1.

Differentiate primary and secondary production, and give an example or description for
each.

The productivity of autotrophs, such as plants, is called primary production, while the
productivity of heterotrophs, such as animals, is called secondary production.

*The process of assimilation and fixation of inorganic carbon and other inorganic nutrients into
organic matter by autotrophs is called primary production.

*Secondary production is the rate of incorporation of biomass by heterotrophic, or consumers,

organisms through consumption of organic material and/or primary producers. The process
is driven by transference of organic material between different trophic levels.

• PRIMARY PRODUCTION is when new organic material is produced by the autotrophs in

an ecosystem.

• Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food like in terrestrial the vascular
plants through photosynthesis and respiration and the oceanic, the phytoplanktons also in
photosynthesis and nitrate fixation (Micronutrient iron)

• Examples of autotrophs are plants, lichens, algae, and phytoplanktons.

• PRIMARY PRODUCTION concerns autotrophs and is affected by water, temperature,

diversity (land), light, nutrients, and iron (water).

• SECONDARY PRODUCTION concerns heterotrophs and is affected by time (birth to

death).

• Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own food thus they acquire it by
ingesting other organisms to have energy.

• Examples are Carabao eats grass, the cheetah eats the deer

• SECONDARY PRODUCTION is the formation of biomass of heterotrophs over a period of

time.

• The higher the position on the food chain the less energy you will have.

• Example; Producer (grass)> Primary consumer=Higher energy (Grasshopper)> Secondary

consumer (Frog)> Tertiary consumer (Snake)> Quaternary consumer = Lower energy (Eagle)

2. Explain the nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is a series of events in which nitrogen passes through both living and non-
living organisms, including the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals, and microbes.
Nitrogen must change forms in order to proceed through the various stages of the cycle.

FIVE STEPS

Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-) - turns nitrogen to ammonia

Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-) - converts ammonia to nitrate

Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)

Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3) - conversion of organic nitrogen to

ammonia

Denitrification(NO3- to N2) - reduction of nitrate to nitrogen by anaerobic bacteria

3. What are the 6 major categories of organism interactions? Define each.

Competition (-/-) - uses the same limited resource and have a negative impact on each other

*Example- Plants

Different plant species produce various types of chemical substances that

discourage other plants of the same species from growing around them.
The competition between organisms is usually for space, nutrients, and
water around the plants.

Mutualism (+/+) - long-term, close association between two species both benefiting from each
other

*One example of a mutualistic relationship is that of the oxpecker (a kind of

bird) and the rhinoceros or zebra. ... The oxpeckers get food and the beasts
get pest control.

Amensalism (-/O)- one organism is inhibited or destroyed while the other organism remains
unaffected.

A prime example of amensalism is penicillin killing bacteria. The bread

mould penicillium secretes penicillin that ultimately kills bacteria.

Commensalism(+/O)- long-term, close association between two species, one benefits while
the other is unaffected

For example, orchids (examples of epiphytes) found in tropical rainforests

grow on the branches of trees in order to access light, but the presence of
the orchids does not affect the trees .

Predation Parasitism (+/-) - long-term, close association between two species, one benefits
while the other is harmed

*wolves hunting moose, owls hunting mice, or shrews hunting worms and insects .

Neutralism- (O/O)- both species unaffected.

*interaction between rainbow trout and dandelions living in a mountain valley.

· Why do most organisms live in the tropics?

The tropics have the most resources to support organisms of all trophic levels and
most lifestyles, allowing these resources to be shared among more species to survive.

The higher temperature causes higher rates of metabolism, ecological dynamics and
evolutionary processes, resulting in higher diversity.

4. What conclusions can you make based on this graph? (There will be another set of choices
to reveal what graph you will interpret).
5. Calculate the Simpson’s Diversity Index for the results of this ecological survey.

SPECIES NUMBER (n) n(n-1)

Wheat 5 20

Carrot 7 42

Cabbage 6 30

Broccoli 11 110

Tomato 7 42

Turnip 8 56

Potato 13 156

Pineapple 4 12

Onion 9 72

Garlic 3 6

Strawberry 2 2

Eggplant 5 20

Corn 2 2
 Watermelon 6 30

TOTAL (N) 88 Σn(n-1) = 600

Simpson’s Index Formula

D=Σn(n-1)/N(N-1)

=600/(88(87))

=600/7656

=0.08

Simpson’s Index of Diversity

1-D

=1-(0.08)

=0.92

· Simpson’s Diversity Index for the results of the ecological survey shown above is 0.92. This
means that there is a 92% chance of getting completely different organisms randomly,
which also indicates that the diversity within the area is high.

7. Define and give an example of phenotypic plasticity.

Phenotypic Plasticity

*is an adaptation strategy for surviving in variable environmental conditions. It is a

response to the environment that allows individual species to develop that allows
individual species to develop appropriate morphological or behavioral traits that fits
into the environment.

Example: Butterfly (Araschnia levana) may develop alternative color patterns on

their wings, depending on which situation they emerge from puppa.

-the ability of an individual's genotypes to produce different phenotypes when exposed

to different environmental conditions.

-changing the expression of traits(phenotype) based on the environment.

-ability to change the expression of genes to increase fitness in an environment.

 -is temporary or seasonal

-is a form/ kind of adaptation

Example: Water Flea ( Daphnia)

Daphnia that has perceived the presence of a predator and developed its defensive
morphology may not be faced with predation because the predator threat may have
disappeared in the meanwhile.

When there's predatory fish (or other predators) they can develop long spikes (for
protection) on their body to ward off predators, but this is not always beneficial as it
affects their ability to swim.

8. Choose 2 different types of aquatic ecosystem and differentiate the two in terms
ofabiotic and biotic components.

Aquatic Ecosystems Ocean Lake

Abiotic Factors It is a stagnant water body

The ocean is an abode to
smaller water bodies

Oceans are naturally Lakes can be natural or

formed man made

It is a saltwater source It is a freshwater source

 Coral reefs None

Biotic Factors The aquatic species in the

A large variety of aquatic lakes are even smaller such
species are found here. For as ducks, fishes.
example, octopus, sharks,
giant squid, and whales

Not a home for amphibians Can sustain amphibians

Most flora is found floating

Most flora is found on water like water lilies
underneath like seaweed
and seagrass

9. Find the allele frequencies and genotype frequencies in the problem. Is there
aprobability that this population is evolving?

Note: In order to know if a certain population is evolving or not, the allele frequency of the
preceding generation must be compared to the next generation. So there is a need to execute
the Hardy Weinberg Equation to predict the allele frequencies and genotype frequencies.

Sample Problem:
Preceding Generation:
Scale coloration of lizards has a complete dominance relationship where green scales are
dominant over blue scales. There are 1,024 individuals with the genotype GG, 512
individuals with the genotype Gg, and 64 individuals with the genotype gg.
Given:
GG= 1024 lizard individuals (homozygous
dominant) Gg= 512 lizard individuals (heterozygous)
gg= 64 lizard individuals (homozygous recessive)
Total number of population: 1609
So in order to find the two allele frequencies (G and g), the formula to be use is: p+q=1
Where: p= dominant allele (G)
q= recessive allele (g)
So there are only 2 possible genotypes that can be use, the dominant “GG” and recessive “gg”. In this
case let us use the value of the genotype “gg”. Get the ratio first. gg= 64/1609 = 0.04
So the calculated 0.04 is actually the q2, in the Hardy Weinberg Equation.
Square root it to calculate the q.
√q2= √0.04
q = 0.2 therefore, p
= 0.8
1
We can now generate the genotype frequencies by substituting the obtained allele frequencies in the
Hardy Weinberg Equation: 𝑝² + 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞² = 1
(0.8)2 + 2(0.8)(0.2) + (0.2)2 = 1
0.64 + 0.32 + 0.04 = 1
(GG) (Gg) (gg)
Next Generation:
The next generation of lizards has 1092 individuals with green scales and 108
individuals with blue scales.

Given: GG and Gg = 1092 lizards with green scales (dominant)

gg= 108 lizards with blue scales (recessive)
Total population: 1200
In this case we can use the value of “gg” to come up with the q. gg=
108/ 1200 = 0.09
√q2= √0.09
q = 0.3 therefore, p
= 0.7
1
We can now generate the genotype frequencies by substituting the obtained allele frequencies in the
Hardy Weinberg Equation: 𝑝² + 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞² = 1
(0.7)2 + 2(0.7)(0.3) + (0.3)2 = 1
0.49 + 0.42 + 0.09 = 1
(GG) (Gg) (gg)

By comparing the allele frequencies of the two generations we can conclude that the population is
evolving because the allele frequencies are not the same. In Hardy Weinberg principle the allele
frequencies must remain constant from one generation to another to conclude that a certain population
is not evolving.

Reference for more sample problems:

http://www.germanna.edu/wp-content/uploads/tutoring/handouts/Hardy-Weinberg-Equilibriu
m.pdf

10. The terms "species" and "population" can be mistakenly used. What is the difference
between the two?
 * A population is a group of organisms belonging to the same species that reside in the
same region. Within any particular area, there may be more than one population. A species
is a group of creatures with similar features that may live in a variety of environments.

Species

- similar to each other

- capable in exchanging genes

- represents single individual

Ex: Humans ( Homo sapiens ), moose ( Alces laces ), black bears ( Ursus americans ),
jack pines ( Pinus banksiana )

Population

- belong to a certain species

- living and interbreeds on same place at certain time

- group of individual of a particular species living on same place

- Penguins in Antartica

11. The word 'species' is vaguely defined in the current scientific landscape. Why is that?

A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce naturally and have newborns that
are both healthy and fertile, but a lot of species don't fit within this idea. Asexual organisms
have only one parent and can't have babies. In the wild, some organisms mix their DNA with
other species, forming genetic hybrids. These naturally existing wild rules make it hard to
define the concept of species in the current scientific landscape.

12. What is the difference between the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle?

Fast carbon cycle - occurs in the biosphere; the carbon cycle is faster among living
organisms, and it will only take within just years to complete.

Slow carbon cycle - occurs in the bio geosphere; rocks and sediments become carbon
reservoirs because the carbon cycle takes millions of years to complete, making it slower
compared to fast carbon cycle.
 *The slow carbon cycle follows the path of carbon through nonliving (abiotic) components
of ecosystems as carbon cycles through rocks and soils. ... On the other hand, the fast carbon
cycle follows the movement of carbon through living (biotic) components of an ecosystem. This
occurs faster because life moves more quickly.

13. How does carbon in the atmosphere make the seas salty?

* Rainwater becomes somewhat acidic as carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in it. When rain
falls on rocks, mineral salts are released, which separate into ions. These ions are carried by
runoff water and eventually make their way to the ocean.

Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, dissolves in the atmosphere, causing it to become
slightly acidic. Rain weathers rocks by releasing mineral salts that split into ions. These ions
are carried by runoff water and eventually end up in the ocean.

14. Give an example of a trophic cascade scenario.

Trophic Cascade: Effects of removal or addition of keystone species that

propagate through food webs across multiple trophic levels.

Trophic cascades are powerful indirect interactions that can control

entire ecosystems. Trophic cascades occur when predators limit the density
and/or behavior of their prey and thereby enhance survival of the next lower
trophic level.

It can happen that a single species, or just a few species, play a crucial role in
maintaining the structure of an ecological community and in determining the types and
numbers of various other species in the community. Such species are called keystone
species.

Example: Sea otter-kelp ecosystem of the rocky reefs of the Aleutian Islands in
the North Pacific Ocean

-The sea otter is a keystone species in this ecosystem, with sea urchins as its primary
food supply. Sea urchins feed on kelp, which is inversely proportional to the number
of sea urchins. When the sea otter population on the Commander Islands (the
westernmost of the Aleutian Islands) was nearly wiped out by human hunting in the
eighteenth century, the number of sea urchins grew to such proportions that the kelp
forests were decimated.

Scenario: The removal of wolves in North America has resulted in an increase in the
population of deers and a decrease in the population of plants eaten by the deers.
 Explanation: trophic cascade, is an ecological phenomena induced by changes in the
relative numbers of predator and prey along a food chain, often resulting in dramatic changes
in ecosystem structure and nutrient cycling.

16. Explain why there is a limit to trophic levels in an ecosystem.

- The number of trophic levels in an ecosystem is limited to three to four trophic levels.
This is due to the fact that as the trophic level progresses, the "quantity of energy flow"
reduces. The trophic level of an organism is then determined by the number of steps it
has traveled since the beginning of the chain.

17. How does human activity impact biodiversity in the context of production?

Human activity is one of the causes of the different changes in biodiversity. There are
human activities like pollution, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and such that can cause
various effects in the environment like climate change, soil erosion, and poor air quality which
will then affect biodiversity in the area.
Because of this human activity, the production in a biodiversity will also be affected by
executing different species and distracting production processes like photosynthesis,
interaction, and more in the biodiversity.
Deforestation and human destruction are one of the common and known human
activities. Deforestation may be beneficial as it provides materials used for construction and it
is also for industrialization, deforestation can bring a negative impact on the trees and other
plants, which is one of the primary producers. This can affect the process of photosynthesis
because of the removal and burning of trees.
Human activity is a threat to biodiversity in the context of production since it will affect
the living of species in a way that it will bring a negative impact that can change the different
biodiversity processes and interactions of species in an ecosystem. If human activity will
continuously affect biodiversity, the habitat or environment will be damaged and will cause a
decrease of population number rate of generation.

18. Why and how does evapotranspiration directly affect net primary production?

* Because it measures the availability of both water and solar energy, which are the
most crucial rate-limiting resources in photosynthesis, evapotranspiration has an
impact on net primary output. Evapotranspiration is a very valid and accurate
method for estimating the water requirements of actively developing plants. It also
has an impact on how productive a system is and what causes it to be more or less
productive. There is a lot of net primary production in a region with a lot of
evapotranspiring species.
e.g. The highest biodiversity and NPP of any terrestrial ecosystem are found in tropical
rainforests. Due to quick decomposition, plants in rainforests maintain continual high levels of
water and light (at canopy level), and nutrient supply is as high as achievable. Several layers
of plant development may be sustained since the light is powerful. Plants that have a lot of
water may get a lot more nutrients from their roots because they have a steady flow of water
from their roots. In order to maximize CO2 absorption without running out of water, they can
maintain stomata open throughout the day. If they need to cool down, they may do so with the
help of water. When temperatures are high and consistent, enzyme activity is stimulated at a
faster rate than when temperatures are low and fluctuating. On the other hand, such locations
where water is scarce are known as deserts. The lack of water in a desert, whether hot or cold,
prevents most plants from thriving and, as a result, productivity is insignificant.

19. What do we mean when we say that a soil has spatial and temporal heterogeneity?

-Temporal heterogeneity refers to the diversity in kind or arrangement of components in an

ecosystem across time while spatial heterogeneity is the diversity in kind or arrangement
of components across space

*Spatial heterogeneity has a mix of concentrations of multiple species of plants or animals

(biological), or of terrain formations (geological), or environmental characteristics (e.g.
rainfall, temperature, wind) filling its area.

*Temporal heterogeneity - describes the entire complex of interactions between abiotic

and biotic factors that relate time and resource use

20. Competition that occurs in an ecosystem can be described in multiple ways. Describe the 4
major types of competition.
• INTRASPECIFIC- within same species
Ex: male deer locking horns when competing for mates

Intraspecific competition is a competition between individuals from the same species

(conspecifics). The effect of competition with each individual within the species depends on
the type of competition that takes place

• INTERSPECIFIC- Between diff. species is a form of competition between different

species inhabiting the same ecological area

Ex. Lions and leopards that vie for similar prey and interspecific competition
between rice paddies with weeds growing in the field.

1. INTERFERENCE – Direct interaction (battle)

 Ex: large aphids defend feeding sites on cottonwood leaves by
ejecting smaller aphids from better sites

RESOURCE- competition with the available resources (who will get the better access
to the resources)

- No direct interaction
* two birds fighting over a fish.