AIRCRAFT AIRBORNE NAVIGATION

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

MEDAN AVIATION POLITECHNIC

1
 Navigation Systems

INERTIAL SYSTEMS
SECTION 1 : INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The science of navigation may be defined as the application of calculations to
determine the position of a vehicle and to direct it to a predetermined destination.
Although this system has been overtaken by inertial reference, and it in turn is
threatened by global positioning, many passenger carrying aircraft are flying today
with INS fitted.
The ability to navigate completely without contact with any external inputs, radio or
visual, makes INS extremely useful.
Most systems, after being supplied with initial position information, are capable of
continuously updating extremely accurate displays of position, ground speed,
attitude and heading. In addition, it provides guidance information for the autopilot
and flight director along with the relevant instruments.

Section 1 1
Navigation Systems

NEWTON AND HIS LAWS

In order to understand an INS, the definition of inertial and the basic laws of motion
must be considered.
Inertial can be defined as, ‘a body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a
straight line, unless acted upon by an external force’. This is Newton’s first law of
motion. Science has proved this statement to be quite untrue, however, because
nothing is ever at rest! The principle, nevertheless, remains.
The second law is more straight forward and makes common sense, ‘the
acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of forces acting on that
body’. No problem here!
His third law is probably the most famous, ‘for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction’.
Given these laws, designers developed the device able to detect minute changes in
accelerations and velocity, an ability necessary in the development of the INS.
The second law states that acceleration (the rate of change of velocity), is directly
proportional to the force acting on the body. Velocity and distance are computed
from sensed acceleration by the application of basic calculus.
The relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement are illustrated.
Remember that velocity changes whenever acceleration exists, and remains
constant when acceleration is zero.

FIG 1

2 Section 1
 Navigation Systems

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

These are operations which form the basis of calculus.
Differentiation is the measurement or calculation of a rate of change. The most
common example is the speedometer which measures the rate of change of
distance. Another good example is a vertical speed indicator which is measuring the
rate of change of barometric pressure. A device which can measure a rate of
change in this way is called a differentiator.
Integration, on the other hand, is a summing up or adding process such as is seen in
the odometer where the distance travelled is continually added up under all
conditions of speed so that a reading may be taken at any time of the total distance
travelled.
So to summarise, velocity is the integral of acceleration with respect to time, and
distance is the integral of velocity with respect to time.
Graph ‘B’ may be calculated from graph ‘C’ if the height of graph ‘B’ is proportional to
the gradient (or steepness) of graph ‘C’. Convention has a gradient rising from left to
right as positive with descending from left to right, negative.
Graph ‘A’ may be calculated from graph ‘B’ by the same method.
The gradients of the graphs are being compared to determine a rate of change or
difference. Differentiating ‘C’ to produce ‘B’.
Velocity is the differential of distance with respect to time, and acceleration is the
differential of velocity with respect to time.

FIG 1

Section 1 3
Navigation Systems

ACCELERATION, VELOCITY AND DISTANCE

If the acceleration of a vehicle from rest is constant, then the velocity and distance
travelled may be found from the equations:
V  at
S  1 / 2 at 2
where a = acceleration, V = velocity, S = distance and t = time.
Notice the proviso that acceleration must be constant. This equation cannot be used
for varying accelerations unless very small increments of time are used, and the
resultant of velocity or distance are summed.
The equations using the calculus notation can be written as:
V   adt
S   Vdt
where a = acceleration, V = velocity, S = distance, t = time and dt denotes a very
small interval of time.
INS is primarily concerned with Newton’s second law and the ability of the system to
detect minute changes in velocity. Remember this law states that the resultant force
is proportional to the acceleration applied to the mass.
F = mg or ma
Where F = force, m = mass, g = gravitational acceleration and a = acceleration.
In inertial navigation, displacement is calculated from sensed acceleration by the
application of basic calculus. In calculus, acceleration, velocity and displacement
are related as follows:
V   adt
X  a   dt dt
where V = velocity, X = displacement, a = acceleration and dt = the time integral.

4 Section 1
 Navigation Systems

SIMPLIFIED SYSTEM
In many forms of navigation, the object is to direct a vehicle from one point to
another. In doing so, all headings and ranges are made relative to a reference
system.
Assume the area to be covered is flat. A grid is shown, identified by the axes ‘x’ and
‘y’. From the grid, point ‘B’ could be described as being 16 units right of, and 12
units above point ‘A’.

FIG 2 GRID COORDINATE SYSTEM

Section 1 5
Navigation Systems

If an aircraft flies over a grid system of this type, and fitted to the aircraft is a
platform, stabilised to maintain a given reference with respect to the grid co-ordinate
system, the accelerometers normally aligned with each axis will sense any rate of
change of velocity along either or both of the axes.
The outputs of the two accelerometers are connected to a computer which considers
the outputs in the form of the equation shown.

FIG 3 TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

FIG 4

6 Section 1
 Navigation Systems

Typical examples of acceleration inputs with resultant displacement outputs are

shown graphically below.
The only problem with this simple example is that no account of other forces or the
fact that the Earth is curved have been taken into account, however, unless you are
in the research and development field or are a design student, it is unlikely you will
ever need deep knowledge of complicated formulae.

FIG 5 ACCELERATION INPUTS AND DISPLACEMENT OUTPUTS

Section 1 7
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

8 Section 1
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 2 : THE BASIC PRINCIPLES (GRAPHICALLY)

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INERTIAL NAVIGATION

INTRODUCTION
Inertial Navigation has been developed to fulfil the need for a self-contained method
of navigation which is independent of external sources of information so that it is
unaffected by bad weather, radio interference or any other condition that would
render other methods of navigation impossible. In addition, to navigational
information, attitude displays and attitude control can be derived from an IN System.

PRINCIPLE
By continually measuring the acceleration of a vehicle along three axes it is possible
to trace its movement within a given frame of reference by integrating the outputs of
each accelerometer twice.
The first integration will give velocity and the second integration will give distance
travelled.
The basic essentials of a three dimensional inertial navigation system are shown.
In some systems the vertical channel is omitted if height and vertical speed outputs
are not required.
The sensitive axes of the accelerometers must be kept aligned in the directions
shown in Fig 1 and this is done by mounting the accelerometers in a gyroscopically
stabilised assembly called the STABLE PLATFORM.

FIG 1

Section 2 1
Navigation Systems

THE ACCELEROMETERS
The principle of a typical inertial navigational accelerometer is shown in Fig 2.
Spring resistance of the mass is not practicable as the accelerometer mass must
have very little movement so that it does not move appreciably away from its
sensitive axis and a spring strong enough to do this would make the accelerometer
insensitive to small accelerations. Restraint therefore is provided by electromagnetic
means, as shown, and is known as the FORCE-BALANCE method.
The force coil, excitation coil and the formers upon which they are wound form the
moveable (seismic) mass within the accelerometer. When the accelerometer is
subjected to an acceleration along its sensitive axis the mass initially lags behind the
movement until the amplified pick-off signal is large enough to prevent further
relative movement of the mass by means of the force coil. In this condition, the
pick-off signal is producing a force by means of the amplifier and force coil which
exactly balances the force of acceleration, hence the force and the signal are
proportional. If the amplification is high displacement of the mass can be kept very
small.

FIG 2 BASIC PENDULOUS FORCE BALANCE ACCELEROMETER

2 Section 2
 Navigation Systems

The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the

accelerometer. Two accelerometers are mounted in the system. One will measure
the aircraft’s accelerations in the North-South directions, and the other will measure
the aircraft’s acceleration in the East-West directions. The accelerometer is basically
a pendulous device. When the aircraft accelerates, the pendulum, due to inertial,
swings off its null position. A signal pick off device tells how far the pendulum is off
the null position. The signal from the pick off device is sent to an amplifier, and
current from the amplifier is sent back into the accelerometer to the torquer motor.
The torquer motor will restore the pendulum back to its null position.

FIG 3

Section 2 3
Navigation Systems

The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multiplication device. It starts out with acceleration which is in feet per second
squared. In the integrator, it is literally multiplied by time and the result is a velocity
in feet per second.

FIG 4

It is then sent through a second integrator and again it is a time multiplier. With an
input of feet per second, which is multiplied by time, the result is a distance in feet or
in miles. It can be computed that the aircraft has travelled 221 miles in a northerly
direction in time from takeoff.

FIG 5

The computer associated with the inertial system knows the latitude and the
longitude of the take-off point and calculates that the aircraft has travelled so far in
the North-South direction and so far in an East-West direction. It now becomes
simple for a digital computer to continuously compute the new present position of the
aircraft.

4 Section 2
 Navigation Systems

Up until now, an accelerometer has been discussed which is hard mounted to the
aircraft. Because of this, the accelerometer’s output is affected by the attitude of the
aircraft. In the illustration below, the aircraft is shown in a nose up attitude during
take off. This pitch angle makes the pendulum swing off the null position due to
gravity. The accelerometer would output an erroneous signal, which would result in
an erroneous velocity and distance travelled. Therefore, there is a false acceleration
problem caused by this pitch angle.

FIG 6

To keep the accelerometer level, it is mounted on a gimbal assembly commonly

referred to as the platform. The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device
which allows the aircraft to go through any altitude change and at the same time
maintain the accelerometers level. The inner element of the platform where the
accelerometers are mounted, will also mount the gyroscopes used to stabilise the
platform. The gyros provide signals to motors, which control the gimbals of the
platform.

FIG 7

Section 2 5
Navigation Systems

The illustration below shows how the gyro is used to control the level of the platform.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this gimbal
tips off the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The case of the
gyro moves with the gimbal, and the amount of movement is detected by the signal
pickoff in the gyro. That signal is then amplified and sent to a gimbal drive motor,
which restores the gimbal back to a level position. In this example, the
accelerometer is going along for the ride. Since the accelerometer is just being kept
level, it does not sense a component of gravity and is able to sense only true
horizontal accelerations of the aircraft. Here we have illustrated a single axis
platform. In reality, movement can occur in three axes of the platform, pitch, roll and
yaw.

FIG 8

6 Section 2
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 3 : THE GYROSCOPES

THE GYROSCOPES
The type of gyroscopes used in inertial navigation systems are usually the Rate
Integrating type due to their high sensitivity and their ability to accurately record
displacements from a given datum position, the latter being a quality lacking in
ordinary rate gyroscopes.
The fluid acts as a damping agent to the movement of the gimbal, or inner can, and
to float it in order to reduce the weight on the gimbal pivots and so reduce friction.
The gimbal usually has a very limited movement from its datum or central position,
the movement being restricted by mechanical stops. This small amount of
movement is sufficient because the servo-loops of the platform stabilisation system
restore the gyroscopes to their datum positions almost as soon as displacements are
detected. Thus the gyroscopes remain closely aligned to the correct axes.
Gyroscopic inertia fixes the spin of the gyro in space, but because the earth rotates
in space, the gyro appears to rotate with respect to an earth bound observer. This
apparent precession makes the gyro unsuitable for use as an ‘earth fixed’ unless it is
torqued to rotate proportional to the earth’s rotation rate. So the gyro spin axis
appears stationary and the gyro is effectively slaved to the earth’s co-ordinate
system.

FIG 1

Section 3 1
Navigation Systems

As the aircraft travels over the earth’s surface, due to the curvature of the earth, the
spin axis will appear to tilt. This is in addition to the tilt caused by earth rotation, so a
gyro precessing torque is also necessary to maintain the earth reference during
aircraft travel. The total torquing signals necessary to slave a moving gyro to an
earth related co-ordinate system consists of an earth rate component, a vehicle
velocity component and a gyro drift rate compensation component.
Displacement about the input axis of a gyroscope results in a proportional
displacement about the output axis, the output being several times greater than the
input by a factor called a GIMBAL GAIN.
ie. INPUT X GIMBAL GAIN = OUTPUT

FIG 1

2 Section 3
 Navigation Systems

PLATFORM STABILISATION
As it is necessary to keep the accelerometers stable, they are mounted on a stable
platform. The method of stabilising the platform is to mount reference gyros on it
which detect changes in platform alignment and send error signals to control
devices. These in turn correct the misalignment. The platform is suspended in a
gimbal system so that its attitude can be controlled.

FIG 2

Section 3 3
Navigation Systems

The three gyros, with their input axes mutually at right angles, are aligned at all times
with the required reference frame in this case local north (y) east (x) and vertical (z).

FIG 3 LOCAL VERTICAL REFERENCE FRAME

4 Section 3
 Navigation Systems

GIMBALS
The stable platform must be isolated from the aeroplanes manoeuvres and this is
normally achieved by suspending the element in a gimbal system, one fault of
Gimballing is the gimbal lock.
Gimbal lock is a condition where the two axes of rotation become co-linear and in
consequence a degree of freedom is lost, Fig 4(b) shows how a gimbal lock may
occur with a three gimbal system.

(A) STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT (B) PITCH AND ROLL GIMBALS COINCIDENT

FIG 4

Section 3 5
Navigation Systems

If the aeroplane pitches through 90 the first and third gimbal axes become
coincident and so the stable element from yaw manoeuvres has been lost, and a roll
would be indicated as a change of heading.
To prevent gimbal lock a four gimbal system is used. (Fig 5). The gimbal order, is
azimuth, inner roll, pitch and outer roll. The inner roll is limited in travel to about
± 20 for ease of construction. The function of the fourth gimbal is to keep the
second and third gimbals at right angles thus the first and third gimbals can never
become coincident. The fourth gimbal is controlled by a pick off which detects
changes in the angle between the second and third gimbals.

FIG 5

6 Section 3
 Navigation Systems

The azimuth stabilisation loop is shown in the upper part of the drawing. No gimbals
are shown.
When the aircraft changes heading, it initially carries the platform with it causing an
output from the ‘Z’ gyro, which when amplified, drives the azimuth motor and the
platform back towards its original position and at the same time precesses the gyro
back to null.
The platform must be correctly oriented in azimuth initially for it to maintain this
position. It acts as a stable reference in azimuth and is often used as the basis of a
highly accurate compass system in some older aircraft the drive from the servo
motor represents true heading /H Magnetic heading can be calculated if variation is
known.
The pitch and roll stabilisation loops appear in the bottom part of the drawing.

FIG 6

Section 3 7
Navigation Systems

As the gyros are sensitive to movement about the ‘X’ and ‘Y’ axes and the
servomotors produce rotations of the platform about the pitch and roll axes of the
aircraft, it follows that neither gyro can be connected directly to operate any one
servomotor as this would only be suitable on one particular heading.
The illustration of ‘north’ and ’east’ orientation is shown.

FIG 7

FIG 8

8 Section 3
 Navigation Systems

To solve this axis relationship problem, each gyro output is resolved into two
components with respect to the true heading (ie. the angle between the ‘Y’ axis and
the aircraft’s fore and aft axis), and the components applied to the relevant
servomotors.
The action is similar to the azimuth servo loop except that a signal from one gyro will
result in both servomotors operating to restore the gyro to its null position (except on
cardinal headings when the aircraft and platform axes coincide).

FIG 9

Section 3 9
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

10 Section 3
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 4 : EARTH AND VEHICLE RATES

NAVIGATION AROUND THE EARTH
The inertial system, so far described, would work perfectly well on a flat, non-rotating
earth. In practice the earth’s rotation would cause the platform to have an apparent
wander, just like that of an un-corrected simple gyroscope, and the vehicle’s
movement over the curved surface of the earth would cause a similar effect. If the
system is to be used for terrestrial navigation the wander effects must be eliminated
by feeding correction signals to the gyroscope torque motors to make the platform
move both with the earth’s movement and the vehicle’s movement.
Uniform linear motion produces no acceleration but uniform circular produces
centripetal acceleration, hence a vehicle on the earth’s surface is subject to
centripetal accelerations due to both its own movement and the rotation of the earth.
These accelerations tell us about the curving motions of the vehicle through space
but do not contribute to the surface of the earth. These unwanted accelerations are
therefore cancelled out in the IN system by computing correcting signals and adding
them to the accelerometer signals, the groups of correction terms are illustrated.

FIG 1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION CORRECTION TERMS

Section 4 1
Navigation Systems

The previously described gyro stabilised platform would remain fixed in space, but
the aircraft is not operating in space. It is operating on an earth which is round and
rotating. In order to keep the accelerometers level with respect to the earth, so that
they sense acceleration of the aircraft in a horizontal direction only, some
compensation must be made. Take the example of looking down at the earth from a
point in space over the North Pole. At noon, the platform is levelled so that the
accelerometers sense only horizontal accelerations. Now, as the earth rotates, the
platform would maintain the same orientation in space, however, from an earth
vantage point, the platform would appear to tip over every 24 hours.

FIG 2

To compensate for this apparent tipping, the platform is forced to tilt in proportion to
the earth’s rate. From our space vantage point, the platform appears to tip over
every 24 hours, while from an earth vantage point, it remains fixed and level as
required for proper operation.

2 Section 4
 Navigation Systems

EARTH RATE CORRECTION (APPARENT WANDER)

If an inertial platform was not corrected for the rotation of the Earth () it would
appear to rotate at one revolution per day about an axis parallel to the Earth’s spin
axis, correction must be made to the platform so that the apparent wander is
eliminated, the Earth rate is resolved for the ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ gyros. When the gyros are
torqued at these rates, the resultant motion of the platform is radians/second about
an axis parallel to the Earth’s spin axis and now appears stationary relative to the
Earth.
As an example, the platform plane (as defined by ‘X’ and ‘Y’) is always horizontal
relative to the Earth at its position and ‘Z’ is always vertical.
At the equator (zero latitude), all platform torquing will be around an axis in the
horizontal plane. At the poles, all torquing will be done around the vertical axis. At
latitudes between these extremes, torquing must be broken into trigonometric
components (vertical and horizontal) as a function of the latitude angle. In
calculations and drawings  (phi) represents latitude angle and the letter  (omega)
the full Earth rate (15.04 hour).

FIG 3

Section 4 3
Navigation Systems

In this case the horizontal component goes from maximum to zero as latitude
increases (a cosine function) and the vertical component goes from zero to
maximum (a sine function).
Horizontal component = cos 
Vertical component = sin 
The drawing shows a platform located at 30 of latitude. Examples of rate can be
calculated by substitution.

Horizontal = cos 
= 15.04  cos 
= 15.04  0.866
= 13.02 hour

Vertical = sin 
= 15.04  sin 
= 15.04  0.5
= 7.52 hour

FIG 3

4 Section 4
 Navigation Systems

VEHICLE RATES
The corrections applied to the platform are devised from signals which relate to
aircraft movement and direction. Illustrations show rate due to northerly movement
and likewise for easterly.
For example, when an aircraft (vehicle) moves northwards with a specific velocity
(V), the gyro platform will have to rotate about the ‘X’ axis in order to remain level
with the Earth.
The angular velocity for correction purposes when travelling north is given by the
formula, - V/R and is measured in radians per second. The minus sign indicates that
the rotation of the platform is anti-clockwise when viewed along the ‘X’ axis in an
easterly direction. If the aircraft was travelling south, the value would be positive.
The value ‘V’ is obtained from the ‘Y’ channel integrator ‘I’, ‘R’ is considered constant
assuming the Earth is a perfect sphere (Not a good assumption).

FIG 4 (A) FIG 4 (B)

Section 4 5
Navigation Systems

Moving eastward, this time with a velocity identified as ‘U’, the platform will have to
rotate about two axes. The ‘Y’ axis in order to remain level with the Earth, and the
‘Z’ axis in order to remain pointing north.
The drawing shows that where the aircraft is in relation to latitude () will affect the
angular velocity. Think of a spinning disc and relate the speed at different points
from centre to outside circumference.
Remember also that the meridians (lines of Longitude) tend to merge at the top and
bottom of the Earth so therefore in order for the ‘Y’ axis to remain parallel to each
meridian as it is crossed, the platform must constantly be turned about the ‘Z’ axis.
Again, where the aircraft is in relation to latitude is important.

FIG 5

6 Section 4
 Navigation Systems

The final illustration for vehicle rate correction is a block schematic of the first part of
the sensing and control system. Notice that movement along the ‘Y’ axis (north),
creates an angular velocity about the ‘X’ axis (east), and that movement along the ‘X’
axis creates an angular velocity about both ‘Y’ and ‘Z’.
The rate signals feed the gyro torque motors and the resultant gyro outputs rotate
the platform at the desired correction rate. Tan  in the formula refers to latitude.

FIG 6

Section 4 7
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

8 Section 4
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 5 : SCHULER TUNING

SCHULER TUNING
When a pendulum is accelerated the bob will lag behind the suspension point in the
opposite direction to the acceleration (Newton’s first law). When the acceleration is
stopped, the pendulum will oscillate with a period ‘T’ equal to:

T = 21/g where T is in seconds

1 is in feet (often replaced by R as the Earth’s
radius = approx 21 million feet).

And g is gravity (32 feet/second2)

Now imagine a pendulum with its bob at the Earth’s centre. Should the suspension
point be accelerated around the Earth, the bob would remain vertical beneath the
suspension point because it is at the Earth’s centre of gravity. A platform tangential
to the Earth’s surface and rigidly attached at the suspension point would remain
horizontal whatever the acceleration. Therefore the vertical, defined by the normal to
the platform, is said to be insensitive to acceleration. If the bob on an Earth
pendulum was to be disturbed it would oscillate with a period of 84.4 minutes.

FIG 1

Section 5 1
Navigation Systems

The typical mechanism of a Schuler tuned inertial platform is shown in simplified

form.

FIG 2

The output of the accelerometer is integrated to provide a velocity signal. This signal
is multiplied by /R, and causes an angular velocity about the Earth’s surface. This
velocity is then used to torque an integrating gyro causing the platform to precess
about the Earth’s surface at the same rate that it is being transported, thereby
maintaining a level.

FIG 3

Bounded Errors
The errors which originate within the Schuler loop are oscillatory and therefore
propagate at the Schuler frequency. Errors which oscillate about a mean and do not
grow with time are termed bounded errors.

2 Section 5
 Navigation Systems

INITIAL LEVELLING ERROR

No matter how carefully the platform and its sensors are aligned there is always
some residual error in the vertical, ie. the platform is not level. When the ‘navigate’
mode is selected (at the conclusion of the alignment phase) the following sequence
takes place.
The accelerometer detects the component of gravity. Following the convention
that clockwise tilts produce positive acceleration, is sensed as a positive
acceleration. The integration of the accelerometer output takes a finite time,
and therefore, velocity and distance are zero at the instant the ‘navigate’ mode
is selected.
The integration of the detected acceleration produces a positive velocity which
drives the platform anti-clockwise to the horizontal. The accelerometer now
detects zero acceleration, but the positive velocity continues to drive the
platform.

FIG 4

Section 5 3
Navigation Systems

 After the platform passes the horizontal the accelerometer detects the
opposite gravity effect, sensed as a negative acceleration. The positive
velocity reduces to zero and for an instant the platform drive stops. However,
the negative acceleration is integrated into negative velocity which drives the
platform clockwise.
 The clockwise drive brings the platform once again to the level position,
resulting in zero output from the accelerometer. However, the negative
velocity continues to drive the platform clockwise.
 After the platform passes the horizontal the accelerometer detects the gravity
effect, sensed as a positive acceleration. This reduces the negative to zero.
The cycle is then repeated.

FIG 5 FIG 6

4 Section 5
 Navigation Systems

INITIAL TILT ERRORS

The errors caused by an initial tilt are shown. Note: the errors are bounded and do
not increase with time. An initial levelling error of 6 seconds of arc is shown to cause
a velocity error bounded by + 0.75 feet per second (0.45 knots) and a mean distance
error of 0.1 nm. After one completed Schuler period both the velocity and distance
errors have returned to zero.

FIG 7

Section 5 5
Navigation Systems

INITIAL AZIMUTH MISALIGNMENT

For an initial misalignment in azimuth the error is not bounded. Position error will
increase due to:
 the effect of earth rate on the misaligned east gyro, causing error in the north
channel
 incorrect resolution of accelerations in the required reference frame
 simple heading error, equal to range  the misalignment angle (radians).
Within the range of errors left in the INS after an alignment sequence, the error is not
as significant as levelling error.

6 Section 5
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 6 : ACCELEROMETER PROBLEMS

ACCELEROMETER CORRECTIONS

GRAVITY CORRECTION
The force of gravity produces an output from the Z accelerometer which, if not
corrected, would be interpreted as an upwards acceleration of 32 ft/sec/sec or 1g.
This output, although a true measurement, does not contribute to the information
required regarding the acceleration of the vehicle with respect to the earth and is
therefore cancelled out by adding an equal and opposite correction signal as shown.

FIG 1

EARTH RATE CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

All bodies on earth are subjected to centripetal force due to the earth’s rotation. The
effect on the accelerometers is to cause them to produce unwanted accelerations in
the Y and Z axes. These must be cancelled out, as in the previous paragraph, by
correction terms added to the accelerometer outputs. The corrections will vary
depending on latitude.

Section 6 1
Navigation Systems

ACCELEROMETER CORRECTIONS
The INS so far discussed measures accelerations along two axes only, only
north/south and east/west. To ensure that the accelerometers keep pointing in those
directions, the platform is rotated, relative to space, to counteract Earth rotation and
vehicle movement over the Earth (gyro correction terms).
As the platform rotates, the accelerometers mounted on it must be subject to
accelerations due to that rotation. Two types of acceleration must be corrected for:
 Central (centripetal) accelerations caused by the platform being rotated to
maintain the local Earth vertical.
 Coriolis acceleration caused by the aircraft following a curved path in space.

FIG 2

2 Section 6
 Navigation Systems

CENTRAL (CENTRIPETAL) ACCELERATION

This is due to the aircraft following a curved path around the Earth. The path is
made up of two components, one is the movement of the aircraft round the Earth’s
centre, and the other because the platform is torqued at velocity ‘U’, is in the
direction of the parallel. These components cause the accelerations:
-UV tan/R in the east accelerometer
U2 tan/R in the north accelerometer
To correct for these accelerations the quantities in ‘a’ and ‘b’ with the signs reversed,
are applied to the accelerometer output axis.

FIG 3

Section 6 3
Navigation Systems

CORIOLIS ACCELERATION
An aircraft, following a great circle over the Earth’s surface, follows a curved path in
space, the resultant acceleration being equal to:
 -2V sin at the east accelerometer
 2U sin at the north accelerometer
To correct for these accelerations the quantities in ‘a’ and ‘b’ with the signs reversed,
are applied to the output of the accelerometers.

FIG 4

4 Section 6
 Navigation Systems

FIG 5

Section 6 5
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

6 Section 6
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 7 : ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT
In order to provide a reference for the outputs of an INS, the stable platform is
accurately aligned in both azimuth and attitude.

Course Alignment
The coarse alignment phase is the initial operation during which time the platform is
set in attitude relative to the aircraft’s horizontal axis and in azimuth relative to a
compass input. This alignment achieves an accuracy of about 1. When the
sensors have reached their operating temperature and the gyros have run-up, the
fine alignment phase may start.

Fine Alignment
This is often broken into two distinct operations, one in the vertical plane and one in
horizontal.
Vertical alignment is quickly and simply achieved by use of the accelerometer null
technique. With the aircraft stationary, there should be no outputs from the
accelerometers. However, a platform tilt will show as an acceleration. This signal is
used to rotate the platform until no further acceleration is sensed, ie. g is zero and
the platform is level.

FIG 1

Section 7 1
Navigation Systems

Horizontal alignment, often called ‘gyro compassing’, operates when the platform is
misaligned in heading, the ‘east’ gyro will detect a component of Earth rotation, 
cos  sin  zt (where zt is the heading error). This component will cause the platform
to tilt which will then cause a false accelerometer output. Through a high gain
amplifier, this output is used to torque the azimuth gyro. The platform, controlled by
the azimuth gyro, is driven until the ‘east’ gyro output is reduced to zero. The
platform is then aligned.

FIG 2

2 Section 7
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 8 : AN INS SYSTEM OVERVIEW

A Typical system is shown in graphical form. Note the multiple components,
including two battery supply units.
Each component will be looked at in detail in their respective chapters.

FIG 1

Some examples feature an interface with the FMS (Flight Management System).
Indeed, most older passenger aircraft, just like PC’s, are upgraded to reflect new
technology. The illustrations show how the components inputs and outputs are
linked.

INU (INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT)

This is a digital computer, containing the platform, which outputs navigational
information, primary attitude, heading and lateral steering signals to the interface
system.

MSU (MODE SELECT UNIT)

A control box which switches for operation the selections of OFF, STBY, ALIGN,
NAV and ATT. It also gives limited status indications.

CDU (CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT)

This acts as an interface between the operator and INU. It allows data to be inserted
into and displayed from the INU.

: Section 8 1
Navigation Systems

BATTERY UNIT
Provides power to initialise it’s associated INS, overcome power transfer problems,
and enable continuous INS operation in the case of primary power failure. It has a
duration of approximately 15 minutes and during normal operation is trickle charged
from it’s associated INU.

CADC-DADC (AIR DATA SYSTEMS)

Provides TAS (True Air Speed) date for wind computations.

FIG 2

2 Section 8
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 9 : THE MODE SELECTOR UNIT

ALIGN (ALIGNMENT)
This mode is used during ground operation while the aircraft is parked. Setting the
switch to ALIGN will start gyro operation and automatic INS alignment, provided the
unit is warmed-up. Fine alignment will not start until present position is inserted at
the control module.

NAV (NAVIGATION)
This mode is used for normal operation after automatic alignment is complete. It
must be selected before any aircraft movement takes place. The INS will
automatically sequence through the standby and alignment modes of operation
when the NAV position is selected from any other position, provided the aircraft is
parked and present position inserted. Going directly from OFF to NAV will eliminate
the automatic shutdown feature in the event of an overheat. The automatic battery
check will also be inhibited.

ATT (ATTITUDE)
Only used to supply INS attitude signals. This position shuts down the computer so
that navigation and steering signals are not provided. The ATT position can be
selected from any other position. Once the ATT position is selected INS alignment is
lost and it must be re-aligned on the ground before the navigation mode can again
be used.

OVERHEAT PROTECTION
Both standby and align provide the INU with an automatic shutdown feature to
protect the INU in the event of overheat.

]
FIG 1

Section 9 1
Navigation Systems

BATTERY LIGHT(RED)
This light illuminates only if while operating on battery power, the INS automatically
shuts down due to low battery unit voltage. The INS operates on battery power for
one 10 second period during coarse levelling. If the battery charge is below the
required minimum level during this period, the INS will shut down and the red BAT
light will show.

READY/NAVIGATE LIGHT (GREEN)

When the mode switch is in ALIGN, the light will come on when alignment is
attained. It will stay lit until NAV is selected, then extinguish. It comes on
momentarily when alignment is accomplished with the mode selector in NAV.

MODE SWITCH
This is used to select the modes of the INS. Pull to rotate across mechanical stops
between STBY and ALIGN and again between NAV and ATT.

STBY (STANDBY)
Used only during ground operation. It starts a fast warmup.

FIG 1

2 Section 9
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 10 : THE CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT

CDU (THE CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT)
This unit allows the entry of navigational data into the INS and also displays this data
‘on screen’. It also controls the AUTO (automatic) and MAN (manual) modes of
operation.

SWITCHES AND ANNUNCIATORS

The HOLD pushbutton allows a position check and update and permits display of
malfunction codes and updated failure codes.
The keyboard provides 10 keys, (0 through 9) for entering present position and
waypoint co-ordinates, ‘From/To’ waypoints, track hold and update mode.
The WY PT CHG (waypoint change) pushbutton is used to make course changes.
The AUTO-MAN Switch.
 AUTO The system makes automatic sequential track leg changes.
 MAN This allows manually initiated track leg changes.
 TEST Carries out a BITE (built in test equipment) check of displays and
indicators.

DATA SELECTOR SWITCH

This enables entry of present position and waypoints data. It also selects
navigational data for presentation on right and left displays.

FIG 1

Section 10 1
Navigation Systems

DIM CONTROL SWITCH

This controls the intensity of left, right and ‘from/to’ displays.

WPT (WAYPOINT) SWITCH

This is used to select the waypoints (1 through 9) for latitude and longitude insertion,
or select waypoint (0 through 9) for presentation of waypoint co-ordinates on left and
right displays.
INSERT Pushbutton
This transfers data into the INS computer.

FIG 1

LEFT DATA INDICATOR

This window shows latitude, track, heading, cross track distance, wind direction or
desired track, as selected by the data selector.

REMOTE SWITCH (AMBER)

This permits simultaneous loading and inserting of waypoint data and updating of
present position, in multiple system installations with a single control module.

2 Section 10
 Navigation Systems

HOLD SWITCH
Used along with other controls to stop displayed present position from changing to
perform a position update, to display inertial present position and to eradicate a
position update and display recorded malfunction codes.

ALERT LIGHT (AMBER)

Comes on at 2 minutes from waypoint. Flashes when past waypoint in MAN mode
when groundspeed is in excess of 250 knots. It goes out when the INS automatically
switches to next navigation leg in AUTO mode.

FIG 2

WARN LIGHT (RED)

This comes on when self check circuits detect an out of tolerance condition.

BAT LIGHT (AMBER)

Illuminates when system is operating on battery power.

Section 10 3
Navigation Systems

WAYPOINT SELECTOR
This is used in conjunction with WAYPT on the data selector. Select ‘1’ through ‘9’
when inserting waypoints and destination positions into the computer. A ‘0’ selection
will display either the co-ordinates of the latest present position update inserted on
the ground or the co-ordinates of a course change from present position, whichever
was performed last.

DATA SELECTOR
This is used to select data to be displayed in the data indicators.

TEST SWITCH/AUTO-MAN SWITCH

 Test By pushing, the data indicators should show all ‘8s’. With the data
selector at DSRTK/STS, the push release sequence will replace an action
code with malfunction codes.
 Auto-Man In AUTO, the waypoint number in the FROM-TO display will
automatically sequence to the next flight leg when waypoint is reached. In
MAN the next flight leg number must be set manually through the keyboard.

FIG 3

4 Section 10
 Navigation Systems

FROM-TO INDICATOR
This indicates the flight leg for which navigation data is being computed.
Automatically goes to ‘12’ when system is turned on and waypoint data has been
inserted.

WY PT CHG SWITCH
This switch allows different waypoint numbers to be loaded into FROM-TO display
through the keyboard.

KEYBOARD
This is used to load present position and waypoint latitude and longitude into data
indicators, to load desired performance index number and to change waypoint
‘FROM’ ‘TO’ numbers.

CLEAR SWITCH
This is used to clear data indicators when erroneous data has been loaded.

FIG 3

Section 10 5
Navigation Systems

THE DATA SELECTOR SWITCH

POS (Position)
Allows position latitude display in left indicator, longitudinal data in right side.

XTE/TKE (CROSS-TRACK/TRACK ERROR)

Cross-track distance (L or R) is displayed in the left data indicator while track error
shows in the right.

HDG/DA (HEADING/DRIFT ANGLE)

The left side displays aircraft true heading while on the right is shown drift angle.

TK/GS (TRACK/GROUND SPEED)

The present track is shown in the left indicator and ground speed in the right.

FIG 4

6 Section 10
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 11 : THE NAVIGATION COMPUTER

INU (THE NAVIGATION COMPUTER)
The navigation unit is divided into three basic sections. The IRU (inertial reference
unit) is the rear third of the unit and contains the gyros and the accelerometers.
These are the main sensing and attitude platforms. One, known as the ‘Z’ platform
has a single gyro and one accelerometer with their axes mounted in a vertical plane.
It also has a synchronous motor which rotates a second, lower platform, known as
the ‘XY’ platform, at one revolution per minute. The system name ‘Carousel’ is
derived from this fact.
Rotating the horizontal instruments greatly suppresses the error effect of any gyro
accelerometers misalignment. It allows for separation of instrument from alignment
errors. The lower platform has two single axis gyros and two accelerometers with
axes at right angles to each other.
The front of the box is divided along its length into two units. The inertial reference
unit electronics, (IRUE) contains the printed cards, accepts the power supply and all
the necessary electronics to power the gyro section IRU.
The digital computer unit (DCU) occupies the remaining third. This, as the name
implies is the computer part of the navigation unit and resolves all the calculations
required for the INS. Switching to attitude cuts out the DCU.

FIG 1

Section 11 1
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

2 Section 11
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 12 : THE BATTERY UNIT

THE BATTERY UNIT
Its whole purpose in life is to supply power for system initialisation, and to maintain
operation for up to a maximum of 15 minutes should the ac primary power fail,
intermittently or total.
The output is 24 volts at 6.5 Ah nominal with a 20 amp circuit breaker protection.
The battery is tested during INS alignment and the IRU provides a trickle charge
when the system is initialised. The battery charger automatically cuts out when 29
volts is reached.
If the INS fails to switch on, the battery CB should be checked.

FIG 1

Section 12 1
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

2 Section 12
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 13 : NAVIGATION DATA TERMS

INS NAVIGATION DATA
The following navigation measurement terms are used with the INS and the
computed values are displayed on the INS control module or on the pilots’ flight
instruments.

HDG True heading is the angle between the aircraft centre line and true
north
TAS True air speed

WS Wind speed in knots

WD Wind direction angle is the angle between true north and the wind
vector
TK Ground track angle is the angle between true north and an
imaginary line on the Earth’s surface connecting successive
position points over which the aircraft has flown (ground track).
GS Ground speed

DA Drift angle is the angle between the aircraft’s true heading and
ground track.
DSRTK Desired track angle is the angle between true north and an
imaginary line on the ground connecting successive position points
desired to overfly. This line being the ‘great circle’ segment which
lies between two successive waypoints.
XTK Cross track distance is the shortest distance between the aircraft’s
present position and the desired track.
TKE Track angle error is the angle between the aircraft’s actual ground
track and desired ground track.
POS Present position is the actual latitude and longitude position of the
aircraft.
DIS Distance is the great circle distance.

Section 13 1
Navigation Systems

FIG 1

2 Section 13
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 14 : THE INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR DISPLAYS

INS-HSI

MILEAGE INDICATOR
This shows miles to go to the next waypoint when either RADIO or INS-FMS
selected.

NAVIGATION WARNING FLAG

Comes into view when radio input or INS/FMS input is lost.

VOR/ILS-INS/FMS INDICATOR
Shows which system is in use.

DATA SOURCE INDICATOR

Shows the source of data from either the INS or FMS or radio navigation.

ALERT LIGHT
Comes on when aircraft is within 1 minute of leg switch when on track. Alert light on
INS control/display unit is on at the same time. Both lights flash when waypoint is
passed with INS in manual mode. No light unless groundspeed ≥ 250 knots.

FIG 1

Section 14 1
Navigation Systems

DRIFT ANGLE INDICATOR

Displays the drift angle in either radio or INS navigation. Indicator is biased out of
view when power is lost to system being used for navigation.

AZIMUTH CARD
Displays aircraft heading (read against lubber-line). In INS/FMS operation,
referenced to true north. In radio operation, referenced to magnetic north.

GROUND SPEED INDICATOR

Displays ground speed in knots, as computed in the inertial navigation system.

HEADING SELECT POINTER

In FMS/INS operation, the pointer is biased to the ‘6 o’clock’ position and does not
function. In radio operation the pointer moves in response to rotation of the heading
selector (on the mode selector panel). Once set, the pointer moves with the azimuth
card.

FIG 1

2
 Navigation Systems

HEADING REFERENCE
Shows ‘TRUE’ when RADIO/INS switch is in the ‘INS’ position. It shows ‘MAG’ when
the switch is set to ‘RADIO’.

DESIRED TRACK/COURSE POINTER

In FMS/INS operation, it displays the desired track. IN the radio operation, it moves
in response to rotation of the course selector (on the mode selector panel) to the
desired position on the azimuth card.

CROSS TRACK DISTANCE/COURSE BAR

This is a moveable centre portion of desired track/course pointer. It shows both
angular and lateral displacement from VOR or ILS course (radio) or from INS/FMS
track (INS/FMS operation).

COURSE TRACK/DEVIATION
This shows the deviation in degrees during radio operation. It also shows cross
track distance in miles during INS operation. 2 dots is normally equivalent to 7½
miles.

FIG 1

Section 14 3
Navigation Systems

THE INS/GS DISPLAY

At any point in flight it is possible to observe the track angle being flown and ground
speed by selecting the switch to TK/GS. Track angle is shown on the left display to
the nearest tenth of a degree relative to true north. Ground speed is also shown on
the right display in knots to the nearest one knot. This information is also available
on full time display on the HSI.

FIG 2

4
 Navigation Systems

INS HDG/DA DISPLAY

Aircraft heading and drift angle can be displayed at any time during flight by selecting
HDG/DA. Heading is shown on the left hand display relative to true north and within
one tenth of a degree. Drift angle is shown on the right display in degrees right or
left of aircraft heading, to the nearest one degree.
This information is also available on the HSI, however with VOR/ILS selected, the
HSI indicates magnetic heading.

FIG 3

Section 14 5
Navigation Systems

INS – XTK/TKE DISPLAY

At any point during flight XTK/TKE can be displayed at the selected position. Cross
track is shown on the L/H display in nautical miles right or left of the desired track to
the nearest tenth of a nautical mile. Track error appears on the other side in degrees
left or right of the desired track to the nearest one degree.
With RAD/INS FMS switch to INS position, the above information is displayed on the
HSI.

FIG 4

6
 Navigation Systems

INS POS AND WAYPOINT DISPLAY

At any point during flight with POS selected, the displays will read the present
position of the aircraft. Latitude is shown on the left and longitude on the right. This
selection is needed to load present position.
WAYPT is used when loading waypoints in conjunction with the thumbwheel. Any
waypoint position that is loaded, can be seen in flight, at this selection, using the
thumbwheel.

FIG 5

Section 14 7
Navigation Systems

INS – DISTANCE AND TIME DISPLAY

During any flight with waypoints loaded, distance and time to next waypoint can be
shown with selector at DIS/TIME with ‘FROM/TO’ display showing ‘TO’ waypoint.
The distance shown on present ground speed reads 0-9999 to nearest mile. Time
display shown on the right side and based on present ground speed reads 0-999.9
minutes. The distance is repeated on the HSI.

FIG 6

8
 Navigation Systems

INS – WIND DISPLAY

This can be shown in flight with the selector at WIND.
Wind angle on the L/H display is from 0-359 degrees, to the nearest one degree.
Wind speed on the right display is from 0-650 knots to the nearest one knot.
Calculations are shown.

FIG 7

Section 14 9
Navigation Systems

INS – DSRTK/STS
At any time during flight, the desired track can be shown with the switch to
DSRTK/STS. The data is displayed on the L/H display in degrees to the nearest one
degree relative to true north.
The information is also repeated on the HSI.

FIG 8

10
 Navigation Systems

INS STATUS/ACTION CODES

FIG 9

Section 14 11
Navigation Systems

INS – HSI DISPLAYS

The example on this page shows that when the desired track is aligned with the DA
bug, then the track (TK) is the DSRTK, with the nose of the aircraft on a different
heading.

FIG 10

12
 Navigation Systems

The example on this page shows that with no wind the aircraft heading will be
aligned with the aircraft track. If the aircraft is not heading (tracking) to the desired
track, then a track angle error will result.

FIG 11

Section 14 13
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

14
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 15 : INITIALISATION
INITIALISATION
This is accomplished by first placing the MSU mode select switch to either STBY,
ALIGN or NAV. Unless it is known that the aircraft is to be moved, then ALIGN
would be the more practical selection to make, as over temperature sensing and
auto shut-down is incorporated. Even with the INS in NAV , the ALIGN can always
be selected for protection, without destroying the alignment.

PRESENT POSITION INSERTION

 Data selector to POS.
 Load latitude using keyboard in sequence. (N40357) = 40 35.7’ north.
 Latitude appears in left hand display.
 Press insert.
 Load longitude using keyboard in sequence (W78596) = 78 59.6’ west.
 Longitude appears in right hand display.
 Press insert.
If present position has been loaded incorrectly, then down mode the system to STBY
and re-load correct co-ordinates.

FIG 1

Section 15 1
Navigation Systems

SYSTEM INTERFACE
This is shown below.
Problems, with the various types of INS can often be diagnosed using the BITE
installed. Common sense fault finding such as lighting defects (warnings), data
loading problems (it is not unusual to have to try initialisation three or four times
before success is achieved) and display failures can often be simply rectified. Check
CB’s, power sources, aircraft movement and ‘finger’ problems.
A total understanding of the system can only be realised by working on it. Good
luck!

FIG 2

2 Section 15
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 16 : THE RING LASER GYROSCOPE

INTRODUCTION
The standard gyroscopes discussed to date have until recently been the sole means
of supplying and establishing attitude and heading references in aircraft systems.
However these instruments are slowly fading out of pre-eminence and are beginning
to be replaced by a totally new concept; ‘The Laser Gyro’ or Ring Laser Gyro (RLG).
These are not Gyros at all, but sensors of angular state of rotation about a single
axis. Since there are no spinning masses involved nor an element which maintains
a fixed datum axis in space the RLG does not exhibit the properties of precession
and rigidity RLGs may be defined as sensors which measure vehicle rate. Their
many advantages are due mainly to its robust construction, a solid state device
almost devoid of electromechanical components with the result that there are no
gimbal rings, torque motors etc thus reducing maintenance down time.

Section 16 1
Navigation Systems

A laser which may be considered as an oscillator, transmits two light beams in

opposite direction around the ring. The beam wavelengths, and hence the resonant
frequencies, are determined by the length of the optical path around the cavity, the
gas in the cavity is usually helium-neon. When the RLG is stationary, the
frequencies of the two beams are identical and no signal output is produced. If the
RLG is subjected to a rotation about its axis, the time taken for one light beam to
travel around its optical path increases, whilst the other light beam takes less time.
In other words the wavelength of one beam has increased with an associated drop in
frequency, the opposite effect occurring in the other beam. Hence, rotation of the
RLG gives a rise to a frequency difference between the two contra-rotating beams
which is proportional to the input axis rotation route rate. This frequency difference
is detected by optically mixing the two light beams in a prism, to generate a pattern
of interference fringes. (Interference fringes are alternate light and dark bands which
are seen when two beams of light, of the same kind, having a constant phase
relationship, overlap and illuminate the same areas). An optical sensor and a
counter circuit count the interference fringes, delivering a digital readout proportional
to angular rate. The direction of rotation is obtained by sensing the direction of
movement of the interference fringes.

FIG 1

2 Section 16
 Navigation Systems

The length of the laser path and the mirror positions are critical elements in RLG
operation. Generally, the greater the length of the laser path, the greater will be the
accuracy of the RLG. However, the laser path length has to be compromised, as
available space, especially in line replacement units in combat aircraft is at a
premium. Both triangular and square format RLG’s have been developed. The
square format has the advantage that a longer laser path length is possible, and
hence, greater accuracy for a given volume. However, this advantage is offset by
the increased manufacturing complexity and losses associated with the additional
side and mirror. To enable compensation of the optical path length to be achieved,
for changes due to gyro expansion with temperature, a control circuit is used to
provide positional control of one of the laser mirrors. Known as the cavity path
length control circuit (CPLC), it controls in/out mirror movements via piezoelectric
transducer to maintain the optical path length constant, thereby maximising the
cavity output power and ensuring the laser wavelength stays constant.
A disadvantage associated with RLG operation concerns its inability to detect low
rotation rates about its sensitive axis. The high threshold is caused by a deadbank
or lock-in region within which no output is obtained. This condition is due to a cross-
coupling of the energy between the light beams, which tends to lock together at low
input rates. To overcome the deadband region, a mechanical dither system is used
which oscillates the unit about its input axis. The small amplitude high frequency
oscillations are produced by a centrally located radical spring arrangement driven by
a piezoelectric transducer, and this artificially biases the gyro to sense inputs within
the deadband region.

FIG 1

It is expected that RLG based inertial laser reference system (LRS) will replace the
traditional attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS) which use two
electromechanical displacement gyroscopes. A single LRS contains three LRG’s

Section 16 3
Navigation Systems

mounted on affixed, rigid platform. They will detect an aircraft rate movement in
pitch, roll and yaw axes thereby providing accurate attitude and heading reference
data. A computer is required to provide the integration function to derive angular
displacement information from the angular rate of information from the RLG. This
type of attitude reference system is referred to as a ‘Strapdown’ since the RLG’s are
fixed to the airframe and not gimballed as in a conventional floating gyroscope.
Development of RLG technology has advanced for discrete single axis RLG sensors
to multiple combinations. One such system is a three axis RLG sensor which
consists of three orthogonal RLG’s of square format manufactured in a single
monolithic construction of the low expansion glass ceramic. Referred to as ‘triad’, it
is a simplified device compared to three discrete RLG’s, since the mirrors are
arranged in such a way that they each serve two cavities, reducing the total number
of mirrors in the three axis sensor to six. A further advance is that a single dither
mechanism is possible for all three axes. Manufacture of the triad demands very low
tolerance for machining and drilling operations if the necessary mirror alignment
between the cavities is to be achieved.

FIG 2

4 Section 16
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 17 : THE STRAPDOWN INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The Strapdown IRS (Inertial Reference System) is a system that provides the
following aircraft flight information without the need for gimbals, bearings, torque
motors or other moving parts:
 Primary aircraft attitude in pitch and roll
 Magnetic and true heading
 Body linear accelerations
- Longitudinal
- Lateral
- Normal
 Body angular rates
- Pitch
- Roll
- Yaw
 Inertial velocity
- N-S, E-W
- Ground Speed
- Track angle
- Vertical rate
 Navigation position
- Latitude
- Longitude
- Inertial altitude
 Wind data
- Wind speed
- Wind angle
- Drift angle

Section 17 1
Navigation Systems

 Calculated data
- Flight path angle and acceleration
- Along track and cross track acceleration
- Inertial pitch and roll rate
- Vertical acceleration and potential vertical speed
The system utilises inertial sensors that are fixed relative to the structure. These
sensors consists of three ring laser gyros and three accelerometers. These sensors,
coupled with high-speed microprocessors, allow the system to maintain a stable
platform reference mathematically, rather than mechanically. This results in a
significant increase in accuracy and reliability over older, gimballed stabilised
platforms.

WHAT DOES THE SYSTEM REPLACE IN TERMS OF CONVENTIONAL

STABILISING DEVICES?
 Vertical gyro
 Direction gyro
 Flux valve and compensator
 Rate gyros
 Accelerometers

DATA TRANSMISSION
 ASCB (Avionics Standard Communications Bus) 2-wire and 4-wire
 High-speed ARINC 429
 Low-speed ARINC 429
 Open/ground discretes
 Open/28V discretes

2 Section 17
 Navigation Systems

POWER SUPPLIES
The IRS receives three different voltages from the aircraft’s electrical system:
 Primary ac power - 115V rms, single phase 400 Hz (105.5V to 122V,
380 to 420 Hz)
 Primary dc power - +28V dc (+ 18 TO +32V)
 Panel lighting - 5V rms, single phase 400 Hz or 5V dc
 Backup battery voltage - 24V dc, 4 ampere hour or greater backup battery
is required

FIG 1

Section 17 3
Navigation Systems

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The system includes components that may be configured into a single, dual, or
triple-IRS installation.
 A single-IRS installation consists of:
- One Inertial Reference Unit (IRU)
- One six-annunciator Mode Select Unit (MSU)
- One +24V dc backup battery/charger unit (B/CU)
- One Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU) (optional)
- Appropriate mounting racks
- One blower kit (optional if aircraft supplies cooling air for IRU)
 A Dual IRS installation consists of:
- Two IRUs
- Two six-annunciator MSUs or one Triple-channel MSU
- Two + 24V dc B/CUs
- One ISDU (optional)
- Appropriate mounting racks
- Two blower kits (optional if aircraft supplies cooling air for IRU)
 A triple-IRS installation may consist of one of two configurations:
One triple-IRS configuration consists of:
- Three IRUs
- One Triple-channel MSU or three Six-Annunciator MSUs
- Three + 24V dc B/CUs
- One ISDU (optional)
- Appropriate mounting racks
- Three blower kits (optional if aircraft supplies cooling air for IRU)
 The other triple-IRS configuration consists of:
- Two IRUs
- One Attitude-Heading Reference Unit (AHRU)
- One Triple-channel MSU or three Six-Annunciator MSUs
- Three +24V dc B/CUs
- One ISDU (optional)
- Appropriate mounting racks
- Three blower kits (optional if aircraft supplies cooling air for IRU and AHRU)

4 Section 17
 Navigation Systems

INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT (IRU)

The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial
sensor assembly, microprocessors, power supplies and aircraft electronic interfaces.
Accelerometers and laser gyros in the inertial sensor assembly measure
accelerations and angular rates of the aircraft.
The IRU microprocessors perform computations required for:
 Primary attitude
 Present position
 Inertial velocity vectors
 Magnetic and True North reference
 Sensor systematic error compensation
The power supplies receive ac and dc power from the aircraft and backup battery,
supply power to the IRS, and provide switching to primary ac, primary dc or backup
battery power.

FIG 2

The aircraft electronic interfaces convert Aeronautic Radio Incorporated (ARINC)

and Avionics Standard Communication Bus (ASCB) inputs for use by the IRS. The
electronic interfaces also provide IRS outputs in ARINC and ASCB formats for use
by the associated aircraft equipment.
A fault ball indicator and a manual INTERFACE TEST switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.

Section 17 5
Navigation Systems

NOTES:

6 Section 17
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 18 : DISPLAYS AND PANELS

MODE SELECT UNIT (MSU)
The triple-channel MSU provides mode selection, status indication, and test initiation
for three IRUs.
The six-indicator MSU provides mode selection, status indication, and test initiation
for one IRU.

FIG 1 TRIPLE-CHANNEL MSU

FIG 2

Section 18 1
Navigation Systems

INDICATORS
The following indicators show IRS status:

ALIGN Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing

ALIGN indicator shows incorrect latitude/longitude entry,
excessive aircraft movement during alignment, or mismatch
between entered and computed latitude.
NAV RDY Indicates that the alignment is complete
FAULT Indicates an IRS fault
ON BATT Indicates that backup battery power is being used
BATT FAIL Indicates that backup battery power is inadequate to sustain
IRS operation during backup operation (less than 21 volts)
NO AIR Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool the IRU.

2 Section 18

Selection of basic modes and submodes
Modes are selected by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN
OFF-TO-NAV
ALIGN-TO-NAV
NAV-TO-ALIGN
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT
ATT-TO-ALIGN or ATT-TO-NAV
ATT-, NAV-, or ALIGN-TO-OFF
ATT-, NAV-, or ALIGN-TO-OFF-
TO ALIGN, -NAV or -ATT
Section 18
Navigation Systems
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test
equipment (BITE) sub mode. When BITE is
complete after approximately 13 seconds, the
IRU enters the alignment mode. The IRU
remains in the alignment mode until the mode
select switch is set to OFF, NAV, or ATT. The
NAV RDY indicator lights upon completion of
alignment
The IRU enters the power on/BITE sub mode,
the alignment mode, and upon completion of
alignment, the navigate mode
The IRU enters the navigate mode from the
alignment mode upon completion of alignment
The IRU enters the align downmode from the
navigate mode
The IRU enters the align downmode from the
navigate mode and, after 30 seconds,
automatically re-enters the navigate mode
upon completion of down mode alignment.
The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for
20 seconds, during which the MSU ALIGN
indicator lights. The IRU then enters the
attitude mode.
Once the mode select switch has been set to
ATT, the IRU remains in the attitude mode
even if the mode select switch is reset to
ALIGN or NAV. The mode select switch must
be set to OFF for at least 3 seconds before the
alignment or navigate mode can be re-
established.
After 3-second delay, the IRU enters the
power-off submode for approximately 7
seconds. At the end of 10 seconds, the IRU is
off.
If the mode select switch is reset to ALIGN,
NAV, or ATT after being in the OFF position for
3 seconds but before the 10-second power-
down procedure has been completed, the IRU
completes the power-down procedures and
then re-initiates power-on procedures
3
Navigation Systems

INERTIAL SYSTEM DISPLAY UNIT (ISDU)

The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial
position or heading data to the IRUs.
The ISDU is optional in the system when associated aircraft equipment provides the
necessary IRS inputs and displays.
Operator inputs to the ISDU provide position data to the IRU and select navigational
data for display. The ISDU contains:
 Keyboard
 Display
 System display (SYS DSPL) switch
 Display select (DSPL SEL) switch
 Dimmer knob

FIG 4

4 Section 18
 Navigation Systems

Keyboard
 The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or
magnetic heading in the altitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered
data simultaneously to all IRUs in multiple-channel installations.
 The keyboard contains 12 keys. Five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2.
W/4. H/5. E/6 and S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of
data (latitude, longitude or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single-
function keys are used to select only numerical data.
 The clear (CLR) and enter (ENT) keys contain green cue lights which, when
lit, indicate that operator action is required. (CLR) is used to remove data
erroneously entered. (ENT) is used to send data to the IRU.

FIG 4

Section 18 5
Navigation Systems

Display
The 13-digit alphanumeric split display shows two types of navigation data at the
same time. The display is separated into one group of six digits (positions 1 through
6) and one group of seven digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks
(located in positions 3, 5, 6, 10, 12 and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees,
decimal points and minutes.

FIG 5

System Display (SYS DSPL) Switch

The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1, 2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or
receive data from any IRU.

FIG 6

6 Section 18
 Navigation Systems

Display Selector (DSPL SEL) Switch

The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU:

TEST selects a display test that lights all display elements and keyboard
cue lights to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL
SEL switch is spring loaded and must be held in this position
TK/GS selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed
in knots on the right.
PPOS selects latitude on the left display and longitude on the right. Both
latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees, minutes and tenths
of minutes.
WIND selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed
in knots on the right.
HDG/STS selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the
current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of
degrees, and time-to-alignment completion is displayed in minutes
and tenths of minutes. In the alignment mode, the ISDU displays
alignment status (time to NAV ready) in the right display. In the
navigate mode, the ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left
display and ATT in the right display

FIG 7

Section 18 7
Navigation Systems

Dimmer Knob
The dimmer knob is mounted on, and operates independently of, the DSPL SEL
switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens. As the
dimmer knob is rotated counterclockwise, the display dims.

8 Section 18
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 19 : ALIGNMENT
PURPOSE
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and the
direction of true north.

GYROCOMPASS PROCESS
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the airplane.
Since the plane is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth
rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of true
north.

INITIAL LATITUDE
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by sensing
the direction of the earth’s rotation. The magnitude of the earth rotation vector
allows the IRU computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position. This
calculated latitude is compared with the latitude entered by the operator during
initialisation.

ALIGNMENT MODE
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the Mode Select switch is set to ALIGN or NAV
position. (It is preferred to set the switch to NAV). During ALIGN, the system
software performs a vertical levelling and determines aircraft true heading and
latitude.
The levelling operation brings the pitch and roll attitudes within 1.0 degree accuracy
(coarse levelling), followed by fined levelling and heading determination. Initial
latitude and longitude data must be entered by manually entering the actual present
position via the ISDU or by entering it by the FMS CDU. The IRU does not output
ARINC 429 data bus parameters in ALIGN, except present position.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the Mode
Select switch was set to NAV during align. If the Mode Select switch was set to
ALIGN, the system will remain in align until the pilot selects NAV mode. There is a
disadvantage in leaving the switch in ALIGN in that the IRS system remains
vulnerable to upset by excessive motion.

Section 19 1
Navigation Systems

ALIGNMENT TIME
The IRU completes alignment in a minimum of 2.5 minutes at the equator and a
maximum of 10 minutes at 70 latitude. During alignment, the ALIGN annunciator is
lit.

FIG 1

HIGH-LATITUDE ALIGNMENT
 Under normal circumstances, alignment should be initiated only within the
latitudes of 70 North to 70 South.
 If necessary, alignment above 70 may be attempted, however, system
navigation performance accuracies may be degraded to an extent that will
prevent NAV mode engagement.
 To improve navigation performance for high latitude alignments, the alignment
time can be increased beyond the normal 10 minutes by leaving the MSU
mode select switch in the ALIGN position for an additional period of time
before switching to the NAV position. However, only slight improvement is
achieved after more than 15 minutes with the mode select switch in the
ALIGN position.

2 Section 19
 Navigation Systems

ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS
 To complete alignment, the pilot must enter the present position (latitude and
longitude) of the aircraft on an FMS or ISDU and transmit the position to the
IRU during the alignment time.

CAUTION: THE AIRCRAFT MUST BE STATIONARY DURING THE ALIGN

MODE. IF THE AIRCRAFT IS MOVED, POWER MUST BE CYCLED
OFF FOR A MINIMUM OF 3 SECONDS BEFORE THE ALIGN MODE
CAN BE RE-ESTABLISHED

 During alignment, the aircraft must remain stationary. If the IRU detects
excessive aircraft motion, the ALIGN annunciator flashes and the FAULT
annunciator lights. If this occurs, the MSU mode select switch must be set to
OFF for a minimum of 3 seconds and then set back to ALIGN or NAV to
restart alignment.

NOTE: Normal passenger-loading activities and wind gusts will not disturb
alignment.

If the pilot does not enter present position within the normal alignment time, the
MSU ALIGN annunciator flashes, and the IRU will not enter the NAV mode until
it receives a valid input of present position.
The pilot may update the current latitude and longitude entry any number of
times without delaying alignment as long as the IRU has not entered the NAV
mode. Each successive latitude and/or longitude entry writes over the previous
entry. Only the latest entry is used for navigation.

FIG 1

Section 19 3
Navigation Systems

ALIGNMENT TESTS
The IRU conducts a reasonable test and a system performance test on the position
that the pilot has entered.

REASONABLENESS TEST
 The IRU conducts a reasonableness test on latitude and longitude
immediately after each has been entered.
 The IRU compares the entered latitude and longitude with the latitude and
longitude stored at the last power down. If the entered position does not
agree within a given limit of the stored position, the entered latitude or
longitude fails the test, and the MSU ALIGN annunciator flashes.
 The IRU will accept additional latitude and longitude entries although each
entry must also pass or override the reasonableness test. To override the
test, the new entry must be identical to the last entry. For example, if N47324
was entered and failed the test, then N47324 must be entered again to
override the test. If a new entry passes or overrides the reasonableness test,
the flashing MSU ALIGN annunciator will go steady.
 A correct latitude and/or longitude entry may fail the reasonableness test if a
new IRU has been installed or if the aircraft has been moved to a different
location without operating the IRU. In this case, identical coordinates should
be entered twice to override the test.

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE TEST

 At the end of alignment, the entered latitude must pass a system performance
test. This test requires that the latitude entered by the pilot be within a given
limit of the latitude computed by the IRU. If the entered latitude passes this
test, alignment is completed.
 A flashing ALIGN annunciator at this time indicates that the entered latitude
has failed the system performance test. IRU will not enter the NAV mode until
the entered latitude passes the test.
 Additional latitude entries are still allowed until the test is passed. However,
new latitude entries must also pass the reasonableness test. If two
consecutive, identical latitudes are entered and the system performance test
fails, the flashing ALIGN annunciator goes steady, and the FAULT
annunciator lights.
 One entry of the correct latitude passes the test, turns the FAULT and ALIGN
annunciators off, and allows entry into the NAV mode.

4 Section 19
 Navigation Systems

SECTION 20 : MALFUNCTIONS
IRS STATUS/MALFUNCTION CODES

FAULT ISOLATION
System component status/malfunctions are indicated on the right display when the
display select switch is in HDG/STS. The table shows a code number indicating a
particular component status, or for condition. ISDU power loss, number 10, is a
normal indication during initial power on when one IRU is powered and the other is
not.
The component associated with IRU FAIL or ADC FAULT is a function of the
SYSDSPL switch position.
If multiple codes exist, the highlight bar on the CLR key will illuminate. Pressing the
CLR key will enable all codes to be viewed in sequence until the original code
reappears.

FIG 1

Section 20 1
Navigation Systems

FIG 2

2 Section 2 : Chapter 20