Statistics

Introduction
Describing Data: Frequency Tables, Frequency Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape
Introduction to Statistics
BA HRM, BA CED, BA MFED & BA ME
Jamberi E. Mangarama
November 11, 2016
Moshi Co-operative University

Moshi, Tanzania
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Introduction
Goals
Understand why we study statistics
Explain what is meant by descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics
Distinguish between a qualitative variable and a

quantitative variable
Describe how a discrete variable is different from a

continuous variable
Scales of measurement.
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Introduction
What is meant by Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

presenting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical
data to assist in making more effective decisions.
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Introduction
Who Uses Statistics?
Statistical techniques are used extensively in

marketing, accounting, quality control, consumers,
professional sports people, hospital administrators,
educators, politicians, physicians, etc...
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Introduction
Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Methods of organizing, summarizing,

and presenting data in an informative way.
E.g. According to Consumer Reports, General Electric washing
machine owners in Moshi municipality reported 9 problems per
100 machines during 2010. The statistic 9 describes the
number of problems out of every 100 machines.
Inferential Statistics: A decision, estimate, prediction, or

generalization about a population, based on a sample. It
consists of methods of drawing conclusions about the
population based on information obtained from few events of
incidences (sample).
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Introduction
Population versus Sample
A population is a collection of all possible

individuals, objects, or measurements of interest
A sample is a portion , or part, of the population of

interest
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Introduction
Types of Data
Qualitative or Attribute data: Are data that cannot be

expressed in units of measurements. These data give
non-numerical information.
E.g. Gender, religious affiliation, type of automobile owned,
state of birth, eye color are examples.
Quantitative data: Are data that are measurable and can be

quantified in units of measurements. These data give
numerical information.Information is reported numerically. E.g.
Balance in your checking account, minutes remaining in class,
or number of children in a family, weight in kg, distance in km,
etc
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Introduction
Quantitative data classifications
Quantitative data can be classified as either discrete or

continuous.
Discrete data: can only assume certain values and there are
usually ’gaps’ between values.
E.g. the number of bedrooms in a house, or the number of
hammers sold at the local Home Depot (1,2,3,,etc).
Continuous data: can assume any value within a specified

range. E.g. The pressure in a tire, the weight of a pork chop,
or the height of students in a class, etc.
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Introduction
Goals
Organize qualitative data into a frequency table.
Present a frequency table as a bar chart or a pie chart.
Organize quantitative data into a frequency distribution.
Present a frequency distribution for quantitative data

using histograms, frequency polygons, and cumulative
frequency polygons.
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Introduction
Frequency Distribution Table
A frequency distribution is the organization of

raw data in table format, using classes and
frequency.
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Introduction
Example
The number of miles that the employees

of a large department store traveled to work each day
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Introduction
Example cont..
A frequency distribution to represent the above raw
data could be....
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Introduction
How to construct a grouped frequency distribution?
Choose between 5 and 20 classes (groups)

Sometimes statisticians use ”2 to the k” rule to
determine the number of classes
Classes should be mutually exclusive or
non-overlapping
Classes should be exhaustive
Choose classes of equal length as far as possible
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Introduction
”2 to the k” rule
Essentially we would look to construct k classes for

our frequency distribution, when the value of 2k first
exceeds the number of observations in our sample.
So, if we had a sample with 39 observations, we

would first consider constructing 6 classes, because
26 = 64, the first power of 2 with a value larger
than the sample size of 39
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Introduction
”2 to the k” rule cont..
A guide, not a dictator.

Strictly speaking the 2k rule is a guide, not a rule. If
the 2k rule suggests you need 6 classes, also consider
using 5 or 7 classes ... but certainly not 3 or 9.
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Introduction
Class width
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Introduction
Derived concepts
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Introduction
Example
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Derived concepts cont..
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Introduction
Graphic presentation of a Frequency Distribution
The three commonly used graphic forms are;

Histograms
Frequency polygons
Cumulative frequency distributions (ogive)
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Introduction
Histogram
A histogram is a graph that displays the data by

using contiguous vertical bars (unless the frequency
of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the
frequencies of the classes
The classes are marked on the horizontal axis and

the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class
frequencies are represented by the heights of the
bars.
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Introduction
Example
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Frequency polygon
A frequency polygon also shows the shape of a

distribution and is similar to a histogram.
It consists of line segments connecting the points

formed by the intersections of the class midpoints
and the class frequencies.
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)
The Ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative

frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Other types of graphs
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Introduction
Example
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Pie graph
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Introduction
Example
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Stem and Leaf Plots
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Introduction
Example
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Introduction
Example cont..
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Introduction
Goals
Calculate the arithmetic mean, weighted mean, median,

mode, and geometric mean.
Explain the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

disadvantages of each measure of location.
Identify the position of the mean, median, and mode for

both symmetric and skewed distributions.
Compute and interpret the range, mean deviation,

variance, and standard deviation.
Understand the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

disadvantages of each measure of dispersion.
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Introduction
In a nutshell
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Introduction
In plain and simple english
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Introduction
Measures of location
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Introduction
Measures of location cont..
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Introduction

The mean
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Introduction

The mean
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Introduction

The arithmetic mean
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Introduction

The geometric mean
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Introduction

The harmonic mean
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Introduction

The weighted mean
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Introduction

The median
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Introduction

The median (Ungrouped data)
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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

The median (Grouped data)
For a grouped data, the median is the middle

observation of a distribution of arranged
numerical data.
This value sometimes is denoted by x̃
If the distribution has a total frequency of n, we
must count n/2 items starting at either end.
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Introduction

The median (Grouped data) cont..
The median obtained by interpolation is given by;

n
−

cf
Q2 = LCB + 2 ×c
f
where;
LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the median

class
n =Number of items in the data
cf =Cumulative freq. before the median class
f =Freq. of the median class
c =Size of the median class interval 56 / 94
Introduction

The mode
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Introduction

The mode (grouped data)
For a grouped data, the mode is the observation

which occurs the most or with the highest
frequency.
This value sometimes is denoted by x̂
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Introduction

The mode (Grouped data) cont..
From a frequency distribution or histogram the

mode can be obtained from the formula;

∆1
X̂ = LCB + ×c
∆1 + ∆2
where;
LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the modal class
∆1 =Excess of modal frequency over frequency of next lower
class
∆2 =Excess of modal frequency over frequency of next higher
class
c =Size of the modal class interval
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Introduction
Dispersion
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Introduction
Measures of dispersion
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Introduction
Measures of dispersion cont..
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Introduction

The range
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Introduction

The range
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Introduction

The standard deviation
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Introduction

The standard deviation
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Introduction

The standard deviation (grouped data)
From a frequency distribution or histogram the

standard deviation can be obtained from the
formula; s
fi (xi − x̄)2
P
s=
n−1
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Introduction

The mean absolute deviation
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Introduction

The mean absolute deviation
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Introduction

The coefficient of variation
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Introduction

The coefficient of variation
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Introduction

Quartile deviation
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Introduction

Quartile deviation cont..
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Introduction

Quartile deviation
Although quartiles are not measures of dispersion, but they are

useful in computing quartile deviation.
Quartiles: Divides data into four sets (after ordering from
least to greatest)
Q1 Quartile 1 (Lower quartile)
Med Quartile 2 (Median)
Q3 Quartile 3 (Upper quartile)
InterQuartile Range: Middle 50% (falls between Q1 & Q3)
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Introduction

Quartile deviation..
The procedure for computing quartiles is the same

as for the median. In general, the quartiles are
computed by;
!
in
− cf
Qi = LCB + 4 ×c
fQi
where;
LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the i th quartile
n =Number of items in the data
cf =Cumulative freq. before the i th quartiles
fQi =Freq. of the i th quartile
c =Size of the i th quartile class interval 75 / 94
Introduction
Box and Whisker Plot
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Introduction
Box and Whisker Plot cont..
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
Skewness
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Introduction
Skewness cont..
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Introduction
Skewness cont..
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Introduction
Measures of skewness
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Introduction
Pearson’s coefficient
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Introduction
Pearson’s coefficient cont..
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Introduction
Quartile coefficient
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Introduction
Quartile coefficient cont..
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Introduction
Kurtosis
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Introduction
Kurtosis cont..
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Introduction
Kurtosis cont..
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Introduction
Kurtosis cont..
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Introduction
Measures of kurtosis
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Introduction
Measures of Kurtosis cont..
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Introduction
Summary of descriptive statistics
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Introduction

Describing Data: Frequency Tables, Frequency Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

November 11, 2016

Moshi Co-operative University

Understand why we study statistics

Explain what is meant by descriptive statistics and

Distinguish between a qualitative variable and a

Describe how a discrete variable is different from a

What is meant by Statistics

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

Who Uses Statistics?

Statistical techniques are used extensively in

Descriptive Statistics: Methods of organizing, summarizing,

Inferential Statistics: A decision, estimate, prediction, or

Population versus Sample

A population is a collection of all possible

A sample is a portion , or part, of the population of

Qualitative or Attribute data: Are data that cannot be

Quantitative data: Are data that are measurable and can be

Quantitative data classifications

Quantitative data can be classified as either discrete or

Continuous data: can assume any value within a specified

Organize qualitative data into a frequency table.

Present a frequency table as a bar chart or a pie chart.

Organize quantitative data into a frequency distribution.

Present a frequency distribution for quantitative data

Frequency Distribution Table

A frequency distribution is the organization of

The number of miles that the employees

How to construct a grouped frequency distribution?

Choose between 5 and 20 classes (groups)

Essentially we would look to construct k classes for

So, if we had a sample with 39 observations, we

”2 to the k” rule cont..

A guide, not a dictator.

Derived concepts cont..

Graphic presentation of a Frequency Distribution

The three commonly used graphic forms are;

A histogram is a graph that displays the data by

The classes are marked on the horizontal axis and

A frequency polygon also shows the shape of a

It consists of line segments connecting the points

Cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)

The Ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative

Other types of graphs

Stem and Leaf Plots

Calculate the arithmetic mean, weighted mean, median,

Explain the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

Identify the position of the mean, median, and mode for

Compute and interpret the range, mean deviation,

Understand the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

In plain and simple english

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..

Measures of location cont..