PE MODULE1

(Midterm)

LESSON 1: Introduction to Physical Education

The primary purpose of physical education is to develop in young people an understanding of the
positive impact an active lifestyle will have on their lives. The developmentally appropriate program also
provides a unique learning environment where affective, psychomotor and cognitive skills can be
developed. In addition, good health practices, sportsmanship, self-control, self-expression and the
opportunity for positive social interaction with peers are fostered. Research clearly shows that the active,
healthy child is more likely to be academically motivated and establish habits of behaviour that will
promote lives that are models of wellness.

Objective/s

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the meaning, importance and benefits of physical education.

2. Apply physical education in their everyday life.
3. Demonstrate understanding of physical education content and disciplinary concepts.

Content

Physical education is a course taught in school that focuses on developing physical fitness and the
ability to perform and enjoy day-to-day physical activities with ease. Kids also develop skills necessary to
participate in a wide range of activities, such as soccer, basketball, or swimming. Regular physical
education classes prepare kids to be physically and mentally active, fit, and healthy into adulthood. An
effective physical education program should include engaging lessons, trained P.E. teachers, adequate
instructional periods, and student evaluation.

Physical Education Curriculum

Physical education helps students develop physical skills and confidence. For example, elementary and
middle school curriculum includes activities that help kids obtain and improve skills, such as running,
catching, throwing, and striking, applicable to sports such as baseball, volleyball, or karate. Balancing
skills could be applied to dance or gymnastics.
High school curriculum should focus on lifetime sports skills like tennis or aerobic dance, with a secondary
emphasis on team sports.
Physical education develops fitness and fosters the desire for lifelong participation in physical activity.
High school curriculum prepares students to become highly proficient in one or more sport and/or fitness
activity of their choice.
Physical education classes teach the health benefits of regular exercise and healthy food choices along
with the risks of inactivity and poor diet. Students of all ages might be asked to dedicate themselves to
1
 making a few small improvements in diet and exercise for a period of six weeks. They would be expected
to journal about how they feel during the process and reflect on how these changes affect performance
and mood.
Physical education also helps students develop social skills. For example, team sports help them learn to
respect others, contribute to a team goal, and socialize as a productive member of a team.

Importance and Benefits of Physical Education

Quality physical education programs are needed to increase the physical competence, health related
fitness, self-responsibility and enjoyment of physical activity for all students so that they can be physically
active for a lifetime. Physical education programs can only provide these benefits if they are well-planned
and well-implemented.
1. Improved Physical Fitness: Improves children's muscular strength, flexibility, muscular endurance,
body composition and cardiovascular endurance.

2. Skill Development: Develops motor skills, which allow for safe, successful and satisfying participation
in physical activities.

3. Regular, Healthful Physical Activity: Provides a wide-range of developmentally appropriate activities

for all children.

4. Support of Other Subject Areas: Reinforces knowledge learned across the curriculum. Serves as a
lab for application of content in science, math and social studies.

5. Self-Discipline: Facilitates development of student responsibility for health and fitness.

6. Improved Judgment: Quality physical education can influence moral development. Students have the
opportunity to assume leadership, cooperate with others; question actions and regulations and accept
responsibility for their own behavior.

7. Stress Reduction: Physical activity becomes an outlet for releasing tension and anxiety, and facilitates
emotional stability and resilience.

8. Strengthened Peer Relationships: Physical education can be a major force in helping children
socialize with others successfully and provides opportunities to learn positive people skills. Especially
during late childhood and adolescence, being able to participate in dances, games and sports is an
important part of peer culture.

9. Improved Self-confidence and Self-esteem: Physical education instills a stronger sense of self-worth
in children based on their mastery of skills and concepts in physical activity. They can become more
confident, assertive, independent and self-controlled.

10. Experience Setting Goals: Physical education provides children the opportunity to set and strive for
personal, achievable goals.

2
Reasons why Physical Education is as important as Schoolwork

1. Enhances an individual’s ability to concentrate and maintain focus:

Several studies show that performing physical activities helps in enlarging the basal ganglia of the
brain. The Basal Ganglia is a part of the brain which is responsible to maintain an individual’s
capability to focus. In this current era students have several diversions in the form of technologies
(Television, tablets, PCs, Mobile phones), therefore, it is difficult for them to maintain focus. By
promoting physical education, school teachers can help them improve their concentration. Schools
often arrange physical games and exercises which require concentration. Thus, students are
promoted to take part in such activities along with their school work, so this will help in maintaining
their healthy body and minds.

2. Important in health growth and development: In today’s world, many school children eat unhealthy
foods. These may include the fries, soft drinks, pizzas and burgers. Consuming these on a regular
basis can lead to childhood obesity.

Physical education at school helps in preventing obesity and high blood pressure. Physical exercise
and activities will help them burn off their extra calories. If these calories are not burned off they will
be stored as fat. By doing physical exercises individuals use their extra calories to gain energy.

Plus, such activities play an important role in the healthy growth and development of bones and
cartilages. Bone strengthening exercises such as jumping are particularly important for school
children as such activities produce a force onto the bone that helps enhance its strength and growth.
While muscle strengthening exercises make muscles larger and stronger, they also help children
carry more weight and aid in protecting joints against injuries.
Being physically active makes the students energetic and strong which motivates them to take interest
in classroom activities. Exercises which help strengthen muscles include:

• Climbing Trees.
• Monkey bar exercises.
• Bike Riding.
• Push ups.
• Hula hooping.

A physically active student will also have a healthy heart. Any exercise which provides oxygen to the
muscles is called as an aerobic exercise. Such exercises are essential for a healthy heart. Research
shows that kids who perform aerobic exercises, two to three times a week for at least twenty minutes,
have a healthier heart as compared to those who don’t take part in physical education. Some of the
healthy aerobic exercises are:

• Playing Basketball.
• Playing Soccer.
• Jumping rope.

3
 3. Prevents sleep deprivation:
A complete night’s sleep is an essential component of a happy and healthy life. Those students who
take part in physical activities and exercise regularly have a tired and exhausted body which craves a
good night’s sleep.

Complete sleep makes kids more upright and attentive during lectures in classroom. Being attentive
will help prevent them from performing careless mistakes and will provide them energy to be helpful
towards teachers and their fellow students.

4. Helps in relieving stress and anxiety:

School life is hectic for every individual. Therefore, taking part in physical activities and education
allows students to relieve their academic stress and anxiety. Stress might be due to a fight with a
friend or a low grade despite of hard work. Stressed students are not able to concentrate and focus
on their academic performance if they are not allowed time to de-stress.

Physical activities give them an environment to breathe out their stress. By exercising and breathing
deeply, we provide extra air to our lungs which in turn provides more oxygen to the brain, this makes
the brain feel relaxed and stress free.

A physically active individual is more likely to be happy and healthy, which makes them a better
student in the classroom. They often feel proud and happy about themselves and are good towards
their fellow students.

5. Physical education makes an individual flexible and happy:

Balancing exercise and stretching, helps improve physical balance which decreases the chances of
injuries. Those students who make physical education as important as their school work become
more flexible in their routine life. Such activities make the body elastic and flexible. It allows an
individual to manage both a physical and mental workload. Scientific research reveals the fact that
physical education in school helps in improving the connections between neurons of the brain.
Healthy and well-connected neurons help improve the over-all thinking ability of students. Thus,
making them better students in classroom.

Many schools have made physical education an essential component of school curriculum and
students are promoted to maintain a healthy balance between their education and exercise. This is
due to the fact that those students who take part in physical activities have proved to be happier and
healthier than those students who spend all their time doing school education work. Such activities
help develop the blood circulation in an individual’s body. This helps in providing more oxygen to the
heart and brain and allows the body to maintain a balance between physical and mental health.

Synthesis/ Generalization

The benefits of physical education in schools are far-reaching, including both increased student physical
health and better academic performance. Conversely, a lack of physical activity among youth is known to
increase the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and more. By
promoting physical education (P.E.) in schools, educators are in a prime position to help students
establish life-long healthy behavior patterns and boost scholastic success.

4
 LESSON 2: Man and Its Scientific Perspective
The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit. In the pyramid of
life that organizes all of the elements of life into categories, organ systems are nested between an
organism and its organs. Organ systems are the groups of organs that are within an organism.

Objective/s

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Identify the major human body system and parts.

2. Learn the functions of these system.
3. Understand the importance of these system in our body.

Content

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Introduction to Human Skeletal System:

Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body. Together these
structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can be defined as the hard framework of human body
around which the entire body is built. Almost all the hard parts of human body are components of human
skeletal system. Joints are very important because they make the hard and rigid skeleton allow different
types of movements at different locations. If the skeleton were without joints, no movement would have
taken place and the significance of human body; no more than a stone.

5
Human Skeleton

Components of Human Skeleton

Human skeleton is composed of three main components; Bones, Associated cartilages and
Joints.

Bones
Bone is a tough and rigid form of connective tissue. It is the weight bearing organ of human body and it
is responsible for almost all strength of human skeleton.

Cartilages
Cartilage is also a form of connective tissue but is not as tough and rigid as bone. The main
difference in the cartilage and bone is the mineralization factor. Bones are highly mineralized with
calcium salts while cartilages are not.

Joints
Joints are important components of human skeleton because they make the human skeleton mobile. A
joint occurs between “two or more bones”, “bone and cartilage” and “Cartilage and cartilage”.

6
 Divisions of Human Skeleton
Human skeleton can be divided into two divisions.

1. Axial Skeleton
Axial skeleton forms the axis of human body. It consists of Skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage.

• Skull: Skull is that part of human skeleton that forms the bony framework of the head. It consists of
22 different bones that are divided into two groups: bones of cranium and bones of face.

• Vertebral Column: It is a flexible column of vertebrae, connecting the trunk of human body to the
skull and appendages. It is composed of 33 vertebrae which are divided into 5 regions: Cervical,
Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal.

• Rib Cage: It is a bony cage enclosing vital human organs formed by the sternum and ribs. There are
12 pairs of ribs that are divided into three groups: True ribs, False ribs, and Floating ribs

Axial Skeleton

2. Appendicular Skeleton
It is the skeleton of appendages of human body. It consists of Shoulder girdle, Skeleton of upper limb,
Pelvic girdle and Skeleton of lower limb.

• Shoulder Girdle: It attaches the upper limb to body trunk and is formed by two bones: clavicle and
scapula. Clavicle is a modified long bone and is subcutaneous throughout its position. It is also known
as the beauty bone. Scapula is a pear shaped flat bone that contains the glenoid fossa for the
formation of shoulder joint. It possesses three important processes: Spine of scapula, Acromion
process and Coracoid process.

• Skeleton of Upper limb: The skeleton of each upper limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are:
Humerus,Ulna, Radius, Carpals (8), Metacarpals (5), Phalanges (14).

7
 • Pelvic Girdle: There are two pelvic girdles (one for each lower limb) but unlike the pectoral girdles,
they are jointed with each other at symphysis pubis. Each pelvic girdle is a single bone in adults and
is made up of three components: Ileum, Ischium and Pubis.

• Skeleton of Lower limb: The skeleton of each lower limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are;
Femur, Tibia, Patella, Tarsals (7), Metatarsals (5), Phalanges (14).

Appendicular Skeleton

Functions of human skeleton

Human skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival of human beings.

1. Strength, support and shape: It gives strength, support and shape to the body. Without a hard and
rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright, and it will become just a bag of soft tissues
without any proper shape

2. Protection of delicate organs: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the skeleton protects inner soft but
vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks. Any damage to these organs can prove fatal,
therefore protective function of skeleton is very important

3. Leverage for movements: Bones of the human skeleton in all parts of body provide attachment to the
muscles. These muscles provide motor power for producing movements of body parts. In these
movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers of different types thus producing movements
according to the needs of the human body.

4. Production of red blood cells: Bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia have hemopoeitic activity
(blood cells production). These are the sites of production of new blood cells.

8
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscular system is the system of Human Body that provides motor power for all movements of body
parts. Muscular system is composed of special tissue called muscular tissue. Muscles have the ability to
contract actively to provide the force for movements of body parts. Muscular system is an important
system of human body because without it, life will completely stop. Muscles produce not only those
movements that are under the control of our will and that we can see and feel, but also those movements
that are responsible for activities like breathing, digestion of food, pumping of blood etc.

Muscles
Muscles are body tissues that provide the force for all body movements. They are made of special types
of cells.

Types of muscles
Muscles are basically of three types; Skeletal Muscles, Smooth Muscles and Cardiac Muscles.

1. Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles form most of the human body weight. They are under the control of human will and
all body movements occurring by our will are produced by skeletal muscles. They are called skeletal
muscles because they are almost always found attached to the skeleton and produce movements in
different parts of the skeleton.

9
2. Smooth Muscles
Smooth muscles form the soft body organs like stomach, intestine, blood vessels etc. They are not
under the will of human beings and are responsible for unconscious body activities like digestion of
food. They are called smooth muscles because when seen under the microscope, they do not have
any striation in contrast to the other two types of muscles.

3. Cardiac Muscles
Cardiac muscles are exclusively found in human heart and nowhere else. They are extremely strong
and powerful muscles. They are not under the control of human will and are involuntary. The pumping
of blood by human heart is because of the force provided by the contraction of cardiac muscles.

10
Functions of Muscular System:
Muscular system has the following important functions in human body;
1. Movements of body parts: Skeletal muscles are responsible for all voluntary movements of human
body parts. They provide the force by contracting actively at the expense of energy. In other words,
muscles are motors of body where chemical energy of food is converted into mechanical work.
2. Stability and posture: Skeletal muscles stabilize human skeleton and give a proper posture to
human beings. Some joints of human body are weak and they require the support of muscular system
to achieve stability. Skeletal muscles are very important for such joints.

3. Heat production: A large share of body’s energy is used by muscular system. As a result of high
metabolic rate, muscles produce great amount of heat in the body. Heat produced by muscles is very
important in cold climates.
4. Circulation: Cardiac muscles provide the main force for circulation of blood throughout human body.
The regular pumping of heat keeps the blood in motion and nutrients are readily available to every
tissue of human body.
5. Help in digestion: Smooth muscles of organs like stomach and intestine help the digestive system in
the process of digestion of food.

11
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• It is the system of respiratory passages, lungs and respiratory muscles of human body.

• It is responsible for exchange of gases between the human body and the surroundings. In the process
of exchange of gases, human body gains oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide.

• It is extremely important for human body because the process of respiration cannot be stropped even
for a few seconds. If the process of respiration stops even for a minute or two, the condition will
become serious and will ultimately end in death.

Two parts of Respiratory System

1. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT: Composed of the nose, the pharynx, and the larynx, the organs of
the upper respiratory tract are located outside the chest cavity, and bronchi.

2. LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT: Composed of the trachea, the lungs, and all segments of the
bronchial tree (including the alveoli), the organs of the lower respiratory tract are located inside the
chest cavity.

Components of the upper respiratory tract Nose and nasal cavity

• The most external organ, air is inhaled and exhaled through nose. It has different mechanisms for
cleaning and condensing the inhaled air
• Inside the nose, the sticky mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity traps dust particles, and tiny
hairs called cilia help move them to the nose to be sneezed or blown out.

Pharynx
• It is a five-inch long tube that starts near our nose and ends at our windpipe.
• The pharynx’s respiratory role is mainly to allow inhaled air entering the nasal cavity to make its
way to the respiratory tract.
• The muscular pharynx effectively forms the entry for the esophagus, or our “food canal,” and the
trachea, also known as our “windpipe.” For this reason, the pharynx is considered a part of both our
respiratory and digestive systems.
• Three regions of pharynx: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx

Larynx
• It is a tough, flexible segment of the respiratory tract connecting the pharynx to the trachea in the
neck.
• It plays a vital role in the respiratory tract by allowing air to pass through it while keeping food and
drink from blocking the airway.
• It is also the body’s “voice box” as it contains the vocal folds that produce the sounds of speech and
singing.

Components of the lower respiratory tract Lungs

• The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
• Lungs are the organs of human body where gaseous exchange take place. Human beings have
two lungs known as the right and left lungs.

12
 • Lungs are soft, spongy and very elastic.

Respiratory passages
• Trachea- is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs.
• Bronchi- are passageways that bring air in and out of the lungs
• Bronchioles- these are the passages through which air is directed from the nose and mouth to the
alveoli (air sacs) at the end of the respiratory tree, literally like the larger branches in the respiratory
system.
• Alveoli- are an important part of the respiratory system whose function it is to exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide molecules to and from the bloodstream.

Functions of Respiratory System

1. Gaseous exchange: Main function of respiratory system is gaseous exchange. Through respiratory
system new air is always brought into the body and used air is expelled out. In this way oxygen is
gained and carbon dioxide is lost by the body.

2. Excretion of carbon dioxide: Respiratory system is the major system for excretion of carbon dioxide
from the body. Carbon dioxide is produced as a result of metabolic break down of carbohydrates in
body and must be eliminated quickly. Carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs by blood and is lost from
the lungs through gaseous exchange with fresh air in lungs.

3. Oxygenation of blood: Oxygen is required by the body for breakdown of food and must be
continuously supplied for continuous supply of energy. Supply of oxygen is maintained by respiratory
system.

13
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Nervous system is the chief controlling and coordinating system of the body.
• It controls and regulates all voluntary and involuntary activities of human body.
• There are three characteristic properties of nervous system of human body: Sensitivity, Conductivity and
Responsiveness
• The structural and functional unit of nervous system is called neuron.

Divisions of Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Central nervous system includes brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Peripheral nervous system includes all the parts of nervous
system except brain and spinal cord. It is further divided into two components; Somatic nervous
system and Autonomic nervous system.
2.1 Somatic Nervous System: The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a division of the PNS that
includes all of the voluntary efferent neurons. The SNS is the only consciously controlled part of
the PNS and is responsible for stimulating skeletal muscles in the body.
2.2 Autonomic Nervous System: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS
that includes all of the involuntary efferent neurons. The ANS controls subconscious effectors
such as visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue.

Components of Nervous System Brain

• The brain is one of the most complex and magnificent organs in the human body.
• It gives us awareness of ourselves and of our environment, processing a constant stream of
sensory data.
• It controls our muscle movements, the secretions of our glands, and even our breathing and
internal temperature.
• Every creative thought, feeling, and plan is developed by our brain.
• The brain’s neurons record the memory of every event in our lives.

14
Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is a major component of the central nervous system (CNS) that forms the vital link
between the brain and most of the body.
• Its 31 spinal segments connect the CNS to the organs and tissues of the neck, torso, and limbs.
• The spinal cord also performs important processing functions to maintain balance and respond
quickly to stimuli.

Nerves
• Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that act as information
highways to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.
• Each axon is wrapped in a connective tissue sheath called the endoneurium. Individual axons of
the nerve are bundled into groups of axons called fascicles, wrapped in a sheath of connective
tissue called the perineurium.
• Many fascicles are wrapped together in another layer of connective tissue called the epineurium to
form a whole nerve. The wrapping of nerves with connective tissue helps to protect the axons and
to increase the speed of their communication within the body.

15
Functions Nervous System
1. Control of all body functions: Nervous system is the master system of human body. It
controls the activity of all other systems in such a way that all the systems collectively make
a human being. Without a controlling system, there is no concept of life because in such
case there will be no coordination between different body functions and they will all act
separately. Nervous system not only controls the voluntary functions of human body that
are directed by human will, but it also controls those functions that are below the level of
consciousness of human beings. Control of a function means that the intensity of that
function can be increased or decreased according to the demands of human body.

2. Coordination of different body organs: Nervous system not only produces coordination
between different systems, but also between different organs of a system. To form an
organ system, role of the component organs must also be coordinated. So nervous system
is not only important for formation of an organism by different organ systems, but also for
formation of a system by different organs of human body.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• Cardiovascular system means the system of heart and blood vessels of human
body.
• The term “cardiovascular” is a combination of two word; “Cardio” and “vascular”. The
term “cardio” is derived from “cardiac” meaning Heart and the term “vascular” means
blood vessels.
• It responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste
products throughout the body.

16
Components of Cardiovascular System Heart

• The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a closed fist that functions as the
body’s circulatory pump.
• It takes in deoxygenated blood through the veins and delivers it to the lungs for
oxygenation before pumping it into the various arteries (which provide oxygen and
nutrients to body tissues by transporting the blood throughout the body).
• The heart is located in the thoracic cavity medial to the lungs and posterior to the
sternum.
• The heart contains 4 chambers: the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left
ventricle.
• The heart wall is made of 3 layers: Epicardium, Myocardium and Endocardium.

Epicardium- It is the outermost layer of the heart wall and is just another name for the visceral
layer of the pericardium. Thus, the epicardium is a thin layer of serous membrane that helps to
lubricate and protect the outside of the heart

Myocardium- It is the muscular middle layer of the heart wall that contains the cardiac muscle
tissue. Myocardium makes up the majority of the thickness and mass of the heart wall and is the
part of the heart responsible for pumping blood.

Endocardium- It is the simple squamous endothelium layer that lines the inside of the heart. The
endocardium is very smooth and is responsible for keeping blood from sticking to the inside of the
heart and forming potentially deadly blood clots.

Blood Vessel

• Blood vessels are the body’s highways that allow blood to flow quickly and efficiently
from the heart to every region of the body and back again.
• The size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of blood that passes through
the vessel.
• All blood vessels contain a hollow area called the lumen through which blood is able
to flow.
• There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins.
17
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

Capillaries carries blood very close to the cells of the tissues of the body in order to exchange
gases, nutrients, and waste products.

Veins they rely on gravity, inertia, and the force of skeletal muscle contractions to help push
blood back to the heart. To facilitate the movement of blood, some veins contain many one-way
valves that prevent blood from flowing away from the heart.

Blood

• Blood is a specialized tissue of body that exists in fluid form.

• It transports many substances through the body and helps to maintain homeostasis
of nutrients, wastes, and gases.
• The average human body contains about 4 to 5 liters of blood.
• Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma.

Red Blood Cells - also known as erythrocytes, are by far the most common type of blood cell and make
up about 45% of blood volume.

White Blood Cells - also known as leukocytes, make up a very small percentage of the total number of
cells in the bloodstream, but have important functions in the body’s immune system.

Platelets - Also known as thrombocytes, platelets are small cell fragments responsible for the clotting of
blood and the formation of scabs.

Plasma - is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that makes up about 55% of the blood’s volume.
Plasma is a mixture of water, proteins, and dissolved substances.

18
Functions of Circulatory System

1. Transportation: The cardiovascular system transports blood to almost all of the body’s tissues. The
blood delivers essential nutrients and oxygen and removes wastes and carbon dioxide to be
processed or removed from the body. Hormones are transported throughout the body via the blood’s
liquid plasma.

2. Protection: The cardiovascular system protects the body through its white blood cells. White blood
cells clean up cellular debris and fight pathogens that have entered the body. Platelets and red blood
cells form scabs to seal wounds and prevent pathogens from entering the body and liquids from
leaking out. Blood also carries antibodies that provide specific immunity to pathogens that the body
has previously been exposed to or has been vaccinated against.

3. Regulation: The cardiovascular system is instrumental in the body’s ability to maintain homeostatic
control of several internal conditions. Blood vessels help maintain a stable body temperature by
controlling the blood flow to the surface of the skin.

Synthesis/ Generalization
Organ systems are groups of organs within the body that can be thought of as working together as a unit to
carry out specific tasks or functions within the body.

It should be kept in mind that these divisions are somewhat arbitrary as to which organs are included and
which are excluded. Skeletal muscles attached to bones are part of the muscular system, but the smooth
muscles around soft tissues are not. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, and serve to move the
bones, but bones are part of the skeletal system, not the muscular system.

It also bears remembering that no one organ system ever functions independently of the others. The
nervous system sends instructions to the muscular system as to when to move particular muscles. The
cardiovascular system delivers nutrients and removes wastes from the muscle fibers of the muscular
system to allow them to continue to function, etc. Dividing the human body into eleven organ systems is
simply a way for the human mind to organize information about what parts to function. In the body itself,
the parts that need to interact do interact, regardless of which system they have been grouped into.

19