a mixture of fine aggregate of natural stone and pigmented cement to resemble the
natural stone and have a minimum thickness of 20mm.
Merit: they are cheaper than reconstructed stones but have the disadvantage that if damaged
the concrete core may be a exposed.
Ashlars Walling: this form of stone walling is composed of carefully worked stone s,
regularly coursed ,bonded and set with tin joints and is used for the majority of High class
facing work-in stone.

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WEEK 3

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL STONES

The rocks of earth’s crust may be classified in three main groups:
• Primary(volcanic or igneous):Those which are been formed by the cooling and
solidification of molten material in the earth’s crust. Example granite and basalt
(finely crystalline in nature)

Uses:- For casting in building work. Polish surfaces as a decorative finish in public
and commercial buildings. Also in civil engineering work for the fencing of bridges,
quays and other construction is requires
Merits:- non porous hard and tough and of durable strength materials.
• Secondary (Sedimentary): These small particles are swept down water courses and
deposited in the beds in the localities where the flow of the streams slackens.
Example quarrying and dressing stones or sand stone.
Uses:- Decorative purpose e.g. bath stones, Shelly limestone and Portlandstones.etc.
• Tertiary (Metamorphic) These are secondary rocks which have been change
subsequent to their formation e.g. sandstone change to quartzites, limestone to
marbles, clay to slates.

Uses:- For decorative of building work.

Properties; Impervious to water and capable of being split into sheet of uniform
thickness.

QUARRYING AND DRESS STONES

Almost all type of building has make use of stone and this stone include quartzite stone. This
is a compact granular rock compose of quartz crystals usually cemented so as to make the
mass modulus and as hard as any granite. The stone is generally quarried in stratified layers,
the surfaces of which are usually smooth. Its crunching and stench (or trencher) is height and
color range is wide.

Blue ridge Crab Orchard

Belmond Wall stone

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Chestnut Fieldstone

Emerald Green
Difference types of dress stones (Diagrams)

Activities
• Give an example of building faced with sandstone. State the name of the stone used,
the location of the quarrying from which it was obtained, and whether the quarrying
still produces stone for building purposes. Mention other building stones which come
(or use to come) from the same area.
• Indicate factors which are principally important in influencing the selection of natural
stones for use in a building and describe briefly the use which is made of the various
types of stones that are specially available for building purposes.

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WEEK 4

MANUFACTURE OF CLAY PRODUCTS

Introduction

Clay is used in the manufacture of many building materials. Although this may have to be
processed before the final product is got, nevertheless clay forms the bedrock of masonry
construction. This building material include brick tiles, (both floor and roofing tiles) and wall
tiles. However, the one common used is the burnt bricks used for block work.

Manufacture of Clay Bricks Products

• Ingredients:-These bricks are made from clay compose mainly of silica and alumina,
with small of lime, iron manganese and other substances.
• Kiln burnt:- fire is passed through a series of chambers. That is the bricks passes
through a long chamber through a firing zone in the centre.
• Hand made:- bricks are rather irregular in shapes and sizes with uneven arises; use for
facing work and weather to attractive shapes.
• Machine pressed:- the clay is fed into steel moulds and shapes under heavy pressure,
with a continuous band and then cut into bricks by wire attached to a frame.

Clay Bricks

In the manufacture of clay bricks, it is usual first to grind the clay with water to reduce the it
to the required plasticity for moulding. Sometimes two or more types of clay are mixed in
order to produce a more suitable material. The plastic clay is then moulded into bricks, which
are dried and then burn at a temperature (about 850-11000C) in kilns. The burning process
hardens the clay and gives the bricks the strength and durability required. Clays suitable for
brick making are found associated with many geological formations. Nature of clay, methods
of preparation, moulding and burning all influences the properties of clay bricks, but of these,
methods of moulding probably exercises the greatest influence, and will be used as a basis of
classification.

Hand-Made Bricks.

Bricks are moulded by hand from clay which contains sufficient water to render it thoroughly
plastic, and the finished products usually have a high porosity (about 28-35%). Their
durability is, however, quite satisfactory except where temperatures of burning are not high
enough. Under- burned bricks may be recognized by their lightness in color and lack of ring
when struck and should not be used for building work. Hand- made bricks are usually sand
faced, since the moulds are dusted with sand to prevent the clay sticking. This gives to the
bricks a surface texture which contribute greatly to their good appearance.
Old bricks work in hand made bricks sometimes displays some variety of colour, due the fact
that there was little effective control of fire condition in the old fire kilns. The modern
demand for multicolor to imitate this effect is sometimes met by the addition of colouring
pigments to the sand used on the mould faces, and much special colour effects are now
obtained by this and similar devices. Good appearance is the principal advantage of hand
made bricks, and it is this factor which enable them to maintain their position in the face of
mechanization (see color in plate 1)

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Diagrams of various types of clay products e.g. roofing tiles, floor tiles etc.

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WEEK 5

BRICKS
Brick, block of clay or other ceramic used for construction and decorative facing. Bricks may
be dried in the sun but are more usually baked in a kiln. They cost relatively little, resist
dampness and heat, and can last longer than stone. The color varies according to the clay used
and in proportions according to architectural tradition. Some bricks are made of special
fireclays for use in fireplaces or ovens. Others may be made of glass or they may be textured
or glazed. Bricks may be arranged in various patterns, called bonds, according to the way the
long sides (stretchers) or short sides (headers) are placed.

The basic ingredient of brick is clay, finely grinded and mix with H20 molded and burnt in
oven to form brick. One of the oldest materials known to man sizes and sharp of units have
charge consider ably over the years and there is still some variation from one area to another,
but as a result of consultation and co-operation along planners, designers, manufacturers and
governmental authorities. a great deal have been accomplished in the way of standardization
of bricks sized and in the application of principle of modular or co-ordination to the
manufacture of bricks.

Bricks Shape

The best known shape in the bricks is known as common brick universally recognized as a
brick shape in generally accepted set of dimension in addition. a no of shapes has been
developed, some for special purpose and some for case of economic. Internationally, bricks
type includes the following (1) D Roman (2) D Norman (3) Grant (4) Titan (T.T.W) through
the wall (5) Norman (6) Sax

Each shape has a range of width in which it is normally product in this country. Bricks types
include the normal firm pat (N.F.S, (Solid), N.F.P (Perforated)).

(1) BB3/4, BB3 BB2, however which ever the classification is base the essential ting is to
recognized them especially by there sizes.

Exercises
• Draw and named various types of bricks.
• State the different sizes used in the production of bricks.

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WEEK 6

TYPE OF CEMENT

• Ordinary Portland cement

• Rapid Hardening Portland cement

• Extra Rapid hardening Portland cement

• Low heat Portland cement

• Sulphate Resisting Portland cement

• White Portland cement

Composition of Cement

• Ordinary Portland Cement:- This consist of about 46% calcium tri silicates 24%
dicalcium silicate, 11% tri calcium aluminates 7% tetra calcium aluminates ferrite 5%
gypsum (Calcium Sulphate it is grind so that it has about 300m2lkg on average (Bs 12
state that min as 225m2lkg).

• Rapid Hardening Portland Cement:- The main difference is not that the final strength
is hgher, but that of the strength is reached more quickly. In 3days a strength
equivalent To that of 3days ordinary Portland CaCO3 concrete strength may be obtain.
It consists of 74% calcium tri silicate 5% di calcium silicate. 5% tri calcium
aluminates, 4% tetra calcium aluminates, ferrite 5% gypsum. (Calcium Sulphate)

An increase in calcium tri silicate will increase the rate of strength but the CaCO3 is
usually grind more finely and 13s 12 states that it must have a minimum of surface
area of 325m2lkg. Because of its rapid hydration. It should not be used in mass
concrete where it might lead to a serious increase in temperature. It can be very useful
where rapid strength is needed to allow the removal and raise of form work. The price
is less, more than that of ordinary Portland CaCO3.

• Extra Rapid Hardening Portland cement: - This is rapid hardening Portland CaCO3
with the addition of about 1-5% of calcium chloride (cac12) acceleration, ground in at

15
 the manufacturing stage. Both setting and hardening are speeded off, with the result
that it must be placed immediately after mixing and more heat of hydration can be
executed in the earlier stages. This can be very useful for cold weather concreting. Its
two days strength often compare with the 3days strength of rapid hardening CaCO3 on
7days of ordinary Portland CaCO3. (O.P.C)

Unfortunately there is an increased shrinkage between the plastic stage and hardening
states.

• Low Heat Portland CaCO3:- The heat of hydration even from (O.P.C) can lead to
considerable rises in temperature in mass concrete particularly in hot weather. The
2compounds which hydrate most rapidly have been reduced. This does not affect the
ultimate strength is not slow. The specific surface should be greater than 320m2kg-1.

• Sulphate Resisting Portland CaCO3:- All the compounds produce in Portland CaCO3
react to some extent with surface. By far the worst is the calcium sulphate aluminates
which has a volume about 2 ¼ times that tri calcium aluminates, and because of the
solid state of the concrete cause stresses and eventually disintegration.

The main culprits are the sulphate of Mg and Na particularly in condition of alternate
wetting and drying where their concentrate can become very high porous concrete
will far more than well compacted less porous concrete sulphate CaCO3 is produced
by the same method describe earlier but the amount of tri calcium aluminates by
Fe3O3 to the raw material at the kiln. The result is tetra calcium aluminates ferrite
formed instead of the tri calcium aluminates. Typical proportion are:- 45% tri calcium
silicate, 23% di calcium silicate, 2% tri calcium aluminates 18% tetra calcium
aluminates ferrite 45 gypsum. (Calcium Sulphate).

• White Portland CaCO3 (Cement):- All the compounds are white except tetra calcium
aluminates ferrite which is black. This explains the characteristics column of p.c. for
decorative purpose white and light colored finished may be required. White Portland
CaCO3 is China clay which is free from Fe2O3. Cost is rather higher due to need of
chine’s clay higher kiln temperature and the difficulties are grounding without
contamination with Fe. Colored CaCO3 may be produce either by grinding up to 10%
pigment at the work. Suitable color aggregate are needed and the cost can be high.

Lime and Mortar (manufacture)

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Lime is manufactured by burning limestone or chalk and the result of this burning is a
dirty white lumpy material known as quicklime.

When quicklime is mixed with water a chemical change occurs during which heat is
generated in the lime and water, and the lime expands to about three times its former
bulk.

Quicklime must be slaked before it is used in mortar otherwise the mortar would increase
in bulk and squeeze out of the joints.

Lime for building is delivered to the site ready slaked and is termed “hydrated lime”.

Lime mixes; a lime mortar is usually mixed with 1 part of lime to 3parts of sand by
volume.

Mortar for general work is made from a mixture of cement, lime and sand in the
proportions set out in the table below

Mortar mixes

Mortar mix

Bricks concrete blocks

Internal walls & cavity 5 5

walls

Ext. walls (above d.p.c) 4 4

(below d.p.c) 3 3

Parapet walls, chimneys 2 3

Sills, retaining walls 1 2

Mortar mix 5-1:3:10:12

Cement 4-1:2:8-9

Lime 3-1:1:5-6

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Uses of cement

Serves as a binding agent between bricks and blocks.

Use as a surface protection from weathering effect e.g.

plastering and rendering.

Basic requirements of mortar

It harden to such an extent that it can carry the weight normally carried by bricks without
crushing.

It should be sufficiently plastic when lay to take the variying sizes of bricks

It must have porousity similar that bricks and not deteriorate due to the weathering action.

Interacting Questions

• State two materials used for binding in building construction.

• Unwashed sand contains some quantities of clay, what then is the consequence of
this mixture when this sand is delivered to site?

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WEEK 7

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT

Neat cement paste shall be formed by gauging cement the quantity of water required
to give a paste of standard consistence.

The test block shall be made by filling the mould with paste

The mould shall be completely filled, and the surface of the paste shall be smoothed off
level with the top of the mould.
Clean appliances shall be used for gauging, and the temperature of the materials and that
of the test room, at the time when the operation are being performed, shall be 64-
740f(17.7-23.30C),in the atmosphere of at least 90% relative humidity and away from
draughts.

Site Testing (Hand) Of Cement

PROCEDURES:-

• Examine to determine whether it is free from lumps and of a flour-like consistency (

free from dampness and reasonably fresh)

• Place hand in cement and check if of blood heat then it is in satisfactory condition.

• Settle with water at paste in a close jar to see whether it will expand or contract.

STORAGE OF CEMENT

• Prior to the use of cement needs to be stored in damp proof and draught proof
structure.

• Staging of wood on floor before placement.

19
WEEK 8

CONCRETES PRODUCTION.

Workability as defined in the production of concretes is as follows:

- Compatibility: ease of compacting.

- Mobility: ease with which concrete can flow into moulds.

- Stability: ability to remain stable during handling and vibration without segregation of the
mix.

The water / cement ratio is the most important factor in concrete quality

It should be kept as low as possible consistent with sufficient workability to secure fully
compacted concrete with the equipment available on the site. The high the proportion of
water, the weaker will be the concrete. Water/cement ratio are usually in the range 0.40 to
0.60 (weight of water divided by the weight of cement). Allowance has to be made for
absorption by dry and porous aggregates and the surface moisture of weight aggregates.
Badly proportioned aggregates require an excessive amount of water to give adequate
workability, and these results in low strength and poor durability. A common test for
measuring workability on the side is the slump test, although for greater accuracy the
compacting factor test or consist meter test should be used.

Concrete mixes.

Concrete must be strong enough, when it has hardened, to resist the various stresses to which
it will be subjected and it often has to withstand weathering action. When freshly mixed it
must be of such a consistency that it can be readily handled without segregation and easily
compacted in the formwork. The fine aggregate (Sand) fills the interstices between the coarse
aggregate and both aggregates need to be carefully proportioned and graded.
The strength of concrete is influenced by a number of factors:
i. Proportional and type of cement.
ii. Type, proportion, grading and quality of aggregates
iii. Water cement.

20
iv. Method and adequacy of batching, mixing transporting, placing, compacting and curing
the concrete.
Concrete mixes can be specified by the volume or weight of the constituent materials or by
the minimum strength of the concrete.

21
WEEK 9

LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE AND NON-FINE CONCRETE.

This is concrete with density between 400 and 1760kgm-3 and it can be produced in three
ways;

i. By omitting the fine aggregates ( non fines)

ii. By using light weight aggregates.

iii. By aerating or foaming the concrete.

Advantages of Light Weight Concretes

i. It is used for thermal insulation.

ii. It is used as load bearing member, reduces design load greatly. This is because the
dead load of a result of this foundation is subjected to fewer loads than with dense
(normal) concrete use of light weight.

iii. Concrete produced with natural sand would be heavier but the weight and workability
will be greater as crushed light weight aggregate produces very hash mixes thus they
are more suitable for cast work concrete e.g. pre-cast blocks where compaction is
affected by pressure.

iv. Light weight aggregates concretes requires a high water (H2O) cement ratio and it is
essential to weight the aggregate properly before use to prevent absorbing H2O from
the mix.

v. Light weight aggregate concrete is used for internal partitioning either as load bearing
or non load bearing.

vi. Mix proportions are usually between 1:6 and 1:10 by volume.

Exercise

• The students should generate the various demerits of Light weight concretes.

22
• Differentiate between the light weight and non fine concretes.

23
WEEK 10
V-B CONSISTOMETER
Consistometer consisting of a vibrating table T, on which is fixed a cylindrical container
C. A slump cone S(of size as for the slump which rest centrally in the container. A funnel
F is held on a ;swivel arm, for filling with concrete. On the swivel arm on the opposite
side is a rod R, holding the transparent disc D, with aa weight W(270g) including the rod
and disc.
Tamping rod, 16mmdiameter, 600mm long.
Stop watch accuracy 0.5s.

diagram

The cone is filled with concrete as for the slump test. The set screw G is loosened and the
funnel is swung to one side. The surface of the concrete is struck off. The mould is
removed carefully and the slump is measured if required. These can be done when the
disc is swung round into position and lowered down the rod just to touch the slump
concrete. The slump may read off the rod scale.
With the arm fixed in these position, holding the disc resting on the concrete and with the
stop watch ready, the watch is started the instant the vibration is begun ;and the watch is
stopped at the moment the concrete has been fully compacted as observed through the
disc, i.e. when the disc is fully covered underneath with cement grout. The result is the
time in seconds recorded to nearest 0.5s being expressed as V-B degrees.
An approximate guide to compacting factors, slump, and vebe degrees suitable for
concrete for different purposes.

24
WEEK 11

SIEVE ANALYSIS

In selecting aggregates for concrete, it is principally important to avoid the following:

(a) The presence of impurities which will react with the cement and interfere with its
strength development (e.g. sulphate) or impurities which will cause staining (e.g. fine
coal particles) or crystallization (e.g. salt in sea shore sand).
(b) The presence of excessive amount of very fine material (passing no. 100 sieve) or of soft
particle which may break down during mixing. Very fine particle increases the water
requirement and reduces strength clay, silt; dust and organic matter are the principal
sources of fine material in aggregates.
(c) Badly graded aggregates containing an excessive proportion of particles of one size ( e.g.
sea shore sand stone )such aggregates cause trouble mainly when used alone (e.g. sand in
mortar or plaster, ballast in concrete). Where fine and coarse grain aggregates are
provided separately for concrete, there is less danger of bad grading of one them causing
trouble.
Impurities as mentioned in a above can usually be removed by efficient washing,
but the process requires a substantial plant and increase the cost of the aggregates.
The control of permissible quantity of fine material is not easy because a certain
quantity is desirable to improve plasticity of mixes, particularly for plastering and for
mortar for brick work, but increase of very fine material puts up the water requirements
very rapidly. There is, in consequence, a tendency for the men doing the work to prefer
too much for fine material and for those responsible for supervision to prefer too little. A
maximum of about 5% passing no 100 sieve in the case of sand is safe, though care must
be taken that the fine material does not include undesirable impurities.
Bad grading will usually be detected because it results in harsh mixes, difficult to
work. Where a well graded sand is difficult to find the locally, the difficulty may
sometimes be overcome without great expense by mixing two sands, a fine and coarse.

25
Week 12
Title: SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT TEST
Objectives: To Determine the Soundness of cement test.
Apparatus: le chatelier apparatus
Diagram
Procedure
• mix 10g of cement with the quantity of water required to give a paste of standard 
consistency, vigorously for 240s on a non porous surface by means of two trowels. 
• Place the mould on one glass plate and fill it with the paste taking care to keep the split of 
the mould gently closed while this operation is being performed. 
• Cover the mould with other glass, upon which a small weight is placed. 
• Immerse the whole immediately in water at a temperature of 20+ 10C and leave these for 
twenty four hours. 
• Remove the mould from the water then measure the distance separating the indicator 
points to the nearest 0.5mm. 
• Immerse the whole and bring the water to boil in 25 – 30 minutes and keep boiling for 
1hour. 
• Remove the mould from the water to cool. 
• Measure the distance separating the indicator point to the nearest 0.5mm. 
 
Result  

The difference between the two measurements represents the expansion of the
cement to the nearest 1mm

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Week 13
FIELD SETTING TEST TO DETERMINE SILT CONTENT
Prepare an approximately 1m solution of common salt by dissolving 2.5g of sodium chloride
in 250ml of tap water. Pour 50ml of this solution into a 250ml measuring cylinder and then
add sand until the volume of sand is about 100ml; add more of the salt solution until the total
volume in the measuring cylinder is 150ml. Placing the palm of the hand over the open end
of the cylinder, shake vigorously, place on a level bench, tap until the sand surface is level.
Allow to stand for three hours. Record the height of the sand, and of the silt above it.
• Calculate the percentage of silt present.
• Report on the suitability of the sand as a fine aggregates in the preparation of
concrete.

Note: the presence of salt out and coagulates the colloidal particles which may be present and
which otherwise would remain suspension in the water layer.

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Week 14

TYPES OF IRON AND THEIR PROPERTIES

• Pig Iron: This is the iron which is obtained directly from the blast furnace and it is
quiet impure. It contains of up to 5% of carbon which is present both as graphite and
iron Carbide (Fe3C) together with impurities like phosphorous, Sulphur, silicon and
manganese in various proportions depending on the ore and operating temperature.
The presence of these impurities lowers the melting point of iron from 153oc to
1,200oc. Pig iron is hard and brittle and therefore has limited industrial uses.
• Cast Iron: This is the iron that is obtained from pig iron which has been re-melted
with some scrap iron and then cooled into moulds of required shapes.
Cast iron has a slightly lower percentage of impurities than pig iron and has almost
the same physical properties. It is brittle and cannot be welded or forged. Its use for
making object which do not require high tensile strength; for example cookers, stoves,
radiators, lamp post, railing, base of bunsin burner and certain types of machinery.
Cast iron is comparatively easy to melt and expand slightly when cooled. Thus, it fills
every part of the mould into which it is spoil.
• Wrought Iron: This is the purest commercial form of iron, and it contains only about
0.1% carbon. Wrought Iron is obtained by heating cast iron in a furnace with haemitie
(Fe2O3). During this process, carbon and sulphur are oxidized and removed as carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide respectively.
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
2FeO3 + 3S → 4Fe + 3SO2
Wrought iron is almost pure iron. Therefore it is soft but very tough and malleable. It
can be shaped by hammering at about 1000oC (about 500oC below its melting points).
It can be easily welded and forged.
It is used for making nails, chains, iron rods, iron sheets and agricultural implement
and core of electromagnet because it cannot be permanently magnetized.
• Steel:- It is an alloy of iron containing a small but definite % of carbon and some
other metals. The quantity of carbon in steel usually varies from 0.15% to 1.5%. Steel
is by far the most important form of commercial iron. The hardness and tensile
strength of steel depends largely on the % of carbon present and on how the carbon is
united with the iron. As a result several method are adopted for the production of
various types of steel; this includes (a) Bessemer process (b) Open Hearth process (c)
The electric furnace process.

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 The chemical reactions are involved in steel making. These can be described broadly
as follows:-

• Pig iron is purifies until it consist largely on pure iron.

• Calculated amount are added generally in the form iron / carbon alloys. Other
substances like manganese are added to produce different types of steel.
Stainless steel which is very popular for its resistance to wear and especially
to rusting, contains a good % of chrome metal in some cases as high as 18%.

PROPERTIES OF METALS (FEROUS & NON-FERROUS)

• Tensile  Strength:  The  tensile  strength  of  metal  is  a  measure  of  its  tenacity,  and  it  is 
determined by clamping a short length of metal (Steel) between the jaws of a tensile testing 
machine. The jaws are made to pull in opposite  directions and thus impose palling stresses 
on the test piece, which stretches until it finally breaks. 

• Elasticity:  This  denotes  the  ability  of  a  material  to  resume  its  normal  shape  after  being 
pushed or pulled out of shape. 
Rubber is a good example of an elastic material. Certain steeds, hard brass and hard
copper can be made into springs which possess elasticity, cast iron is not elastic to any
appreciable extents, and neither are lead or dead soft copper, or aluminum.

• Fusibility or Melting Point:‐ denotes the temperature at which a metal change from its solid 
state to a molten liquid. It should be noted that cast iron melts at much lowers temperature 
than mild steel, which is a purest form of iron. 

• Malleability:‐ This denotes the ability of a metal to be ‘bossed’ or worked to shape without 
breaking. Heat has this property to a remarkable degree, where as ordinary cast iron is not 
appreciably malleable. 

• The  Metal  Conductivity:‐  Denotes  a  material’s  ability  to  transmit  heat  from  particle  to 
particle  throughout  its  mass  or  length.  All  metals  possess  through  property,  though  to 
different degrees. 
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: ‐ Is a property possessed by all metals, though some are better 
conductions than others. Copper and Aluminum are good conductors of electric current. 

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• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: ‐ Denotes the extent to which a metal will expand when 
it’s temperature is raised 10C. The effect of the expansion of metal must be carefully allowed 
for in building construction.  

• Ductility: ‐ Denotes the property of stretch ability, which enables a metal to be worked, and 
especially  wires  or  tubes  to  be  drawn  without  breaking.  Annealed  or  softened  copper  and 
aluminum are very ductile. 

• Work‐Hardening:‐  Denotes  that  a  metal,  though  ductile  in  the  normal  or  ‘soft’  state  will 
become gradually harder as it is worked upon of tools; for example in bossing processes, Or 
in drawing processes used in wire or tube manufacture. 

• Annealing:‐  is  another  way  in  which  heat  can  affect  the  properties  of  metals,  and  it  has 
practical  application  in  the  working  of  sheet  of  copper  and  Aluminum  and  the  bending  of 
tubes. 

• Creep:‐ denotes the tendency of materials to “flow” under the influence of a load. All metals 
tend to creep, and they do so when there is a change in shape of the metal crystals; when, 
for example, a heavy load tends to squash them or a strong pull to stretch them creep is tied 
up  with  tenacity,  hardness,  and  ductility  and  an  increase  in  a  metal’s  temperature  will 
increase its tendency to creep. 
• Durability:  ‐  Denotes  the  quality  of  lasting,  and  is  therefore  very  important.  In  order  for 
metals to be durable, it is necessary to provide artificial protection in some form e.g. paint or 
galvanizing. 

• Colour: ‐ Is produced as a result of a surface reflecting certain lights. As a property of metals, 
it is important because it is a means of identification. 

• Tenacity: ‐ Denotes ability to resist pulling forces 

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 Week 15
STEEL MAKING

Steel :- It is an alloy of iron containing a small but definite % of carbon and some other
metals. The quantity of carbon in steel usually varies from 0.15% to 1.5%. Steel is by far
the most important form of commercial iron. The hardness and tensile strength of steel
depends largely on the % of carbon present and on how the carbon is united with the iron.
As a result several method are adopted for the production of various types of steel; this
includes (a) Bessemer process (b) Open Hearth process (c) The electric furnace process.
The chemical reactions are involved in steel making. These can be described broadly
as follows:-

(A) Bessemer Process

The air used to supply the blast in a blast furnace is preheated to temperatures
between approximately 1350° and 1400° C (2450° and 2550° F). The heating is performed in
stoves, cylinders containing networks of firebrick. The bricks in the stoves are heated for
several hours by burning blast-furnace gas, the waste gases from the top of the furnace. Then
the flame is turned off and the air for the blast is blown through the stove. The weight of air
used in the operation of a blast furnace exceeds the total weight of the other raw materials
employed.

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An important development in blast-furnace technology, the pressurizing of furnaces, was
introduced after World War II. By “throttling” the flow of gas from the furnace vents, the
pressure within the furnace may be built up to 1.7 atmosphere or more. The pressurizing
technique makes possible better combustion of the coke and higher output of pig iron. The
output of many blast furnaces can be increased by 25 per cent in this way. Experimental
installations have also shown that the output of blast furnaces can be increased by enriching
the air blast with oxygen, a level of 2.5 to 5 per cent being common.

The process of tapping consists of knocking out a clay plug from the iron hole near the
bottom of the bosh and allowing the molten metal to flow into a clay-lined runner and then
into a large, brick-lined metal container, which may be either a ladle or a rail car capable of
holding as much as 100 tonnes or more of metal. Any slag that may flow from the furnace
with the metal is skimmed off before it reaches the container. The molten pig iron is then
transported to the steel-making shop.

Modern blast furnaces are operated in conjunction with basic oxygen furnaces and
occasionally an electric arc furnace, or in a few countries the older open-hearth furnaces, as
part of a single steel-producing plant. In such plants the molten pig iron is used to charge the
steel furnaces. The molten metal from several blast furnaces may be mixed in a large mixer
vessel before it is converted to steel, to minimize any irregularities in the composition of the
individual melts.

• Pig iron is purifies until it consist largely on pure iron.

• Calculated amount are added generally in the form iron / carbon alloys. Other
substances like manganese are added to produce different types of steel.
Stainless steel which is very popular for its resistance to wear and especially to rusting,
contains a good % of chrome metal in some cases as high as 18%.

Heat Treatment Of Iron

When steel is heated and cools at a certain temperature, certain quality are observed due to
heat treatment. When heat treatment produced equilibrium conditions a result of heating
followed by slow cooling this may give rise to (a) Annealing (b) Normalizing (c)
Hardening (d) Tempering.

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Annealing
This process is applied to steel to remove stress, produce uniformity and induced softness so
that it can be cold work. Cold working implies bending, rolling etc. at room temperature for
example overhead cables. (Annealing involves the heat treatment of the steel) and then very
slowly cooled at room temperature. The cooling of the steel should be controlled by packing
them in refactory line and sealed boxes.

Normalizing
Steel is normalized to produce a fine grain, uniformity of structure improved mechanical
properties. Normalizing is usually performed after forging or casting to put steel in best
conditioned for machining or hardening.
The process of normalizing is similar to annealing but the heating and socking are carried out
at a temperature high enough to ensure a fully austenitic structure is produced before the free
cooling in steel air that follows:
The authentic temperature of steel is from 700oCtemperature upward. In other words, the
steel should be treated to about 700oCupwards before cooling it in still air.

Hardening
In this process, the steel is heated to a suitable temperature (depending on the carbon content)
to produce ore, or sufficient austenitic head at that temperature so that each temperature is
uniform across its section and then quenched. The rate of quenching is controlled by the
quenching medium, a solution of salt or caustic soda in H2O and oil produces intermediate
quenches and a common quenching media.

TEMPERING
After hardening, steel is usually related to a suitable of sub critical temperature to improve
their toughness and ductility at the expense of hardness and strength to make the more
suitable for service requirement. The tempering temperature depends upon the particular
combination of properties required, it is about 180oC. The direction of the heating depends
upon the thickness of the materials and the cooling is usually in air to avoid the destruction of
the part. As already stated the overall effect of hardening and tempering depends upon the
carbon content of the steel, the rate of quenching during the hardening process:

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Rolling process of steel finishing
Steel is marketed in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, such as strip in coils, strip cut to
sheet, plate, bars or rods, pipes, railway rails, tees, channels, and I-beams. These shapes are
produced at mills by rolling. This working of steel also improves its quality by refining its
crystalline structure and making the metal tougher.

The basic process of working steel is known as hot rolling. In hot rolling, the cast steel is first
heated to bright-red heat in a furnace and is then passed between a series of pairs of metal
rollers that squeeze it to the desired size and shape. The separation between the rollers
diminishes for each successive mill stand (pair of rollers). As the steel is reduced in thickness
it becomes longer, but the width stays almost unchanged. In a modern continuous mill, a
dozen or more rolling stands are placed in a long line. As a length of steel passes through
these stands, it is simultaneously rolled in more than one stand. This requires careful
matching of the stand speeds, which most increase down the line to match the growing length
of the rolled steel.

When ingot or continuously cast bloom steel is rolled, the first mill stand is called the
blooming mill. From the blooming mill, the steel is passed on to roughing mills and finally to
finishing mills that reduce it to the correct cross-section. The rollers of mills that produce
railway rails and such structural shapes as I-beams, H-beams, and angles are grooved to give
the required shape.

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Modern manufacturing requires a large amount of sheet steel. Continuous mills roll steel strip
in widths up to about 1.8 m (5.9 ft). The first stage of rolling is hot rolling. A slab of hot steel
at a temperature of about 1050° C (1920° F) and up to 250 mm (9• in) thick is fed through a
series of rollers that reduce it progressively in thickness to 2 to 3 mm and increase its length
from 4 m (13 ft) to 370 m (1,210 ft). Continuous mills are equipped with a number of
accessory devices, including edging rollers, descaling devices, and devices for automatically
coiling the strip after rolling when it reaches the end of the mill. The edging rollers, normally
located on the first five or six stands, consist of sets of vertical rolls set opposite each other at
either side of the strip to ensure that the width is maintained. Descaling apparatus removes
the oxide scale that forms on the surface of the sheet by knocking it off mechanically,
loosening it by means of high-pressure water sprays, or bending the sheet sharply at some
point in its travel. Following hot rolling, the oxidized surface is cleaned by passing the strip
through tanks of acid, followed by a rinse in water. The strip is then ready for cold rolling to
its final dimension, which is generally from 1 mm to as little as 0.05 mm thick. The cold mill
is also a continuous mill, consisting of four or five mill stands that are kept very clean, the
rolls being sprayed with a lubricant to help give the steel a bright polished surface. At the end
of the cold mill, the strip is wound into a coil and taken to annealing furnaces to soften it, as
cold rolling makes it too hard for shaping into, for example, parts of a car body. Annealing
can be carried out in batch furnaces with the strip still wound in a coil, or in continuous
annealing lines, where the strip is unwound and fed through a long furnace. In both cases, an
inert atmosphere is used to prevent oxidation of the steel. The continuous line is quicker,
requires less manpower, and imparts more uniform properties to the steel, but its capital cost
is much higher than batch annealing furnaces and it is less flexible, requiring large tonnages

35
of similar steels to be processed by joining the head of one coil to the tail of the coil in front
to form a continuous band travelling through the line, which may be up to 600 m (1,970 ft)
long. Following annealing, the steel is lightly reduced by 1 to 2 per cent on a single mill to
improve its surface properties.

Since its introduction in 1989, the “thin slab” linked mill has offered a more efficient way to
produce thin sheet steel in some electric steel-making mills. The starting slab is cast between
50 and 150 mm thick, instead of the conventional 250 mm, and the caster passes the slab
directly to the rolling mill, travelling through a temperature-equalizing furnace on the way.
This provides a significant time and energy saving. The mill is also smaller, since the hot
blooming stand (for ingot-rolling mills) and the roughing mills are not required, reducing the
number of mill stands to between 4 and 6, from the 12 to 14 in a typical conventional mill.
This provides a reduction in capital cost to build the mill and in maintenance costs to run it.
This type of mill is rapidly proliferating, with installed capacity or capacity on order reaching
35 million tonnes in 1995. At present, the surface quality of the steel is not as good as that
rolled on conventional mills, but it is suitable for many applications in the construction
industry, unseen parts of a car, such as suspension brackets, and for general-purpose welded
pipe production.

About half of all strip steel produced today is coated in the mill after rolling to improve its
corrosion resistance. Zinc is most commonly used, but zinc with a few per cent of aluminium
or nickel is also sometimes applied. Zinc coatings can be applied by passing the strip through
a bath of molten zinc, the thickness of the coating being accurately controlled by a continuous
blast of nitrogen played across the surface of the strip as it leaves the zinc pot. Alternatively,
the coating can be applied by electrodeposition, in which the steel strip is made the cathode
of a giant electrode, as it passes between anodes of the metal or alloy to be deposited on the
steel in a series of tanks containing an electrolyte. Zinc and zinc-nickel alloy coatings are
deposited in this way, as well as chromium coatings and tin coatings.

Paint coatings or varnishes may be applied on top of zinc-coated strip for such applications as
cladding for buildings, kitchen appliances (called white goods), or electrical equipment such
as computer cases and music systems.

Classifications of Steel
Steels are grouped into five main classifications.

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A Carbon Steels
More than 90 per cent of all steels are carbon steels. They contain varying amounts of carbon.
Steels to make sheet for car bodies, domestic appliances, cans, and so on have very low
carbon contents, typically 0.04 per cent or less. Structural steels and steels for engineering
applications have carbon levels up to about 0.8 per cent, while very hard steels for
applications such as hand-working tools may have carbon contents up to 1.4 per cent. Other
elements present are: manganese at not more than 1.65 per cent, 0.60 per cent silicon, and
small amounts of sulphur and phosphorus. In steels made from 100 per cent scrap there are
also significant levels of copper and tin, which are detrimental to their properties. Machines,
car bodies, most structural steel for buildings, ship hulls, bedsprings, and hairgrips are among
the products made of carbon steels.

B Alloy Steels
These steels have a specified composition, and contain, in addition to carbon, specific
quantities of alloy additions such as vanadium, molybdenum, or other elements, as well as
larger amounts of manganese, silicon, and copper than do the regular carbon steels. Vehicle
gears and axles, roller skates, and carving knives are some of the many things that are made
of alloy steels.
C High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels
These, called HSLA steels, are the newest of the five chief families of steels. They cost less
than the regular alloy steels because they contain only small amounts of the expensive
alloying elements. They have been specially processed, however, to have much more strength
than carbon steels of the same weight. For example, railway freight wagons made of HSLA
steels can carry larger loads because their walls are thinner than would be necessary with
carbon steel of equal strength; also, because an HSLA wagon is lighter than an ordinary one,
it is less of a load for the engine to pull. Numerous buildings are now being constructed with
frameworks of HSLA steels. Girders can be made thinner without sacrificing their strength,
so that additional interior space is left in the building.
D Stainless Steels
Stainless steels contain chromium, or a combination of chromium and nickel, as well as
significant amounts of other alloy additions such as molybdenum. The chromium content is
generally greater than 12 per cent, and it is this alloy element that chiefly keeps the steel
bright and rust resistant in spite of moisture or the action of corrosive acids and gases. The
presence of nickel further improves corrosion resistance, as does molybdenum. When the

37
nickel content is above about 8 per cent, the crystal structure of the steel changes, imparting
properties that make it suitable for very-low-temperature (cryogenic) applications. Also,
nickel-containing steels are non-ferromagnetic, which is important for such applications as
components for geophysical surveying equipment and full-body X-ray scanners where
magnetic steels would distort the X-ray paths. Some stainless steels are very hard; some have
unusual strength and will retain that strength for long periods at extremely high or low
temperatures. Because of their lustrous surfaces, architects often use them for decorative
purposes. Stainless steels are used for the pipes and tanks of petroleum refineries and
chemical plants, for jet planes, and for space capsules. Surgical instruments and equipment
are made from these steels, and they are also used to patch or replace broken bones because
the steels can withstand the action of body fluids. In kitchens and in workplaces where food
is prepared, handling equipment is often made of stainless steel because it does not taint the
food and can easily be cleaned.

E Tool Steels
These steels are made into many types of tools for use in powered machinery such as drills,
lathes, milling machines, and metal-cutting saws, where friction during use causes the
temperature of the tool to rise as high as 500° C (930° F). They contain tungsten,
molybdenum, and other alloying elements that give them extra strength, hardness, and
resistance to wear at high temperatures.

38