02-09-2022

Free vibrations in strings

Reference: “Mechanical Vibrations”, S. S. Rao,

2011 (Chapter 8)

Outline
➢ Derive the governing equations by applying Newton’s
second law on the FBD of a very small element of the
system.
➢ Determine the free response:
▪ Use the method of separation of variables to simplify
the PDE into multiple ODEs.
▪ Apply boundary conditions to obtain the natural
frequencies and mode-shapes from the characteristic
equation
▪ Apply initial conditions to obtain the weights
assigned to each mode-shape

1
 02-09-2022

Governing equations
Differential element of a taut string
𝑧 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 Assumptions:
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 ▪ the transverse displacement
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) is small
𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑃 ▪ ignore damping
𝑤 𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤
𝑥 Properties:
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ▪ Mass per unit length: 𝜌
▪ Tension: P

External load:
▪ Transverse load per unit length:
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)

Governing equations
Differential element of a taut string
𝑧 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡) Things to note about tension
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃
in the string:
𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑃 ▪ It is the “restoring force” in the
𝑤 𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 string. What does this mean?
𝑥 ▪ It acts in the plane of the string.
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

2
 02-09-2022

Governing equations

Differential element of a taut string

𝑧 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃

𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝑃
𝑤 𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 𝜃
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 𝑃
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

Newton’s second law for this element (along z-direction):

𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 2
Recall: 𝜌 is mass per unit length

Governing equations
𝑧 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃

𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑃 For small 𝜃,
𝑤
𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 =
𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Applying Taylor’s series expansion for any function 𝑞:
𝜕𝑞 1 𝜕 2𝑞
𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 2 + ⋯
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤
sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) ≈ tan(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) ≈ + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

3
 02-09-2022

Governing equations
𝑧 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝜕𝑤
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 =
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤
𝜃 𝑑𝑠 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) ≈ tan(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) ≈ + 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤
𝑤
Apply these approx. to Newton’s
𝑥
second law for this element
𝑑𝑥
(along z-direction):
𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

Governing equations

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2 𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃+ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
Expand this out: neglect
𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝑤 2 𝜕𝑤
𝑃 + 𝑃 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2𝑤
= 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 2

Simplify and rearrange the terms:

𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

4
 02-09-2022

Governing equations

𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

Divide through by 𝑑𝑥:

𝜕 2 𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 2+ +𝑓 =𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

Can be written as:

𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 +𝑓 =𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

Governing equations: Uniform string

Differential element of a taut string 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤

𝑃 +𝑓 =𝜌
𝑧
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃
For uniform string (P is constant):
𝜃 𝑑𝑠 𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 𝑃 2 +𝑓 =𝜌
𝑤
𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Free Vibrations Zero external loading, that is, 𝑓 = 0 here.

Free vibrations of a uniform string are governed by:

𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 2 =𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2

5
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string

Free vibrations of a uniform string are governed by:

𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝑃 2 =𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
This equation can be rewritten in the form of a general “wave equation”:
𝜕 2𝑤 1 𝜕 2𝑤 𝑃
= where, 𝑐 = 𝜌
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

𝑃
This quantity 𝑐 = is known as the wave speed.
𝜌

Note that the wave speed depends on:

tension in the spring and its density (mass per unit length)

Free vibrations of a uniform string

𝜕 2𝑤 1 𝜕 2𝑤
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
This is a “partial differential equation” or PDE of 2nd order.
Highest derivative with respect to 𝑡 is of order 2. So we need to
specify two initial conditions.

𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤0 (𝑥) …… initial displacement

𝜕𝑤
𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥) …… initial velocity
𝜕𝑡

Unlike for discrete system, these initial conditions are functions of 𝑥.

(think of this physically. You cannot specify the initial conditions at just one or two points.
Instead, you will need to define the position of the entire string at t = 0.

6
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string

𝜕 2𝑤 1 𝜕 2𝑤
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Also, highest derivative with respect to 𝑥 is of order 2. So we need
to specify two boundary conditions.
𝜕𝑤
It can be either 𝑤 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐿, 𝑡 or 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐿, 𝑡 .
(The boundary conditions are independent of time, in general.
You could have exceptions in complex problems where boundary conditions change with time.
We will not consider those special cases).

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

𝜕 2𝑤 1 𝜕 2𝑤
= …. governing equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
This equation can be solved by the method of “separation of
variables” which will reduce the partial differential equation to
two ordinary differential equations (function of 𝑥 only) (function of 𝑡 only)
Step 1: Write 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) as a product of function 𝑊(𝑥) and 𝑇(𝑡):
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑊 𝑥 𝑇(𝑡)

Step 2: Substitute this form of solution into the governing equation:

𝑑2𝑊 𝑥 1 𝑑 2 𝑇(𝑡)
𝑇(𝑡) = 2 𝑊(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 2

7
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

Step 2: Substitute this form of solution into the governing equation:

𝑑2𝑊 𝑥 1 𝑑 2 𝑇(𝑡)
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑊(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑐2 𝑑𝑡 2

Step 3: Divide throughout by 𝑊𝑇:

𝑐 2 𝑑2𝑊 1 𝑑2𝑇
=
𝑊 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 2

We do not know what this value is.

But LHS is only a function of 𝑥 whereas RHS is a function of 𝑡 only.

This value must be a constant

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

Step 3: 𝑐 2 𝑑2 𝑊 1 𝑑2𝑇
= =𝑎
𝑊 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 2

Step 4: We now have two ODEs:

𝑑2𝑊 𝑎
2
− 2𝑊 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑐
𝑑2𝑇
− 𝑎𝑇 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
Three possible values for a: a=0, a <0, a >0

It is possible to show that only a < 0 will work

Since a<0, we can write 𝑎 = −𝜔2

8
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

Step 4: We now have two ODEs:

𝑑2 𝑊 𝜔2
+ 2𝑊=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑐
2
𝑑 𝑇
+ 𝜔2 𝑇 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝜑 𝑑2𝜑
Step 5: To solve + 𝑝2 𝜑 = 0 OR = −𝑝2 𝜑
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Try solution of the form: 𝜑 = 𝑒 ±𝑗𝑝𝑥

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

2
Step 5: General solution to the ODE of the form: 𝑑 𝜑
+ 𝑝2 𝜑 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
can therefore be written as:
ሚ +𝑗𝑝𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒
𝜑 = 𝐴𝑒 ෨ −𝑗𝑝𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝑝𝑥) + 𝐵 sin(𝑝𝑥)

Step 6: Now let’s get back to the ODEs in Step 4:

𝑑2 𝑊 𝜔2
+ 2𝑊=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑐
𝑑2𝑇
+ 𝜔2 𝑇 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
The solutions to these ODEs can therefore be written as:
𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑥
𝑊(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos + 𝐵 sin
𝑐 𝑐
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐷 sin 𝜔𝑡

9
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

Step 7: The solution as a function of 𝑥, 𝑡 is therefore given by:

𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑥
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑊 𝑥 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos + 𝐵 sin 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐷 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑐 𝑐

The constants A, B, C, D are to be determined from

the two initial conditions and two boundary conditions.

To look at the next steps, let us consider an example.

Say, we have the string fixed at the two ends:

𝑤 0, 𝑡 = 𝑊 0 𝑇 𝑡 = 0
𝑤 𝐿, 𝑡 = 𝑊 𝐿 𝑇 𝑡 = 0

This gives: 𝑊 0 = 0 and 𝑊 𝐿 = 0

Free vibrations of a uniform string: Separation of variables

For the string fixed at the two ends:

𝑤 0, 𝑡 = 𝑊 0 𝑇 𝑡 = 0
𝑤 𝐿, 𝑡 = 𝑊 𝐿 𝑇 𝑡 = 0

This gives: 𝑊 0 = 0 and 𝑊 𝐿 = 0 for all time 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑥
𝑊(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos + 𝐵 sin
𝑐 𝑐
𝑊 0 = 𝐴 cos 0 + 𝐵 sin 0 = 0 𝐴=0
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑊 𝐿 = 𝐴 cos + 𝐵 sin =0 𝐵 sin =0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝜔𝐿
sin =0
𝑐

10
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

𝜔𝐿
sin =0
𝑐
This equation is called the “Frequency Equation” or “Characteristic
Equation”. For discrete systems, what did Characteristic Eq. lead us to?

It is satisfied only for 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 such that:

𝜔𝑛 𝐿
= 𝑛𝜋 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … . ∞
𝑐
𝑛𝜋𝑐
𝜔𝑛 =
𝐿

These values of 𝜔 are called the eigenvalues or natural frequencies

(in this example, for the fixed-fixed string)

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

The displacement of the string, corresponding to nth natural

frequency is:
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑇𝑛 𝑡 = sin 𝐶𝑛 cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

This is the “nth mode of vibration” or “nth harmonic” or

“nth normal mode” of the string.

11
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

Let us take a careful look at the solutions to the characteristic equation.

𝜔𝐿
sin = 0 “Characteristic Equation” for Fixed-Fixed string
𝑐
𝑛𝜋𝑐
Satisfied only for: 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 = for 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … . ∞
𝐿

Note that there are INFINITE number of natural frequencies for this
system. Compare this to a Single-DOF system – which has only one
natural frequency. For N-DOF discrete system, we observed N natural
frequencies.
This is true in general:
Continuous systems have INFINITE natural frequencies of vibration.

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

The displacement of the string, corresponding to nth natural frequency is:

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑇𝑛 𝑡 = sin 𝐶𝑛 cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑊𝑛 𝑥 = sin is the “nth mode of vibration” of the string.
𝐿

So, we will have INFINITE number of these Normal Modes of vibration

12
 02-09-2022

Orthogonality of normal modes: fixed-fixed string example

We can show that the normal modes of vibration of the fixed-fixed

string are orthogonal.
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑊𝑛 𝑥 = sin is the “nth mode”
𝐿
𝑚𝜋𝑥
𝑊𝑚 𝑥 = sin is the “mth mode”
𝐿

𝐿
න 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑊𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑚𝜋𝑥
= න sin sin 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐿 𝐿
1 𝐿 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜋𝑥 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜋𝑥
= න cos − cos 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝐿 𝐿

Orthogonality of normal modes: fixed-fixed string example

𝐿
න 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑊𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑚𝜋𝑥
= න sin sin 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐿 𝐿
1 𝐿 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜋𝑥 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜋𝑥
= න cos − cos 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝐿 𝐿

Case 1: If 𝑛 = 𝑚, we get
𝐿
1 𝐿 (2𝑚)𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
න 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑊𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 1 − cos 𝑑𝑥 = − 0 =
0 2 0 𝐿 2 2

Case 2: If 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚, we get
𝐿
1 𝐿 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜋𝑥 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜋𝑥
න 𝑊𝑛 𝑥 𝑊𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න cos − cos 𝑑𝑥 = 0
0 2 0 𝐿 𝐿

13
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑊𝑛 𝑥 = sin
𝐿
𝜋𝑥
sin
𝐿

2𝜋𝑥
sin
𝐿

3𝜋𝑥
sin
𝐿

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

The total displacement of the string is the superposition of all the modes:
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ sin 𝐶𝑛 cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
The values of 𝐶𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 are determined by the initial conditions.
If the initial displacement and velocity are specified as:
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤0 (𝑥) …… initial displacement
𝜕𝑤
𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥) …… initial velocity
𝜕𝑡

14
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

The total displacement of the string is the superposition of all the modes:
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ sin 𝐶𝑛 cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

The values of 𝐶𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 are determined by the initial conditions.

Consider the initial (t=0) displacement

𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤0 (𝑥) …… initial displacement
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑤 𝑥, 0 = ෍ 𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 0 = ෍ sin 𝐶𝑛 cos 0 + 𝐷𝑛 sin 0
𝐿
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
෍ 𝐶𝑛 sin = 𝑤0 (𝑥)
𝐿
𝑛=1

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

If the initial displacement and velocity are specified as:
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤0 (𝑥) …… initial displacement
𝜕𝑤
𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥) …… initial velocity
𝜕𝑡
Then, ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
෍ 𝐶𝑛 sin = 𝑤0 (𝑥) 𝐶𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 are Fourier sine
𝐿
𝑛=1
∞ Series expansions of 𝑤0 (𝑥)
𝑛𝜋𝑐 𝑛𝜋𝑥 and 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥)
෍ 𝐷𝑛 sin = 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥)
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑤0 (𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑥=0 𝐿
𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐷𝑛 = න 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝜋𝑐 𝑥=0 𝐿

15
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string: fixed-fixed string example

The total displacement of the string is the superposition of all the modes:
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑤𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ sin 𝐶𝑛 cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Here,
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐶𝑛 = න 𝑤0 (𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑥=0 𝐿
𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐷𝑛 = න 𝑤ሶ 0 (𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝜋𝑐 𝑥=0 𝐿

The total displacement can be seen as the superposition of modes.

It is therefore also called as the “MODAL SUPERPOSITION” method.

D’Alembert’s solution to wave equation

We can rewrite the total displacement of the string as:

∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑡
𝑤 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛 sin cos + 𝐷𝑛 sin sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

∞
𝐶𝑛 𝑛𝜋 (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) 𝐶𝑛 𝑛𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
=෍ sin + sin
2 𝐿 2 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝜋(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) 𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡)
+෍ cos − cos
2 𝐿 2 𝐿
𝑛=1

In general, functions of the form (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) and (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) satisfy

the wave equation.

16
 02-09-2022

Free vibrations of a uniform string

𝜕2𝑤 1 𝜕2𝑤
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Examples of other boundary conditions (other than fixed):

(at x=0, L)
Free to move along z-direction => cannot support transverse
load => z-component of transverse force is zero. Imagine
cutting the string very close to that boundary.

Example

If a string of length l, fixed at both ends, is given an initial transverse displacement

of h at x=l/3 and then released, determine its subsequent motion.

17
02-09-2022

18
 02-09-2022

Similar approach for longitudinal

vibrations in rods

19
 02-09-2022

These equations are similar to that we derived for string. Using the
separation of variables approach, we get:

20
02-09-2022

21