MEC 422 Thermal System Design

LECTURE 4

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Momentum equations (integral form)
NOTE ✓ The momentum equation is not invoked above
▪ For incompressible, can write the momentum equations as (MEC 364):

𝑦, 𝑣
𝜕𝐯 𝑢 𝑥
𝜌 + 𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝 + 𝛁 ∙ 𝜇 𝛁𝐯 + 𝛁𝐯 ∗ 𝐯 ≡ 𝑣 ,𝐱 ≡ 𝑦
𝜕𝑡
𝑥, 𝑢 𝑤 𝑧
Can rewrite as 𝑧, 𝑤

𝜕𝜌𝐯
+ 𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯𝐯 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝 + 𝛁 ∙ 𝜇 𝛁𝐯
𝜕𝑡
𝜌 = density, 𝐯 = velocity vector, 𝑡 =time,
∗
𝑝 = pressure, 𝜇 = dynamic viscosity, 𝐠 = vector of the acceleration due to gravity ≡ 𝑔𝑥 𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁 ≡ 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑧 𝐤
∗
∙ ⟹ transpose of ∙
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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Momentum equations (integral form)
▪ Integrate over volume, towards obtaining the integral form:
𝜕𝜌𝐯
ම 𝑑 Vol + ම 𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯𝐯 𝑑 Vol = ම 𝜌𝐠 𝑑 Vol − ම 𝛁𝑝 𝑑 Vol + ම 𝛁 ∙ 𝜇𝛁𝐯 𝑑 Vol
𝜕𝑡
Vol Vol Vol Vol Vol

▪ Write 𝐠 as ∇ 𝐠 ∙ 𝐱 , use divergence theorem.

𝜕𝜌𝐯
ම 𝑑 Vol + ඾ 𝐧 ∙ 𝜌𝐯𝐯 𝑑𝐴 = ඾ 𝜌 𝐠 ∙ 𝐱 𝐧 𝑑𝐴 − ඾ 𝑝𝐧 𝑑𝐴 + ඾ 𝐧 ∙ 𝜇𝛁𝐯 𝑑A
𝜕𝑡
Vol 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
(surface force) (surface force)

▪ Analogous to Bernoulli equation in 3D! – Not used much

3
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Momentum equations (integral form)

▪ Mostly for force calculations. (See below)

▪ Integral form of the total energy equation is more commonly used for other purposes

NOTE
𝜕𝜌𝐕 𝑚𝐕
ම 𝑑(Vol) = = 𝑚𝐚 = 𝐅(Force) ⟹So can use ‫𝐕𝜌𝜕(׮‬Τ𝜕𝑡) 𝑑(Vol) as (𝑑𝑚𝐕Τ𝑑𝑡) ≡ 𝐹 = Total Force
𝜕𝑡 𝑡
Vol

✓ The surface pressure and surface viscous terms are absent in Equation (2.22) (pp. 55) in the book

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
More on momentum balance (integral form)

1 𝑑 1 𝜕𝑚𝐕 1
෍𝐅 = 𝑚𝐕ቤ ≡ ቤ + ඾ 𝐕𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 if we neglect pressure and shear stress on the surface,
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑡 system
𝑔𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝑔𝑐 and note that the 𝐠 term is conservative

𝜕
▪ At steady state: 𝜕𝑡 = 0

1 𝑑 1 1 1
෍𝐅 = 𝑚𝐕ቤ = ඾ 𝐕𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ඾ 𝐕𝜌1 𝑉𝑛1 𝑑𝐴1 + ඾ 𝐕𝜌2 𝑉𝑛2 𝑑𝐴2
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑡 system
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

▪ Resolve into the three coordinate directions “𝑖:”

1 𝑉out 𝜌𝐴𝑉 out 𝑉in 𝜌𝐴𝑉 in 𝑚ሶ

෍ 𝐹𝑖 = ඾ 𝑉𝑖 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ቤ − ቤ ⟹ ∑𝐹𝑖 = 𝑉 − 𝑉in ቤ
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 out 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.9 (pp. 56)

𝑟 𝑉out in 𝑧 = 0 (wall), 𝑉in in 𝑧 = 15 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

Water 15 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑧 𝜋𝐷12 𝜋 1Τ12 2
ID = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝐴1 = = = 5.45 × 10−3 𝑓𝑡 2
4 4
𝜌𝐻2𝑂 = 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3

𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉in = 1.94 5.45 × 10−3 15 = 0.159 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑠

𝑚ሶ
∑𝐹𝑧 = 𝑉out − 𝑉in ቤ ⟹ −𝐹 = 0.159 0 − 15 = −2.38 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∙ 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 ∴ 𝐹 = 2.38 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑔𝑐 𝑧

NOTE ✓ There is no net force in 𝑟

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Energy equation (integral)
▪ Define
𝑢 = specific internal energy
2
𝑉 𝑒 = specific total energy specific
𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 ⟹ per unit mass
2 𝑔𝑧 = potential energy per unit mass
𝑉 2 Τ2 = kinetic energy per unit mass
Remark: Total energy (per unit mass) involves much more
Qu. What other energy types have we ignored?
kinetic
electrical
𝑒 potential sound
other light Assumed to be irrelevant to the study of
aerodynamics/fluid mechanics
nuclear
chemical
• internal
▪ Internal energy needs to be included for non-isothermal flow problems
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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Energy equation (integral)
(per unit volume) 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑(𝑘𝑒) + 𝑑(𝑝𝑒) + 𝑑(𝑢𝑒)
𝑑 𝑑(𝑝𝑒) 𝑑 𝑢𝑒
÷ 𝑡 ⟹ 𝜌𝛿 𝑞ሶ − 𝜌𝛿𝑤ሶ = 𝜌 𝑘𝑒 + 𝜌 +𝜌
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕 𝑉2 𝑝
ሶ ሶ ሶ ሶ
For the entire volume: 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊shear − 𝑊other = ම 𝜌𝑒 𝑑 Vol + ඾ + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑢 + 𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐧𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌
Vol 𝐴
Pump work, compressor, turbine, … ℎ: enthalpy 𝑑𝑚ሶ
𝑊ሶ 𝑓 (flow or pressure work rate) +𝑊ሶ 𝑣 (viscous work rate)
𝑑( )
NOTE ( ሶ) ⟹ 𝑊𝑓 = Flow work = work done by pressure forces on the
𝑑𝑡 surroundings, as fluid moves through space
✓ Check Fox and McDonald, text 𝑝2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑛2 𝑉2 ∆𝑡
for MEC 364, pp. 143 8th edition
Force Length
𝑝
𝑊ሶ 𝑓 = ∙ 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑛𝑉
𝜌
Vol
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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Efficiency, 𝜼 (Remember energy conservation?)
▪ Let us assume steady-state
▪ Rate of energy (power):

𝑝 𝑉2
𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ =ඵ 𝑢+ + + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴
𝜌 2
𝐶𝑆
Strictly 𝑑𝑚ሶ
𝑄ሶ external ℎ: enthalpy

① ②
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ = − 𝑢1 + + + 𝑔𝑧1 𝑚ሶ + 𝑢2 + + + 𝑔𝑧2 𝑚ሶ ≡ 𝑚ሶ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
∆𝐻
𝑊ሶ 𝐻1 𝐻2
Or (if 𝑄ሶ = 0):
𝑑𝑊
⟹− = 𝑚∆𝐻
ሶ = Fluid Power
NOTE 𝑑𝑡

✓ In this part of the course, we will assume isothermal flow ⟹ no internal energy addition
⟹ no temperature change ⟹ 𝑢2 = 𝑢1
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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Efficiency, 𝜼 (Remember energy conservation?)

▪ Efficiency
𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡 Power impacted to liquid 𝑚∆𝐻
ሶ
𝜂= = =
𝑑𝑊𝑎 /𝑑𝑡 Input power to the impeller −𝑑𝑊𝑎 /𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝜔

▪ Sometimes we write
∆𝐻 𝑑𝑊 ′
𝑔
𝐻′ = ⟹ − = 𝑚∆𝐻
ሶ
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑐

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.11, pp. 61 (pump)

𝑑𝑊
−
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.11 (continued)

…
…
12
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.11 (continued)

𝑑𝑊
−
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
−
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
− 13
𝑑𝑡
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.12, pp. 62 (turbine)

① Water
turbine

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.12 (continued)

① Water
turbine

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example 2.12 (continued)

① Water
turbine

Example 2.13, pp. 64 (FYI)

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example (See page 291) Qu. Calculate the efficiency of the pump

Torque, 𝑇 = 0.5 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓

Rotational speed, 𝜔 = 180 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Inlet pressure, 𝑝1 = 30 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑝2 Outlet pressure, 𝑝2 = 20 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑝1 Flow rate, 𝑄 = 6 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 13.4 × 10−3 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠

Height to inlet gage, 𝑧1 = 2 𝑓𝑡

Height to outlet gage, 𝑧2 = 3 𝑓𝑡

Inlet flow line, 𝐼𝐷 = 0.1723 𝑓𝑡 = 𝐷1

Outlet flow line, 𝑂𝐷 = 0.1342 𝑓𝑡 = 𝐷2

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example (continued)

𝑄 13.4
▪ Inlet velocity 𝑉1 = = = 0.573 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐴1 𝜋𝐷12 /4
𝑄 13.4
▪ Outlet velocity 𝑉2 = = = 0.945 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐴2 𝜋𝐷22 /4
𝑝2

𝑝1 2
′
𝑝1 𝑔𝑐 𝑉1 3 144 0.5732
𝐻1 = + + 𝑧1 = + + 2 = 8.92 𝑓𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 1.94(32.2) 2 32.2
𝐻2′ = 49.1 𝑓𝑡

∆𝐻′ = 𝐻2′ − 𝐻1′ = 49.1 − 8.92 = 40.2 𝑓𝑡

𝑎

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Basic Equations
Example (continued)

𝑑𝑊 𝑚𝑔 ሶ 𝜌𝑄𝑔 ′
− = 𝐻2′ − 𝐻1′ = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1′
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
𝑝2

𝑝1
= 1.94 0.0134 32.2 40.2 = 33.6 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑠

𝑑𝑊𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑣 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

− = 𝑇 × 𝜔 = 0.5 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓 × 180 ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣 60 𝑥

= 94.2 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑠

𝑎 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡 33.6
∴𝜂= = = 0.357
𝑑𝑊𝑎 /𝑑𝑡 94.2

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design

Chapter 3 Piping Systems I

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Pipe specifications (Table D.1 pp. 626)
▪ Pipes are specified by Nominal Diameter/Schedule Number For example, “2 nominal schedule 60”
▪ Nominal diameter ≠ inner diameter ≠ outer diameter

▪ Table gives
a) Outside diameter – fixed for all schedules
b) Schedule – related to the thickness of the pipe
The larger the schedule, the thicker the pipe

c) Flow area
✓ a) and b) determine inner diameter
…

21
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Pipe specifications (Table D.1 pp. 626)

NOTE

✓ Table is used to obtain the exact inner and outer

diameters (and flow area) – which are what you
really need to do your calculations

✓ To carry out your flow rate calculations, you need

the inner diameter of the pipe. However, when you
go to Home Depot, you don’t ask for the inner
diameter of a pipe. That’s too much detail to ask for.
They’ll probably not know what you are talking
about or they just give you the nominal diameter,
which is not the inner diameter.
…

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Pipe specifications (Table D.2 pp. 630) (Dimensions of Seamless Copper Tubing)

▪ Standard size (like nominal diameter)

✓ Type – like schedule

– have types K, L, M
Ex) 1/2-standard type K
▪ Types K, L, M specify wall thickness
✓ K: Underground thickness
✓ L: Interior plumbing
✓ M: Used with soldered fittings

▪ Table gives you the exact inside/outside

…

diameters and the flow area

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Pipe specifications (Table D.2 pp. 630)

▪ Seamless pipe = pipe without a seam or weld joint

▪ Tube/pipe:

Tube –

Pipe – , Accommodates a larger range of applications. Available from ½ in. to several feet.

NOTE ✓ Copper can be a tubing material or pipe material

✓ If used as a pipe, the dimensions must follow pipe specification
✓ One difference between pipe and tubing is that tubing has a thinner wall and cannot sustain high
fluid pressures that a pipe can

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Refrigeration tubing
▪ Specified same manner as copper water tubing
▪ It is usually made of a copper alloy
▪ Refrigeration tubing is ductile (can be bent by
hand), whereas copper water tubing is very rigid

Condenser tubes 3/4′′ and 1′′

▪ Tubes used in heat exchangers
▪ Specified as Tube OD (exact) and BWG
(Birmingham Wire Gauge) (10 < BWG < 18)
HOMEWORK
✓ Read attachment methods (pp. 80/81)

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Equivalent diameters for noncircular pipes (pp. 82)
▪ 3 types of equivalent diameters
A. Hydraulic radius, 𝑅ℎ ✓ Circular duct, diameter 𝐷
Area of flow 𝐴
𝑅ℎ = =
Wetted perimeter 𝑃
𝜋𝐷2 /4 𝐷
⟹ 𝑅ℎ = =
𝜋𝐷 4 Flow area (𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷2 /4) Perimeter (𝑃 = 𝜋𝐷)

B. Hydraulic diameter, 𝐷ℎ (used more widely than 𝑅ℎ )

4 × Area of flow 4𝐴
𝐷ℎ = =
Wetted perimeter 𝑃

▪ For a circular pipe (cross-section), ▪ For a rectangular pipe (cross-section),

𝐷 4( 𝜋𝐷2 Τ4) 4ℎ𝑤 2ℎ𝑤

𝐷ℎ = =𝐷 ℎ 𝐷ℎ = =
𝜋𝐷 2ℎ + 2𝑤 ℎ + 𝑤
𝑤 26
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Equivalent diameters for noncircular pipes (pp. 82)
Example: Annulus 4𝐴
𝐷 𝑎 𝐷annulus =
𝐷𝑡 𝑃
𝐷𝑎 = Outer tube inner diameter 𝜋𝐷𝑎2 𝜋𝐷𝑡2
=4 − ൗ 𝜋𝐷𝑎 + 𝜋𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝑡 = Inner tube outer diameter 4 4
= 𝐷𝑎 − 𝐷𝑡

Example: Shell and Tubes

Shell Flow 𝐷ℎ = 4𝐴/𝑃
𝐷𝑠 = shell inner diameter 𝜋𝐷𝑠2 𝑁𝜋𝐷𝑡2
𝐷𝑡 = tube outer diameter = − ൗ 𝑁𝜋𝐷𝑡 + 𝜋𝐷𝑠
4 4
𝑁 = number of tubes
= (𝐷𝑠2 − 𝑁𝐷𝑡2 )/ 4 𝐷𝑠 + 𝑁𝐷𝑡
𝑁 tubes

27
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
3 types of equivalent diameters (continued)
C. Effective diameter, 𝐷eff
▪ Diameter that gives the same area as a noncircular duct

2
ℎ 𝜋𝐷eff 4ℎ𝑤 ℎ𝑤
𝐴=ℎ×𝑤 = ⟹ 𝐷eff = =2
4 𝜋 𝜋
𝑤

▪ Concept of effective diameter comes from the need (desire) to satisfy mass conservation
(continuity equation)
2
𝜋𝐷eff
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉 = ℎ𝑤𝑉
4

28
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Example 3.1 (pp. 83)

…
29
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Example 3.1 (pp. 83)

30
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Example 3.1 (pp. 83)

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
More realistic problems
𝑓𝐿𝑒𝑞 /𝐷ℎ

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2 1 𝑑𝑊
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 − + + 𝑔𝑧2 − ∑ − ∑𝐾 ≡ ∆𝐻 =
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2 2 𝑚ሶ 𝑑𝑡
Frictional “Minor”
loss losses

▪ Most general form of the modified Bernoulli equation that we will use in this course

▪ In English units (pp. 247 text):

𝑝1 𝑔𝑐 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 − + + 𝑔𝑧2 − ∑ − ∑𝐾 =
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝐷ℎ 2 2 𝑚ሶ 𝑑𝑡

32
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
More realistic problems
▪ Reynold number
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = < 2,100 : laminar flow
𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜈

▪ Darcy-Weisbach friction factor

32𝜇𝑔𝑐 64𝜇𝑔𝑐 64
𝑓= = ⇒𝑓= : laminar flow circular duct
𝜌𝑉𝑅 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑅𝑒

𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝜀 Τ𝐷) : turbulent flow circular duct

𝜀: the roughness of the inside surface area
𝜀/𝐷: the relative roughness

33
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
More realistic problems
▪ A graph of the data to predict 𝑓 given 𝑅𝑒 and 𝜀/𝐷 is customarily known as the Moody diagram
Equations written to curve fit the Moody diagram
1.1098 −2
𝜀 5.0452 1 𝜀 5.8506
𝑓 = −2.0 log − log + 0.8981 : Chen equation (𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2100)
3.7065𝐷 𝑅𝑒 2.8257 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
12 1Τ12
8 1
𝑓=8 + : Churchill equation (𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2100)
𝑅𝑒 𝐵+𝐶 1.5
16 16
1 37530
where 𝐵 = 2.457 ln , 𝐶=
7Τ𝑅𝑒 0.9 + 0.27𝜀 Τ𝐷 𝑅𝑒

1.11 −2
6.9 𝜀
𝑓 = −0.782 ln + : Haaland equation
𝑅𝑒 3.7𝐷

0.250
𝑓= 2
: Swamee-Jain equation
𝜀 5.74
log 3.7𝐷 + 0.9
𝑅𝑒
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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Moody diagram constructed with Chen equation

35
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Modified pipe friction diagram

36
MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 4)

Piping Systems
Modified pipe friction diagram
▪ The roughness number

𝜀/𝐷 𝜀 Τ𝐷 𝜇𝑔𝑐
𝑅𝑜 = =
𝑅𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐷

For a circular duct,

𝑄 4𝑄
𝑉= =
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2

𝜋𝜀𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜀/𝐷
𝑅𝑜 = =
4𝜌𝑄 𝑅𝑒

37