Hand Out

CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspector
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
WIS5
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

WIS5-90516b
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector Course Objectives
 To understand factors which influence the quality of

fusion welds in steels.
 To recognise characteristics of commonly used welding
processes in relation to quality control.
 To interpret drawing instructions and symbols to ensure
Introduction that specifications are met.
 To set up and report on inspection of welds,
macrosections and other mechanical tests.
 To assess and report on welds to acceptance levels.
 To confirm that incoming material meets stipulated
requirements and recognise the effects on weld quality
of departure from specification.
 To be in a position to pass the Welding Inspector - Level
2 examinations.
The Course Course Contents
The CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector course  Roles and duties of a  Heat treatments.
provides an introduction to a wide range of Welding Inspector.  Weldability of steels.
topics related to Welding Inspection and Quality.  Welding defects.  Joint design.
 Mechanical testing.  Welding procedures.
 What does it contains?  Main welding  Welder qualification.
processes.  Stress and distortion.
 Welding symbols.  Macro examination.
 Non-destructive  Codes and standards.
testing.
 Welding consumables.
 Inspection reporting.
 Thermal cutting.
 Welding terminology.
 Welding safety.
0-1
Course Assessment CSWIP 3.1 Examination
 Exam after  No continuous Before attempting the examination, you MUST

completion of course assessment provide the following:
 Two passport size photographs, with your name

and signature on reverse side of both.
 Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near
vision and colour tests (N4.5 or Times Roman
numerals standard) and verified enrolment.
 Completed examination form, you can print from
the website www.twitraining.com
 It is the sole responsibility of the candidate to
provide the above. Failure to do so will delay
results and certification being issued.
CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination
Multiple Choice Examination  Any standard/code

required for the
 30 x General Multiple Choice Questions 45 Minutes examinations will be
provided on the
 60 x Technology Questions 90 Minutes
examination day.
 24 x Macroscopic Questions 45 Minutes
 20 x Plate Butt Questions 75 Minutes
 20 x Pipe Butt Questions 105 Minutes
Closed book exam
Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation
It is a mandatory
requirement to keep an
70% pass
mark
up to date log book as
documentary evidence
of your activities.
This will be required to

be presented to CSWIP
For every section to be after 5 years to prolong
awarded the certificate your qualification.
2 copies of certificates and an
identity card sent to delegates sponsor.
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CSWIP 3.1 - 10 Year Renewals CSWIP Certification Scheme
 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector.

 10 years Renewal  3.1 Welding Inspector.
examination.  3.2 Senior Welding Inspector.
 Welding Quality Control Coordinator.
 30 General multiple
choice questions.
For further information

 Assessment of a
please see website
welded sample.
www.cswip.com
CSWIP Certificate Scheme TWI Certification Ltd
CSWIP Secretariat
Certificate Scheme for Personnel
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park
Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 899000

Fax: + 44 (0) 1223 894219
E-mail: twicertification@twi.co.uk
Web : www.cswip.com
0-3
Duties of a WI Objectives
When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the
requirements of a Welding inspector before,
during, and after welding. Where he/she stands
in the hierarchy and the core competencies and
Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors skills required in his/her duties and obligations
to quality whilst trying to facilitate, and not hold
Section 1 up production.
Main Responsibilities Personal Attributes
 Code compliance. Important qualities that good Inspectors

are expected to have are:
 Workmanship control.  Honesty.
 Integrity.
 Documentation control.
 Knowledge.
 Good communicator.
Standard for Visual Inspection

Welding Inspection
Basic Requirements
BS EN ISO 17637 - Non-destructive examination Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)
of fusion welds - Visual examination.
Illumination:
 350 lux minimum required.
Welding Inspection Personnel should:  (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting).
 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and Vision access:

specifications applicable to the fabrication work  Eye should be within 600mm of the surface.
to be undertaken.  Viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less
 Be informed about the welding procedures to be than 30°.
used. 600mm
 Have good vision (which should be checked
every 12 months). 30°
1-1
Welding Inspection Welding Inspectors Equipment
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637) Measuring devices:

 Flexible tape, steel rule.
 When access is restricted may use:
 Temperature indicating crayons.
 A mirrored borescope.
 A fibre optic viewing system. }
usually by agreement
 Welding gauges.
 Voltmeter.
Other aids:  Ammeter.
 Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile,  Magnifying glass
fillet sizing, undercut depth).
 Torch/flash light.
 Dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges.  Gas flowmeter.
 Straight edges and measuring tapes.
 Magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should
have magnification between X2 to X5).
Welding Inspectors Gauges Welding Inspectors Equipment
5
6
Multi-meter capable of
measuring amperage
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4
and voltage.
TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges
Welding Inspection Duties of a Welding Inspector
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)  Before welding:

Extent of examination and when required should be  (before assembly).
defined in the application standard or by agreement  (after assembly).

between the contracting parties.
 During welding.
For high integrity fabrications inspection required  After welding.
throughout the fabrication process:
 Before welding.
 During welding.
 After welding.
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector
Before welding Before welding

Preparation:
Welding procedures:
Familiarisation with relevant documents…
 Are applicable to joints to be welded and
 Application standard/code - for visual acceptance approved.
requirements.  Are available to welders and inspectors.
 Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc.
 Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as Welder qualifications:
material handling, documentation control, storage  List of available qualified welders related to WPS’s.
and issue of welding consumables.  Certificates are valid and in-date.
 Quality Plan/Inspection and Test Plan/Inspection
Checklist - details of inspection requirements,
inspection procedures and records required.
Before welding Before welding
Equipment: Consumables:
 All inspection equipment is in good condition and  In accordance with WPS’s.
calibrated as necessary.  Are being controlled in accordance with procedure.
 All safety requirements are understood and
necessary equipment available. Weld preparations:
 Comply with WPS/drawing.
Materials:  Free from defects and contamination.
 Can be identified and related to test certificates.
 Are of correct dimensions. Welding equipment:
 Are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination).  In good order and calibrated as required by
procedure.
Before welding During welding
Fit-up Weather conditions

 Complies with WPS.  Suitable if site/field welding.
 Number/size of tack welds to code/good
workmanship. Welding process(es)
 In accordance with WPS.
Pre-heat
 If specified. Welder
 Minimum temperature complies with WPS.  Is approved to weld the joint.
 Pre-heat (if required).
 Minimum temperature as specified by WPS.
 Maximum interpass temperature as WPS.
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During welding During welding
Welding consumables Inter-run dressing

 In accordance with WPS.  In accordance with an approved method (and back
 In suitable condition. gouging) to good workmanship standard.
 Controlled issue and handling.  Distortion control.
 Welding is balanced and over-welding is avoided.
Welding parameters
 Current, voltage and travel speed – as WPS.
 Root runs.
 If possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up.
After welding After welding
Weld identification Repairs

 Identified/numbered as required.  Monitor repairs to ensure compliance with
 Is marked with welder’s identity. procedure PWHT.
 Monitor for compliance with procedure.
Visual inspection
 Check chart records confirm procedure compliance.
 Ensure weld is suitable for all NDT.
 Visually inspect and sentence to code
Pressure/load test
requirements.
 Ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated.
Dimensional survey  Monitor to ensure compliance with procedure.
 Ensure dimensions comply with code/drawing.  Ensure all records are available.
Other NDT
 Ensure all NDT is completed and reports available.
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector WI Duties Before Welding
After welding Resume:

 Check all documentation.
Documentation  Check all consumables.
 Ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings.  Check materials, dimensions and condition.
 Ensure all required documents are available.  Preheating, method and temperature.
 Collate/file documents for manufacturing records.  Check fit and set-up.
 Sign all documentation and forward it to QC  Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint.
department.  Check welding equipment.
1-4
WI Duties During Welding WI Duties After Welding
Resume: Resume:
 Check amperage, voltage, polarity.  Post cleaning.
 Ensure the correct technique, run sequence.  Visual inspection of completed welded joint.
 Check run out lengths, time lapses.  Check weld contour and width.
 Cleaning between passes.  PWHT.
 Interpass temperatures.  Dimensional accuracy.
 Consumable control.  Weld reports.
 Maintenance of records and reports.  Tie up with NDT.
 Monitor any repairs.
Summary of Duties Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure A Welding Inspector must:

all the welding and associated actions are carried
Observe
out in accordance with the specification and any
 To observe all relevant actions related to weld
applicable procedures. quality throughout production.
Record
 To record, or log all production inspection points
relevant to quality, including a final report showing
all identified imperfections.
Compare
 To compare all recorded information with the
acceptance criteria and any other relevant clauses
in the applied application standard.
Any Questions
?
Copyright © TWI Ltd
1-5
Terminology Objective

will have a greater understanding of typical
international language used in joint design and
compilation of welding documentation.
Welding Terminology and Definitions
Section 2
Welding Terminology and Definitions Welding Terminology and Definitions
What is a Weld? What is a Joint?
 A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals  The junction of members or the edges of

produced either by heating the materials to the members that are to be joined or have been
welding temperature, with or without the joined (AWS).
application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone (AWS).  A configuration of members (BS EN).
 A permanent union between materials caused by

heat, and or pressure BS EN.
Joint Terminology Butt Preparations
T Edge Cruciform
Square Edge Square Edge

Closed Butt Open Butt
Butt Lap Corner
2-1
Single Sided Butt Preparations Double Sided Butt Preparations
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker
materials, or when access form both sides is restricted. materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted.
Single-J Single-U Double-J Double-U
Single Bevel Single V Double-Bevel Double V
Joint Preparation Terminology Joint Preparation Terminology
Included angle Included angle

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Angle of Angle
bevel of
bevel
Land
Root
Radius
Root Gap Root Gap Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap Root Radius Root Face
Root Face Land
Root Gap
Single-V butt Single-U butt Single-J Butt Single Bevel Butt
Weld Terminology Welded Butt Joints
Fillet weld Edge weld Compound weld A butt welded butt joint
A fillet welded joint
Butt weld Plug weld Spot weld A compound welded butt joint
2-2
Welded T Joints Welded Lap Joints
A fillet welded lap joint

A fillet welded T joint
A spot welded lap joint

A butt welded T joint
A compound welded lap joint

A compound welded T joint
Welded Closed Corner Joints Weld Zone Terminology
Face
A B
A fillet welded closed corner joint
Weld
metal
A butt welded closed corner joint
Heat
Affected Weld
Zone Boundary
A compound welded closed corner joint

C D A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Root
Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology
Excess Weld width

Cap height
Excess Root
Penetration
2-3
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Toe Blend
Maximum Solid-liquid Boundary  Most codes quote the weld

Solid
Temperature weld 80° 6mm toes shall blend smoothly.
Grain growth zone
metal  This statement is not
Recrystallised zone quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Partially transformed zone
Poor weld toe interpretation.
Tempered zone
blend angle  The higher the toe blend
Unaffected base material angle the greater the
20° 3mm
amount of stress
concentration.
 The toe blend angle ideally
should be between 20-30°.
Improved weld
toe blend angle
Features to Consider Fillet Weld Profiles
Fillet welds - toe blend

Mitre fillet
Concave fillet
A concave profile is preferred for
joints subjected to fatigue
loading.
Convex fillet
Fillet Weld Leg Length Fillet Weld Features
Excess weld metal

Vertical
a leg
length
Design
b throat
a = Vertical leg length
b = Horizontal leg length
Horizontal
Note: The leg length should be approximately leg length
equal to the material thickness.
2-4
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features
a
b
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Fillet Weld Sizes
Calculating throat thickness from a known leg

length:
Design throat thickness = leg length x 0.7
 Question: The leg length is 14mm.

What is the design throat?
a
b
 Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm throat thickness.
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness
Fillet Weld Sizes Features to Consider
Calculating leg length from a known design

Throat Throat
throat thickness:
thickness thickness
is larger is smaller
Leg length = design throat thickness x 1.4
60° 120°
 Question: The design throat is 10mm.
What is the leg length?
 Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm leg length.

Fillet welds connecting parts with fusion faces with an
angle more than 120° or less than 60° should not use the
previous calculations.
2-5
Features to Consider Features to Consider
The design throat thickness of a flat or convex fillet Importance of fillet weld leg length size
weld connecting parts with the fusion faces which
form an angle between 600 and 1200 may be a b
calculated by multiplying the leg length by the
appropriate factors as given below:
Angle between fusion

Factor 4mm 8mm
faces in degrees
60 to 90 0.7
4mm 2mm
91 to 100 0.65
101 to 106 0.6
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds but the
107 to 113 0.55 effective throat thickness has been altered, reducing
114 to 120 0.5 considerably the strength of weld B.
Fillet Weld Sizes Fillet Weld Sizes
Importance of fillet weld leg length size Importance of fillet weld leg length size
6mm 4mm a 6mm b

4mm
a b
4mm 6mm
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = 8mm2 Area = 6 x 6 = 18mm2
Cross Sectional Area 2 2
The CSA of b is over double the area of a without
Question: How much larger is the CSA b comparable to a? the extra excess weld metal being added.
Features to Consider Joint Design and Weld Preparation
Effective Throat Thickness Bevel angle

a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness
Bevel angle must allow:

 Good access to the root.
 Manipulation of electrode to ensure sidewall
a s fusion.
Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW and SAW etc.
2-6
Joint Design and Weld Preparation Joint Design and Weld Preparation
Root face Root gap

Root face size set to: Root gap set to:
 Allow controlled root fusion.  Allow controlled root fusion.
 Reduce the risk of burn-  Reduce the risk of burn-
through. through.
Too large = burn-through Too small = lack of

Too small = burn-through Too large = lack of
root penetration
root penetration
Weld Preparation Weld Preparation
Terminology and typical dimensions: V joints Joint design/weld preparation to reduce

weld volumes
included angle
12 to 15°
bevel angle
35°
root gap For MMA welding of pipe joints

root face
> ~20mm (compound bevel)
55°
~5
Typical dimensions ~6mm °
Bevel angle 30 to 35°
Root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
Root gap ~2 to ~4mm For mechanised GMAW of
For double-V joint for SAW pipework
of thicker sections
Welding process impacts upon weld preparation Welding process impacts upon weld preparation
Arc welding EBW
MMA MAG
High heat input process allow a larger root face, less weld
metal required, less distortions, higher productivity.
If the gap is too big risk of possible burn-through, if gap is

too small risk of lack of penetration.
2-7
Weld Preparation Weld Preparations
Preparation method impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation
 Requires machining  Can be flame/plasma

slow and expensive. cut fast and cheap.
 Tight tolerance easier  Large tolerance set-
set-up. up can be difficult.
Weld Preparations Weld Preparations
Access impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation
Pipe weld preparation - one side access only!
for wall thickness up to 3mm

for wall thickness 3-20mm
for wall thickness over 20mm
Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation
Corner joints require offset Lap and square edge butt joints do not require
preparation.
offset
Bevel angle = 30° Included angle =

Danger of burn-through Easy set-up no risk
Included angle = 60° Bevel angle = 50°
difficult to set-up of burn-through
2-8
Type of parent material impacts upon weld preparation Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld preparation
To reduce distortions on stainless steels welds, reduce A single bevel groove requires a volume of weld metal
included angle and increase root face. proportional to the square of plate thickness
To avoid lack of side wall fusion problems aluminium Its lack of symmetry lead to distortions
require larger included angles than steel.
60º 70-90º
35-45º Reduce shrinkage by:
30º  Reducing weld volume.
 Using single pass welding.
Steel Aluminium
Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation
Reduce weld volume by: Reduce weld volume by:

Reduced included angle Increase root face
Reduced root gap Use double bevel weld prep
Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation
Reduce weld volume by: Reduce distortions by using an asymmetric V prep

Use U prep instead V prep instead of a symmetric V prep.
t/3
t
U prep better than V prep

Weld first into the deeper side after welding to half of
V prep better than U prep the depth, back gouge the root. Complete welding on
the shallow side first.
2-9
Welding position impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
60° Static loads - prohibited application of one sided

60° fillet weld.
30°
15°
PF symmetric preparation PC asymmetric preparation
If symmetric preparation is used in the PC position

the weld may spill out of the groove.
Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Static loads - equal throat T joints Static loads - equal throat T beams in bending
13mm
13mm
neutral axis neutral axis
60°
Weld area = 160mm2 Weld area = 90mm2 Normal fillet welds Deep penetration
fillet welds
 No preparation required.  Preparation required.
 Danger of lamellar  Reduced distortions. Lower neutral axis is more advantageous (also helps
tearing. to reduce residual distortions!)
Weld Preparation Welding Terminology
Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Dynamic loads - full vs. partial penetration welds

Any Questions
?
Cyclic load
Fillet welds Double bevel weld

Lack of penetration promotes cracking!
2-10
Welding Imperfections Objective

will have a greater understanding of the types of
defects during visual inspection. You should be
able to asses the defect against an acceptance
Welding Imperfections and criteria and accept or reject accordingly.
Materials Inspection
Section 3
Features to Consider Features to Consider
Butt welds - size Butt welds - toe blend
x
Weld cap width
Excess weld
metal height
Root bead width

Root
penetration
x x
Welding Defects Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration

a. Excessively thick root face.
Causes b. Too small a root gap.

 Too small a root gap.
 Arc too long.
 Wrong polarity.
 Electrode too large for joint preparation.
c. Misplaced welds.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.
3-1
Too large diameter

d. Power input too low. electrode.
Smaller (correct)
e. Arc (heat) input too low. diameter electrode.
Lack of sidewall fusion

due to arc deflection.
Parallel
magnetic
Deflection
field
of arc
Incomplete root fusion Root concavity
Causes Causes
 Too small a root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Arc too long.  Insufficient arc energy.
 Wrong polarity.  Excessive back purge TIG.
 Electrode too large for joint
preparation.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.
Excess root penetration Root undercut
Causes
 Excessive amperage during
welding of root. Causes
 Excessive root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Poor fit up.  Excessive arc energy.
 Excessive root grinding.  Small or no root face.
 Improper welding
technique.
3-2
Cap undercut
Overlap
Causes
 Excessive welding current.
 Welding speed too high.
 Excessive weave.
 Electrode too large.
Excess weld
metal
Lack of fusion Incompletely filled groove

and lack of side wall fusion
Causes
 Contaminated weld
preparation.
 Amperage too low.
 Amperage too high (welder Causes
increases speed of travel).  Insufficient weld metal
deposited.
 Improper welding technique.
Inter run incompletely filled groove Incompletely filled groove
Causes
 Insufficient weld metal deposited.
 Improper welding technique.
3-3
Gas pores/porosity Gas pores/porosity
Causes
 Excessive moisture in flux or preparation.
 Contaminated preparation.
 Low welding current.
 Arc length too long.
 Damaged electrode flux.
 Removal of gas shield.
Inclusions - slag Inclusions - slag
Causes
 Insufficient cleaning between passes. Causes
 Contaminated weld preparation.  Insufficient cleaning between passes.
 Welding over irregular profile.  Contaminated weld preparation.
 Incorrect welding speed.  Welding over irregular profile.
 Arc length too long.  Incorrect welding speed.
 Arc length too long.
Inclusions - tungsten Burn through
Causes
Contamination of weld caused by excessive current Causes
through electrode, tungsten touching weld metal or  Excessive amperage during welding of root.
parent metal during welding using the TIG welding  Excessive root grinding.
process.  Improper welding technique.
3-4
Spatter Arc strikes
Causes
 Electrode straying
onto parent metal.
 Electrode holder with
Causes poor insulation.
 Excessive arc energy.  Poor contact of earth
 Excessive arc length. clamp.
 Damp electrodes.
 Arc blow.
Mechanical damage Non-alignment of two abutting edges
Chisel
Chisel Marksmarks
Grinding marks
Chisel Marks
2mm
Also known as: Hi low, mismatch or misalignment.

Linear
Excess weld metal
height lowest plate to
highest point
50mm
3mm
3mm
Excess penetration lowest
plate to highest point Angular
Angular distortion
 Measure the distance to the edge of the plate (50mm).
 Use a straight edge (rule) to find the amount of
distortion then measure the space (3mm). 3mm
 This is reported as angular distortion 3mm in 50mm.
Angular misalignment measured in mm.
3-5
Any Questions
?
3-6
Destructive testing Objective

should be able to recognise a wide range of
mechanical tests and their purpose. You should
also be able to make calculations using
formulae and tables to determine various values
Destructive Testing of strength, toughness, hardness and ductility.
Section 4
Destructive Testing Definitions Destructive Tests
What is destructive testing? Destructive tests include:

3x
The destruction of a welded  Bend test. Toughness
(Charpy V
unit or by cutting out  Impact test. notch)
selected specimens from the
weld, is carried out to check  Tensile test. 2 x Ductile
the mechanical properties of  Hardness test. (Bend test)
the joint materials.
 Macro/micro
examination. 2 x Strength
They can be produced to (transverse
 Approve welding procedures (BS EN 15614). tensile)
 Approve welders (BS EN ISO 9606).

 Production quality control.
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests Definitions
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed Mechanical properties of metals are related to the
quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties of amount of deformation which metals can withstand
the joint.
under different circumstances of force application.
 Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
 Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).  Malleability.
 Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
 Ductility. Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
 Toughness.
The following mechanical tests have no units and are under static compressive
termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality.  Hardness. loading without rupture.
 Macro testing.  Tensile Strength.
 Bend testing.
 Fillet weld fracture testing.
 Butt weld nick-break testing.
4-1
Mechanical Test Samples Destructive Testing
Tensile specimens Welding procedure qualification testing

CTOD specimen
Top of fixed pipe
2 Typical positions for test
pieces and specimen
type position
 Macro + hardness. 5
Bend test 3
specimen  Transverse tensile. 2, 4
 Bend tests. 2, 4
Charpy  Charpy impact tests. 3
specimen
 Additional tests. 3
4
Fracture fillet specimen 5
Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing
Definition
 Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant
load.
Hardness Testing  There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness.
Hardness tests:
 Brinell.
 Vickers.
 Rockwell.
Hardness Testing Hardness Testing
Objectives: Usually the hardest region

 Measuring hardness in different areas of a 1.5 to 3mm
welded joint. Fusion
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold line or
HAZ
cracking and corrosion sensitivity. fusion
boundary
Information to be supplied on the test
report:
 Material type. Hardness test methods Typical designations
 Location of indentation.  Vickers 240 HV10
 Type of hardness test and load applied on the  Rockwell Rc 22
indenter.  Brinell 200 BHN-W
 Hardness value.
4-2
Vickers Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test
Typical location of the indentations Vickers hardness tests:

 Indentation body is a square based diamond
pyramid (136° included angle).
 The average diagonal (d) of the impression is
Butt weld from
converted to a hardness number from a table.
one side only  It is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025.
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor
Butt weld from

both side
Vickers Hardness Test Machine Brinell Hardness Test
 Hardened steel ball of given diameter is

subjected for a given time to a given load.
 Load divided by area of indentation gives
Brinell hardness in kg/mm2.
 More suitable for on site hardness testing.
30KN
Ø=10mm
steel ball
Rockwell Hardness Test Portable Hardness Test
Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
 Dynamic and very portable hardness test.

Ø=1.6mm 120° diamond
 Accuracy depends on the the condition of the
steel ball cone
test/support surfaces and the support of the test
piece during the test.
 For more details, see ASTM E448.
4-3
Mechanical Testing Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Weld metal Fusion Line (FL) FL+2mm FL+5mm Parent material
Objectives:
Impact Testing  Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.
Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Material type.
 Notch type.
 Specimen size.
 Test temperature.
 Notch location.
 Impact strength value.
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen
Pendulum Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23

Specimen (striker)
Anvil (support)
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials.
Charpy Impact Test Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve

10 mm
22.5° 100% Brittle Mn < 1.6 % Temperature range
Ductile fracture
2 mm
Machined notch. increases toughness

in steels, and lower
energy input used. 47 Joules
Fracture surface
8 mm
100% bright
crystalline Transition range Ductile/Brittle
brittle fracture.
transition point
100% Ductile
Machined notch. 28 Joules
Large reduction
in area, shear Brittle fracture Energy absorbed
lips. - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Randomly torn,
dull gray Testing temperature - Degrees centigrade
fracture surface.
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
4-4
Comparison Charpy
Charpy Impact Test
Impact Test Results
Impact energy joules Reporting results
 Location and orientation of notch.
Room Temperature -20°C Temperature
 Testing temperature.
 Energy absorbed in joules.
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
 Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
 Location of any defects present.
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules  Dimensions of specimen.
Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20°C.
Mechanical Testing Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
UTS Tensile Test Tensile Tests
Rm
ReH
ReL
4-5
Tensile Test Tensile Tests
Rp 0.2% - Proof stress. Refers to materials Different tensile tests:

which do not have a defined yielding such as  Transverse tensile.
aluminium and some steels.  All-weld metal tensile test.
 Cruciform tensile test.
 Short tensile test (through thickness test).
Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test
All weld Metal

All-Weld metalTensile
tensile
specimen
Specimen
Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Transverse
TransverseTensile
tensile  Material type.
Specimen
specimen  Specimen type
 Specimen size (see QW-462.1).
 UTS.
 Location of final rupture.
Transverse Joint Tensile Test Transverse Tensile Test
Maximum load applied = 220 kN

Cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm
UTS = Maximum load applied

Weld on plate csa
UTS = 220 000

25mm X 12mm
Multiple cross joint specimens

UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Weld on pipe
4-6
Transverse Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reporting results: BS 709/BS EN 10002

 Type of specimen eg reduced section. All Weld Metal Tensile Testing
 Whether weld reinforcement is removed.
 Dimensions of test specimen. Direction of the test *
 The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, psi or
Mpa.
 Location of fracture.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.
Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Original gauge length = 50mm Gauge length
Increased gauge length = 64 Object of test:

 Ultimate tensile
strength.
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100  Yield strength.
Original gauge length  Elongation
%(ductility).
Elongation % = 14
X 100
50
Elongation = 28% Increased gauge length
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Two marks are made Two marks are made

Gauge length 50mm Gauge length 50mm
During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
Force Applied
Increased gauge length 75mm

Increased gauge length 75mm
A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%. A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.
4-7
STRA (Short Transverse
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reduction Area)
Reporting results:
 Type of specimen eg reduced section.
 Dimensions of test specimen.
 The UTS, yield strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
 Elongation %.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.
STRA Test UTS Calculation
A welded sample has undergone a transverse tensile test.

The specimen before testing 120mm long and after testing
had a length 150mm, the maximum load applied was
140Kn. The cross sectional area before testing was 10mm
in depth and 40mm in width.
Original CSA Please calculate the elongation % and UTS.

Change in
length (150 – 120) = 30
= 0.25 x 100 = 25%
Original 120
length
Reduced CSA Load 140 Kn 14,000 n

= 350 n/mm²
CSA 10 x 40 400
STRA Test Mechanical Testing
Probable freedom from

tearing in any joint type
Some risk in highly restrained

20 joints eg node joint, joints Macro/Micro Examination
between sub-fabs
STRA %
Some risk in moderately
Reduction 15 restrained joints eg box
of CSA columns
Some risk in lightly restrained

10 joints T-joints eg I-beams
4-8
Macro Preparation Macro Preparation
Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance  Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm
that: thick).
 Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on
 The weld has been made in accordance with the
both sides plus some unaffected base material.
WPS.
 One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes
 The weld is free from defects. 120 to ~400).
 Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs and all
HAZ.
 Prepared face examined at up to x10 (and usually
photographed for records).
 Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.
Macro Preparation Macro Preparation
Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ  A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically
in order to: up to ~20mm x 20mm).
 The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of
 To examine the microstructure.
interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size
 Identify the nature of a crack or other 600 or 800).
imperfection.  Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a
mirror finish.
 Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition
and then lightly etched.
 Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to
~100 – 1000X.
Macro/Micro Examination Macro/Micro Examination
Object: Will reveal:

 Macro/microscopic examinations are used to  Weld soundness.
give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a  Distribution of inclusions.
welded joint.  Number of weld passes.
 Carried out on full thickness specimens.  Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and
 The width of the specimen should include HAZ, HAZ.
weld and parent plate.  Location and depth of penetration of weld.
 They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a  Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions.
welders approval test.
4-9
Macro Macro/Micro Examination Metallographic Examination
Macro Micro
 Visual examination for  Visual examination for
defects. defects and grain
 Cut transverse from the structure.
weld.  Cut transverse from a
 Ground and polished weld.
P400 grit paper.  Ground and polished P1200
 Acid etch using 5-10% grit paper, 1µm paste.
nitric acid solution.  Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
 Wash and dry. acid solution.
 Visual evaluation under  Wash and dry.
5x magnification.  Visual evaluation under
 Report on results. 100-1000x magnification. Macro examination Micro examination
 Report on results.
Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination
Objectives: Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Detecting weld defects (macro).  Material type.
 Measuring grain size (micro).  Etching solution.
 Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.  Magnification.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold  Grain size.
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.  Location of examined area.
 Weld imperfections (macro).
 Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).
Mechanical Testing Bend Tests
Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing
can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone
ductility.
Bend Testing There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Root bend Face bend Side bend

Side bend tests are normally carried
out on welds over 12mm in thickness.
4-10
Bending Test Bending Test Methods
Types of bend test for welds

(acc BS EN ISO 5173+A1):
Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm Side bend

Guided bend test Wrap around bend test
Bend Testing Bend Tests
Face bend Side bend Root bend Reporting results:

 Thickness and dimensions of specimen.
 Direction of bend (root, face or side).
 Angle of bend (90°, 120°, 180°).
 Diameter of former (typical 4T).
 Appearance of joint after bending eg type and
location of any flaws.
Defect indication generally this
specimen would be unacceptable.
Acceptance for minor ruptures
on tension surface depends upon
code requirements.
Bend Testing Mechanical Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Testing
4-11
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Object of test: Hammer

 To break open the joint through the weld to
permit examination of the fracture surfaces.
 Specimens are cut to the required length.
 A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is 2mm
applied along the fillet welds length. notch
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer
2mm
notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has occurred
lack of fusion saw cut to root
Lack of penetration
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Hammer
Reporting results:
 Thickness of parent material.
 Throat thickness and leg lengths.
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration.
 Defects present on fracture surfaces.
This fracture indicates

lack of fusion
4-12
Mechanical Testing Nick-Break Test
Object of test:
 To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
 Specimens are cut transverse to the weld.
Nick-Break Testing  A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the welds root and cap.
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.
Nick-Break Test Nick-Break Test
Notch cut by hacksaw

3 mm
19 mm Alternative nick-break test
specimen, notch applied all
3 mm
way around the specimen
Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed Lack of root Inclusions on fracture
penetration or fusion line
Nick-Break Test Summary of Mechanical Testing
Reporting results: We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical

 Thickness of parent material. properties, and soundness of the welded joint
 Width of specimen.
We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative
methods:
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration. Quantitative: (Have Qualitative: (Have no
 Defects present on fracture surfaces. units) units)
 Hardness (VPN & BHN).  Macro tests.
 Toughness (Joules &  Bend tests.
ft.lbs).  Fillet weld fracture tests.
 Strength (N/mm2 & PSI,  Butt Nick break tests.
MPa).
 Ductility/Elongation (E%).
4-13
Hydrostatic Test Hydrostatic Test
Under pressure leakage proof test Test procedure:

 Blank off all openings with solid flanges.
Vessel configuration:  Use correct nuts and bolts, not G clamps.
 The test should be done after any stress relief.  Two pressure gauges on independent tapping
 Components that will not stand the pressure test points should be used.
(eg flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be  For safety purposes bleed all the air out.
removed.  Pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic
 The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C pressure stresses).
(preferably 15-20°C).
 Test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500,
ASME VIII). Usually 150% design pressure.
 Hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes.
Hydrostatic Test
What to look for:

 Leaks (check particularly around seams and
nozzle welds)!
Any Questions
 Dry off any condensation.
?
 Watch the gauges for pressure drop.
 Check for distortion of flange faces, etc.
4-14
Non Destructive Testing Objective

will have a greater understanding of and
recognise various NDT methods and their
differences ,capabilities and why one particular
method may be chosen based on the advantages
Non-Destructive Testing and disadvantages over other methods. Why we
choose or don’t choose a particular method for a
Section 5 certain material and the potential risks in safety
and production issues.
Non-Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working Surface crack detection

knowledge of NDT methods and their  Liquid penetrant (PT or dye-penetrant).
applications, advantages and  Magnetic particle inspection (MT or MPI).
disadvantages.
Volumetric inspection
Four basic NDT methods  Ultrasonics (UT).
1. Magnetic particle inspection (MT).  Radiography (RT).
2. Dye penetrant inspection (PT). Each technique has advantages and
3. Radiographic inspection (RT). disadvantages with respect to:
4. Ultrasonic inspection (UT).  Technical capability and cost.
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on
consideration of these advantages and disadvantages.
Penetrant Testing
Main features:
 Detection of surface breaking defects only.
 This test method uses the forces of capillary
action.
Penetrant Testing (PT)  Applicable on any material type, as long they are
non porous.
 Penetrants are available in many different types:
 Water washable contrast.
 Solvent removable contrast.
 Water washable fluorescent.
 Solvent removable fluorescent.
 Post-emulsifiable fluorescent.
5-1
Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing
Step 1: Pre-cleaning Step 2: Apply penetrant

 Ensure surface is very clean normally with the use of a  After the application, the penetrant is normally left on
solvent. the components surface for approximately 15-20
minutes (dwell time).
 The penetrant enters any defects that may be present
by capillary action.
Step 3: Clean off penetrant Step 3: Apply developer

 The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration  After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin
time (dwell time). layer of developer is applied.
 Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off  The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant
any defects present. and allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
Step 4: Inspection/development time Fluorescent penetrant

 Inspection should take place immediately after the Bleed out viewed under
developer has been applied. a UV-A light source
 any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
 After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning
is generally required.
Bleed out viewed

under white light Colour contrast Penetrant
5-2
Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with magnetic particle inspection

 Simple to use.  Surface breaking defect
 Inexpensive. only. Advantages
 Quick results.  Little indication of  Easy to interpret results.
 Can be used on any non- depths.  No power requirements.
porous material.  Penetrant may
 Portability. contaminate component.
 Relatively little training required.
 Low operator skill  Surface preparation  Can use on all materials.
required. critical.
 Post cleaning required. Disadvantages
 Potentially hazardous  Good surface finish needed.
chemicals.  Relatively slow.
 Can not test unlimited
 Chemicals - health and safety issue.
times.
 Temperature dependant.
Any Questions
?
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features: Collection

 Surface and slight sub-surface detection. of ink
 Relies on magnetization of component being tested. particles
 Only ferro-magnetic materials can be tested. due to
 A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being leakage
tested. field
 Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke,
permanent magnet, prods and flexible cables. Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
 Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test
area.
 Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will
create a leakage field, which attracts the particles.
 Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or
in the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
Prods DC or AC
green/yellow indication.
5-3
A crack like
indication
Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be

used for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A
light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect
the component.
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a Advantages Disadvantages

weld  Simple to use.  Surface or slight
 Clean area to be tested.  Inexpensive. sub-surface
 Apply contrast paint.  Rapid results. detection only.
 Apply magnetisism to the component.  Little surface  Magnetic materials
 Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component preparation required. only.
during magnatising.  No indication of
 Possible to inspect
 Iterpret the test area. through thin defects depths.
 Post clean and de-magnatise if required. coatings.  Only suitable for
linear defects.
 Detection is required
in two directions.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Comparison with penetrant testing
Advantages
Any Questions
?
 Much quicker than PT.
 Instant results.
 Can detect near-surface imperfections (by current
flow technique).
 Less surface preparation needed.
Disadvantages
 Only suitable for ferromagnetic materials.
 Electrical power for most techniques.
 May need to de-magnetise (machine components).
5-4
Ultrasonic Testing
Main features:
 Surface and sub-surface detection.
 This detection method uses high frequency sound
waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material.
 A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display.
 The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface
and back.
 An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect.
 For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen.
Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital Defect Back wall

signals A UT Set, Initial pulse echo echo
scan
display
Material Thk
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compression probe Checking the material Thickness Compression probe CRT Display
UT set
A scan Initial pulse
display
Defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
½ Skip CRT Display
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Angle probe
Full Skip CRT Display
5-5
Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with radiography

 Rapid results.  Trained and skilled
 Both surface and sub- operator required. Advantages
surface detection.  Requires high operator  Good for planar defects.
 Safe. skill.
 Good for thick sections.
 Capable of measuring the  Good surface finish
depth of defects. required.  Instant results.
 May be battery powered.  Defect identification.  Can use on complex joints.
 Portable.  Couplant may  Can automate.
contaminate.
 Very portable.
 No permanent record.
 Calibration required.
 No safety problems (parallel working is
 Ferritic Material (mostly).
possible).
 Low capital and running costs.
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with radiography
Disadvantages
Any Questions
?
 No permanent record (with standard
equipment).
 Not suitable for very thin joints <8mm.
 Reliant on operator interpretation.
 Not good for sizing porosity.
 Good/smooth surface profile needed.
 Not suitable for coarse grain materials (eg,
castings).
 Ferritic materials (with standard equipment).
Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography

 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object.
 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
Radiographic Testing (RT)
through which it is travelling.
 Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph.
 Thicker areas and materials of a greater density
show as lighter areas on a radiograph.
 Applicable to metals, non-metals and
composites.
5-6
Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing
Source
Image quality indicator

Radiation beam
X–rays Gamma rays

Electrically generated. Generated by the decay Test specimen
of unstable atoms. Radiographic film
Source Density - relates to the degree of darkness.

Image quality indicator
Radiation beam
Densitometer
Test specimen Contrast - relates to the degree of difference.

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness.
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph.
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Sensitivity
Step/hole type IQI
7FE12
Wire type IQI

Step/Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
5-7
Radiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

 Film inside, source outside.
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

 Film outside, source inside (internal exposure).
Film
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
 Film outside, source outside (external
exposure). Film
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

 Film outside, source outside (elliptical
IQI’s should be placed source side
exposure).
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Film
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.  Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 Source inside film outside (single exposure).  This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm.
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Identification
 Unique identification.
 IQI placing.
 Pitch marks indicating EN W10
readable film length.
A B
ID MR11
Radiograph
Radiograph
5-8
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
Identification
 Unique identification. 4 3
 IQI placing.
EN W10
 Pitch marks indicating
readable film length.
Film 1 2
 IQI’s are placed on the source or film side.
ID MR12
 Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 A minimum of two exposures.
 This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than Shot A Radiograph
100mm.
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Radiography
Penetrating power
4 3 Question: What determines the penetrating power

of an X-ray?
 The kilo-voltage applied (between anode and
cathode).
Question: What determines the penetrating power

of a gamma ray?
1 2  The type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma
rays).
Elliptical radiograph
Radiography Radiographic Testing
Gamma sources Advantages Disadvantages

 Permanent record.  Expensive consumables.
Isotope Typical thickness range  Little surface  Bulky equipment.
 Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used) preparation.  Harmful radiation.
 Cobalt 60 > 50mm  Defect identification.  Defect require significant
 No material type depth in relation to the
 Ytterbium < 10mm
limitation. radiation beam (not good
 Thulium < 10mm  Not so reliant upon for planar defects).
 Caesium < 10mm operator skill.  Slow results.
 Thin materials.  Very little indication of
depths.
 Access to both sides
required.
5-9
Comparison with ultrasonic examination Comparison with ultrasonic examination
Advantages Disadvantages
 Good for non-planar defects.  Health and safety hazard.
 Good for thin sections.  Not good for thick sections.
 Gives permanent record.  High capital and relatively high running costs.
 Easier for 2nd party interpretation.  Not good for planar defects.
 Can use on all material types.  X-ray sets not very portable.
 High productivity.  Requires access to both sides of weld.
 Direct image of imperfections.  Frequent replacement of gamma source needed
(half life).
Any Questions
?
5-10
WPS Objective

will have a greater understanding of the
terminology used in welding and welder
documentation and the order in which it should
be completed. This section does not state how to
Welding Procedures write a procedure to a code as this is the duty,
according to international standards as the role
Section 6 of a qualified Welding Engineer and not the role
of a WI. We will however discuss the contents of
WPQR and its associated documentation.
Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification
Question: What is the main reason for carrying According to EN ISO 15614
out a welding procedure qualification test?
(What is the test trying to show?) Preliminary welding procedure specification
Answer: To show that the welded joint has the (pWPS).
properties* that satisfy the design requirements
(fit for purpose).
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR).
Properties*
 Mechanical properties are the main interest - Welding procedure specification (WPS).
always strength but toughness hardness may
be important for some applications.
 Test also demonstrates that the weld can be
made without defects.
Preliminary welding procedure specification Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR)

(pWPS)  A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the
pWPS.
Welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding  A welding inspector records all the welding conditions
Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to used for the test weld (referred to as the as-run
be made. conditions).
 An independent examiner/examining body/third party
inspector may be requested to monitor the
qualification process.
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance

with the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard -
Visual, MT or PT and RT or UT.
6-1
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) Welding procedure specification (WPS)

Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,
macro). The application standard, or client, may require
The welding engineer writes qualified welding
additional tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for procedure specifications (WPS) for production
some materials - corrosion tests). welding.
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) details:

Production welding conditions must remain within
The welding conditions used for the test weld the range of qualification allowed by the WPQR.
 Results of the NDT.
 Results of the destructive tests.
 The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding.
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true

record.
According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding conditions are called welding variables. Welding essential variables
Welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
 Essential variables. Question: Why are some welding variables
 Non-essential variables. classified as essential?
 Additional variables.
Note: Additional variables = ASME supplementary essential. Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
certain limits (specified by the Welding Standard)
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential may have a significant effect on the properties*
variables*. of the joint.
(* and when applicable - the additional variables) * particularly joint strength and ductility.
According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding additional variables Some typical essential variables
 Welding process.
Question: Why are some welding variables
 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT).
classified as additional?
 Material type.
Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond  Electrode type, filler wire type (classification).
certain limits (specified by the welding standard)  Material thickness.
may have a significant effect on the toughness  Polarity (AC, DC+ve/DC-ve).
and/or hardness of the joint.  Pre-heat temperature.
Some typical additional variables
Note: ASME calls variables that affect toughness as
 Heat input.
supplementary essential variables (but does not refer to
hardness).  Welding position.
6-2
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
Producing a welding procedure involves: In most codes reference is made to how the
 Planning the tasks. procedure are to be devised and whether approval
of these procedures is required.
 Collecting the data.
 Writing a procedure for use of for trial. The approach used for procedure approval
 Making a test welds. depends on the code:
 Evaluating the results.
Example codes:
 Approving the procedure.
 AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code.
 Preparing the documentation.
 BS 2633: Class 1 Welding of Steel Pipe Work.
 API 1104: Welding of Pipelines.
 BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar.
Other codes may not specifically deal with the Components of a welding procedure
requirement of a procedure but may contain Parent material
information that may be used in writing a weld  Type (grouping).
procedure.  Thickness.
 Diameter (pipes).
 Surface condition.
EN 1011 Process of Arc Welding Steels.
Welding process
 Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW).
 Equipment parameters.
 Amps, volts, travel speed.
Welding consumables
 Type of consumable/diameter of consumable.
 Brand/classification.
 Heat treatments/storage.
Components of a welding procedure Object of a welding procedure test

Joint design To give maximum confidence that the welds
 Edge preparation. mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the
 Root gap, root face. requirements of the applicable code/specification.
 Jigging and tacking.
 Type of baking.
Welding Position Each welding procedure will show a range to which
 Location, shop or site. the procedure is approved (extent of approval).
 Welding position eg 1G, 2G, 3G etc.
 Any weather precaution.
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
Thermal heat treatments supplied to prove its validity.
 Preheat, temps.
 Post weld heat treatments eg stress relieving.
6-3
Purpose of a WPS
Example:  To achieve specific properties, mechanical
strength, corrosion resistance, composition.
Welding
 To ensure freedom from defects.
procedure
 To enforce QC procedures.
specification  To standardise on methods and costs.
(WPS)  To control production schedules.
 To form a record.
 Application standard or contract requirement.
Monitoring heat input PA 1G/1F Flat/Downhand

As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004 PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998.
PC 2G Horizontal
When impact and/or hardness requirements are PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)

specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld
PE 4G Overhead
in the highest heat input position and hardness
tests shall be taken from the weld in the lowest PF 3G/5G Vertical-Up
heat input position in order to qualify for all
PG 3G/5G Vertical-Down
positions.
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
Welding Procedures
Monitoring heat input

PG As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012
PA In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
PF  When impact requirements apply, the upper limit of
PB heat input qualified is 25% greater than that used in
welding the test piece.
PC
 When hardness requirements apply, the lower limit of
PD heat input qualified is 25% lower than that used in
welding the test piece.
PE  Heat input is calculated in accordance with EN1011-1.
 If welding procedure tests have been preformed at
both a high and low heat input level, then all
intermediate heat inputs are also qualified.
6-4
EN 288 PART 2 15614-1-2-3 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)

 Does not invalidate previous … approvals made to
former national standards… providing the intent of the
Specifies contents of WPS technical requirements is satisfied… approvals are
Shall give details of how a welding operation is to relevant.
be performed and contain all relevant information.  Where additional tests… make the approval technically
equivalent… only necessary to do the additional tests….
 Approval is valid… in workshops or sites under the same
Definitions technical and quality control of that manufacturer….
 Processes to be designated in accordance with  Service, material or manufacturing conditions may
ISO 4063. require more comprehensive testing….
 Welding positions in accordance with ISO 6947.  Application standard may require more testing.
 Typical WPS form.
Table 5 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Table 6 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
Thickness of Range of qualification Thickness of Range of qualification

test piece test piece Throat Thickness
Material
t Single run Multi run t Thickness Single run Multi run
t<3 0.7t to 2t t<3 0.75 a to No

0.7t to 1.3ta 0.7 to 2 t
1.5 a restriction
3<t<12 3 to 2ta
0.5t (3 min) to 1.3ta 0.5t (3 min) 0.75 a to No
3<t<30
to 2 t 1.5 a restriction
0.5t to 2t
12<t<100 0.5t to 1.1t
No
t>30 >5 a
50 to 2t restriction
t>100 Not applicable
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3) BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012

Covers arc, gas welding of steels, arc welding of (Replaced BS EN 288-3)
nickel and nickel alloys. Range of approval
111 - MMA 114 - FCAW - no gas shield

12 - SAW 131 - MIG Other quirks
135 - MAG 136 - FCAW - active gas  Approval valid only for process used.
311 – Oxy-Acetylene 141 – TIG  Multi-process - valid for order used…during
15 - Plasma Arc approval test.
 Processes… Processes may be approved
The principle of this European Standard may be separately or in combination….
applied to other fusion welding processes.  Cannot change multi-run to single run or vice
versa.
6-5
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Note 1:

(Replaced BS EN 288-3) a is the throat as used for the test piece.
Thickness definitions
Note 2:
 Butt: Parent metal thickness at the joint.
Where the fillet weld is qualified by means of a
 Fillet: Parent metal thickness. butt test, the throat thickness range qualified shall
 Set-on branch: Parent metal thickness. be based on the thickness of the deposited metal.
 Set-in/through branch: Parent metal thickness.
 T-butt: Parent metal thickness. For special applications only. Each fillet weld shall
For branch connections and fillet welds, the range of be proofed separately by a welding procedure test.
qualification shall be applied to both parent
materials independently.
Table 7 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
Diameter of the test piece Range of Qualification

Da, mm
0.5 D to 2 D Monitoring Heat Input

D<25
D>25 >0.5 D (25 mm min)
NOTE For structural hollow sections D is the dimension of

the smaller side
a D is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside
diameter of the branch pipe
Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input
Arc energy and heat input
6-6
Arc energy Heat input

The amount of heat generated in the welding arc  The energy supplied by the welding arc to the
per unit length of weld. Expressed in kilo Joules work piece.
per millimetre length of weld (kJ/mm).  Expressed in terms of; arc energy x thermal
efficiency factor.
 Arc energy (kJ/mm) = Volts x Amps.  Thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat
 Welding speed(mm/s) x 1000. energy introduced into the weld to the electrical
energy consumed by the arc.
Thermal efficiency factor k of welding processes Abbreviations and symbols

Process No Process Factor k
121 Submerged arc welding with wire 1.0 I Arc welding current (Amps)
111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrodes 0.8
131 MIG welding 0.8
k Thermal efficiency factor
135 MAG welding 0.8 v Welding speed (mm/min)
114 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding without gas shield 0.8
Q Heat input (kJ/mm)
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8
U Arc voltage (Volts)
137 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8
138 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8 Q= k U x I x 10-3 = kJ/mm or Amp x volts x time
v ROL x 1000
139 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8
141 TIG welding 0.6

15 Plasma arc welding 0.6
Example
A MAG weld is made and the following conditions
AE (kJ/mm) = Volts x amps
were recorded;
Travel speed(mm/ sec) x 1000
= 24 x 240
 Arc volts = 24
 Welding amperage = 240 (300/60) x 1000
 Travel speed = 300mm/minute. = 5760
5000
What is the arc energy and heat input?
AE = 1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm.
HI = 1.2 x 0.8 = 0.96kJ/mm.
6-7
Monitoring Arc Energy CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection
Amps Volts Time ROL Input

In secs In mm Kj/mm
110 26 60 100 = 1.7
220 28 90 200 = 2.8 Welder Approval

Example BS EN ISO 9606
120 12 120 90 = 1.9
300 28 60 300 = 1.7
180 12 120 90 = 2.8
110 26 60 300 = 0.57
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
BS EN ISO 9606 BS EN ISO 9606

Question: What is the main reason for qualifying An approved WPS should be available covering the
a welder? range of qualification required for the welder
approval.
Answer: To show that he has the skill to be able  The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved
to make production welds that are free from WPS.
defects.  A welding inspector monitors the welding to make
sure that the welder uses the conditions specified by
Note: When welding in accordance with a Qualified the WPS.
WPS. EN Welding Standard states that an Independent
Examiner, Examining Body or Third Party Inspector
may be required to monitor the qualification process.

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the The welder is allowed to make production welds within the
methods specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or range of qualification shown on the Certificate.
PT and RT or UT. The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
certain materials and/or welding processes specified by welder qualification essential variables.
the EN Standard or the Client Specification. A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if
 A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welder has not used the welding process for 6 months
the conditions used for the test weld and the range of or longer.
qualification allowed by the EN Standard for production A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is
welding. reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example:
 The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third  A high repair rate.
Party Inspector as a true record of the test.
 Not working in accordance with a qualified WPS.
6-8

Essential variables Typical Welder Essential Variables
 Welding Process.
Question: What is a welder qualification essential  Material type.
variable?  Electrode type – Filler Material Classification
(What makes the variable essential?)  Material thickness.
 Pipe diameter
Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond the  Welding position.
limits specified by the EN Standard, may require
more skill than has been demonstrated by the test  Weld Backing (an unbacked weld requires more
weld. skill).
Numerous codes and standards deal with Information that should be included on a
welder qualification, eg BS EN ISO 9606 welders test certificate are:
 Once the content of the procedure is approved the next  Welders name and identification number.
stage is to approve the welders to the approved  Date of test and expiry date of certificate.
procedure.  Standard/code eg BS EN ISO 9606.
 A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test  Test piece details.
(WQT).
 Welding process.
 Welding parameters, amps, volts.
Object of a welding qualification test:  Consumables, flux type and filler classification
 To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the details.
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
 The test weld should be carried out on the same
material and same conditions as for the production
welds.
Information that should be included on a The inspection of a welders qualification test

welders test certificate are:  It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from an
 Sketch of run sequence. independent body to witness the welding.
 Welding positions.  Under normal circumstances only one test weld per
 Joint configuration details. welder is permitted.
 Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc.  If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is not
 Test results, remarks. the fault of the welder eg faulty welding equipment
 Test location and witnessed by. then a re-test would be permitted.
 Extent (range) of approval.  The testing of the test weld is done in accordance
with the applicable code.
 It is not normal to carry out tests that test for the
mechanical properties of welds eg tensile, charpy
and hardness tests.
6-9
Welder Qualification
Any Questions
?
Example:
Welder
Approval
Qualification
Certification
6-10
Material Inspection Objective

should be able to identify key areas for visual
inspection of materials and how manufacturing
defects occur.
Material Inspection
Section 7
Material Inspection Pipe Inspection
All materials arriving on site should be Condition (corrosion, damage, wall thickness, ovality,
inspected for: laminations and seam)
 Size/dimensions.
 Condition.
 Type/specification.
Welded seam
In addition other elements may need to be
considered depending on the materials form or
shape. Specification
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of pipes and storage*.
Plate Inspection Rolling Imperfections
Condition (corrosion, mechanical damage, laps,

bands and laminations) Direction of rolling
Specification Cold Laps*
Other checks may need to be made such as: Lamination Segregation

distortion tolerance, number of plates and storage.
7-1
Parent Material Imperfections Lapping
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
Lapping Lapping
Lamination Lamination
Plate lamination
7-2
Any Questions
?
7-3
Codes and Standards Objective

will be able to acknowledge what is a code and
standard and recognise their purpose. You
should be able to identify some commonly used
ones by their unique numbers and for what they
Quality in Welding Codes and Standards are used for in industry.
Section 8
Quality in Welding Quality in Welding
Quality assurance manual Quality control manual

Essentially what the QA manual sets out to achieved The QC manual will be the manual most often
is the how the company is organised, to lay down referred to by the SWI as it will spell out in detail
the responsibilities and authority of the various how different departments and operations are
departments, how these departments interlink. The organised and controlled.
manual usually covers all aspects of the company
structure, not just those aspects of manufacture. Typical examples would be
 Production and control of drawings, how
materials and consumables are purchased, how
welding procedures are produced, etc.
 Essentially all operations to be carried out within
the organisation will have control procedures
laid down.
Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications
Specifications Codes Standard

A document that is established by consensus and
Examples: Examples: approved by a recognised body.
 Plate, pipe.  Pressure vessels.

A standard provides, for common and repeated use,
 Forgings, castings.  Bridges. guidelines, rules, and characteristics for activities or
their results, aimed at the achievement of the
 Valves.  Pipelines. optimum degree of order in a given context.
 Electrodes.  Tanks.
8-1
Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications
Specification Examples of specification

A document stating requirements, needs or
expectations. BS 4515
Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land
A specification could cover both physical and and offshore.
technical requirements ie Visual Inspection, NDT,
mechanical testing etc., essentially full data and its
BS EN 26848
supporting medium. Generally implied or
obligatory. Specification for tungsten electrodes for inert gas
shielded arc welding and for plasma cutting and
welding.
Standard/Codes/Specifications
Examples of standards
BS EN ISO 17637
Any Questions
?
Non - destructive examination of fusion welds -
visual examination.
BS EN 440
Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded
metal arc of non - alloy and fine grain steels.
8-2
Welding Symbols Objective

should be able to recognise the differences in
the international standards for symbols and be
able to break down each element of the
representation, on an engineering drawing.
Welding Symbols
Section 9
Weld Symbols on Drawings Weld Symbols on Drawings
Joints in drawings may be indicated: A method of transferring information from the design
office to the workshop is:
By detailed sketches, showing every dimension.
Please weld here
The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
By symbolic representation. of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.

Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Weld Symbols on Drawings Weld Symbols on Drawings
Advantages of symbolic representation: The symbolic representation includes:

 Simple and quick plotting on the drawing.  An arrow line.
 Does not over-burden the drawing.  A reference line.
 No need for additional view.  An elementary symbol.
 Gives all necessary indications regarding the
specific joint to be obtained. The elementary symbol may be completed
by:
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:  A supplementary symbol.
 Used only for usual joints.  A means of showing dimensions.
 Requires training for properly understanding of  Some complementary indications.
symbols.
9-1
Arrow Line Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4): (AWS A2.4)

Convention of the arrow line: Convention of the reference line:
 Shall touch the joint intersection.  Shall touch the arrow line.
 Shall not be parallel to the drawing.  Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.
 Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only

one plate has preparation).
Reference Line Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553) (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)

Convention of the reference line: Convention of the elementary symbols:
 Various categories of joints are characterised by an
 Shall touch the arrow line. elementary symbol.
 Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.  The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld,
 There shall be a further broken identification line single/double bevel butts and a J-butt welds must
above or beneath the reference line (Not necessary always be on the left side.
where the weld is symmetrical!). Weld type Sketch Symbol
Square edge
or
butt weld
Single-v
butt weld
Elementary Welding Symbols Elementary Welding Symbols
Weld type Sketch Symbol Weld type Sketch Symbol

Single-U
Single V butt
weld with broad butt weld.
root face.
Single-J
Single bevel butt weld.
butt weld.
Surfacing.
Single bevel butt
weld with broad
root face.
Fillet weld.
Backing run.
9-2
Double Side Weld Symbols Dimensions
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4) Convention of dimensions

Convention of the double side weld symbols: In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give
Representation of welds done from both sides of the on the right side.
joint intersection, touched by the arrow head. BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness.
Fillet weld Double bevel Double J s = Depth of penetration, throat thickness.
z = Leg length (min material thickness).
AWS A2.4
 In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length.
Double V Double U  In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the
depth of the joint preparation.
Supplementary Symbols Supplementary Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4) (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions. profile, NDT and any special instructions.
Ground flush Toes to be ground

Site Weld smoothly (BS EN only)
111
MR M
Removable Permanent Welding process Concave or Convex

backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN
Weld all round

Further supplementary information, such as WPS number,
or NDT may be placed in the fish tail.
Welding Symbols ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Reference lines
Arrow line
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Other side Arrow side
Arrow side Other side
9-3
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Other side
Arrow side
Arrow side Other side
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
a b
Both sides
c d
Both sides
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Mitre Convex Welding to be carried

Field weld (site weld)
out all round component
(peripheral weld)
NDT WPS
Toes The component Additional information,

Concave shall be requires NDT inspection the reference document
blended is included in the box
9-4
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Fillet Welds
Peripheral welds
Fillet weld dimensions according BS EN 22553.
z8
or
z8
8
z10 z8 a 5 (z 8)
or
10 8 a 5 (z 8)
5
10 8 8
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness. n = Number of weld elements.

s = Depth of penetration, throat l = Length of each weld element.
thickness. (e) = Distance between each weld element.
z = Leg length(min material
thickness).
a = (0.7 x z). n x l (e)
a4
a Welds to be
z s 4mm Design throat staggered
z6 s6 2 x 40 (50)
111
6mm Actual throat 3 x 40 (50)
6mm leg
Process
Intermittent Fillet Welds ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Staggered intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553

All dimensions in mm
pitch (e) length (l)
a z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
z 80 80 80
6
z n×l (e) a n×l (e)
z n×l (e) a n×l (e) 8 90 90
90
or
8
9-5
Intermittent Fillet Welds ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Chain intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553 All dimensions in mm

pitch (e) length (l) a z5 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
z 5
80 80 80
5
z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
6 90 90
or 90
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
MR
M
Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with

Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
permanent backing strip removable backing strip
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt

Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
s10 Square Butt weld

Plug weld
10
15 Resistance spot weld Steep flanked
Single-V Butt
Partial penetration single-V butt S

indicates the depth of penetration. Resistance seam weld Surfacing
9-6
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Butt Weld Example Butt Weld Example
1 Welded arrow side: Single-V 3 Welded arrow side: Single-V 10

M
butt weld with permanent butt weld depth of preparation
backing strip, flat weld profile. 10mm. Welded other side:
Backing run. (Plate thickness
15mm.)
4 Welded arrow side: Single-J 12
butt weld, depth of preparation 12

8
2 Welded other side: Single-U 12mm with a 8mm fillet weld
butt weld, flat weld profile. superimposed. (plate thickness
15mm. Welded other side:
12mm leg length fillet weld.
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

Compound Weld Example Compound Weld Example
Complete the symbol drawing for the welded cruciform Complete the symbol
joint provided below. All welds are welded with the MIG drawing for the welded z10
process and fillet welds with the MMA process. cruciform joint provided 30
below. All welds are welded 135/111
with the MAG process and 20
fillet welds with the MMA 7 10 z10
process.
7 10 20
35
35 20 30
15
30
15 z10 a 7
35
135/111
15
All fillet weld leg lengths 10mm z10 All fillet weld leg lengths 10mm
BS EN 22553 Rules BS EN 22553 Rules - Example
Welds this side of joint, go on the unbroken All leg lengths shall be preceded by z and throat
reference line while welds the other side of the by a or s (in case of deep penetration welds).
joint, go on the broken reference line.
Symbols with a vertical line component must be z 10 3 x 50 (50)
drawn with the vertical line to the left side of the
symbol.
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the
symbol. 50
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of
the symbol ie number of welds, length of welds, 50
length of any spaces.
10
Included angle and root opening are shown on top
of the symbol.
9-7
AWS Welding Symbols
Depth of bevel Root opening

AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
Groove angle
Effective throat
AWS Welding Symbols AWS Welding Symbols
Welding process
GSFCAW GSFCAW
1(1-1/8) 1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
Applicable to any
GMAW single groove weld
GTAW
Single bevel
SAW

Welds to be staggered
3 – 10 Sequence of operations 3rd operation

SMAW
3 – 10
2nd operation
Process
3 3 1st operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
10
9-8
Dimensions - Leg length
Sequence of operations RT
6 leg on member A
MT 6/8
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8) Member A 6
1/8
60°
8
Member B
Fillet Welds Intermittent Fillet Welds
Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4 Chain intermittent fillet weld
pitch (e) length (l)

8
8
z
5x8
5 leg on z l-e
vertical
z l-e
member
5
8
Symbol to AWS A2.4
Intermittent Fillet Welds AWS A 2.4 Rules
Staggered intermittent fillet weld Welds on arrow side of joint go underneath the
reference line while welds the other side of the
e/2 length (l) joint, go on top of the reference line.
pitch (e)
Symbols with a vertical line component must be
drawn with the vertical line to the left side of the
z symbol.
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the
symbol.
z l-e
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of
z l-e
the symbol ie number of welds, length of welds,
Symbol to AWS A2.4 length of any spaces.
Included angle and root opening are shown on top
of the symbol.
9-9
AWS A 2.4 Rules - Example
Any Questions
10 3 x 50 (70)
10
50
70
?
9-10
Welding Processes Objective

will have a greater understanding of the differences
in processes and their key characteristics and why
we choose one over another.
Introduction to Welding Processes
Section 10
Welding Processes Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which The four essential factors for fusion welding:
the work pieces are in atomic contact. 1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high
Pressure welding Fusion welding intensity heat source.
 Forge welding. 2. The welding process must be capable of removing
 Oxy-acetylene.
any oxide and contamination from the joint.
 Friction welding.  MMA (SMAW).
3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided.
 Resistance Welding.  MIG/MAG (GMAW).
4. The welded joint must possess the mechanical
 TIG (GTAW). properties required by the specification being
 Sub-arc (SAW). adapted.
 Electro-slag (ESW).
 Laser Beam (LBW).
 Electron-Beam (EBW).
Welding Processes Welding Processes
Choice of welding process Choice of welding process

Material Type: Joint properties
 Steels. All processes.  Very high quality. TIG and SAW.
 Reactive metals TIG and MIG.  Very demanding properties. TIG usually best.
(aluminium titanium). (for toughness and
 Nickel-based alloys All processes for most alloys. corrosion resistance).
 Copper-based alloys Mainly TIG and MIG.
Welding Position
Material Thickness:  MMA, TIG, MIG/MAG. All positions.
 MMA All above ~ 3mm.
 SAW. Mainly flat but is used
 TIG (low productivity) Generally thin sections (<~ 10mm).
for girth seams on
 MIG/MAG/FCAW Typically ~ 3 to 30mm. large diameter storage
 SAW Typically ~ 15 to 150mm or tanks.
above.
10-1
Welding Processes Welding Process Comparison
Non-fusion welding processes Process Electrical characteristic Electrode current type

MMA Drooping/constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
Friction welding
TIG Drooping/constant current DC-ve, AC
 Because no fusion - can join wide variety of
dissimilar materials. MIG/MAG Flat/constant voltage DC+ve
 Sound joints produced.
MAG FCAW Flat/constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,
 HAZ degradation minimised.
Sub-arc Drooping/constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
 Many variants being developed for different
>1000amp
shapes/applications. Flat/constant voltage
<1000amp
Electro-slag Flat/constant voltage DC+ve
Any Questions
?
10-2
Welding Processes Objective

will have a greater understanding of the differences
in processes and their key characteristics and why
we choose one over another.
Welding Processes and Equipment –
Power Source
Sections 11-14
Power Sources MMA - Principle of Operation
FILM MMA
Electrode angle 75-80°
to the horizontal
Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
Manual Metal Arc Welding Flux coating
Direction of
electrode travel
Solidified slag Arc Gaseous shield
Welding Process Film
Molten weld pool
Parent metal
Weld metal
MMA Welding MMA Basic Equipment
Main features:
 Shielding provided by decomposition of flux.
 Consumable electrode. Control panel Power source
 Manual process. (amps, volts)
Electrode Holding oven

Welder controls: oven
 Arc length.
Electrodes Inverter power
 Angle of electrode.
source
 Speed of travel.
Return lead
 Current setting. Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables
11-1
MMA Welding Variables MMA Welding Parameters
Open circuit voltage (OCV) Current

 Value of potential difference delivered by set  Range set by electrode, diameter, material type
with no load. Must be enough for specific and thickness.
electrode.  Approx 35A per mm diameter.
 Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually ~80V.  Too low – poor start, lack of fusion, slag
inclusions, humped bead shape.
Voltage  Too high – spatter, excess penetration,
 Measure arc voltage close to arc. undercut, burn-through.
 Variable with change in arc length.
 Too low, electrode stubs into weld pool. Polarity
 Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration,  Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC.
undercut, burn-through.  Determined by operation and electrode type.
Constant/Drooping
The Effects of Polarity on Penetration
Current Characteristics
DC + DC - AC
Amperage range
OCV
+/- 5 amps
50-90
70% 30% 50%
- Voltage +
Operational Heat Heat Heat

range 20-40V generated generated generated
30% 70% 50%
Dotted line denotes

- Amperage +
As arc length increases - + penetration depth
voltage increases and
= ion greater density (heavier = increased surface impact).
amperage decreases
= electron generates greater heat.
MMA Welding Parameters MMA – Parameter Setting
Travel speed Left to right

 Controlled by welder.  Good conditions.
 Often measured as run-out length as time to  Current too low.
burn single rod fairly standard at constant
current.  Current too high.
 Too low – wide bead, excess penetration, burn-  Arc length too short.
through.  Arc length too long.
 Too high – narrow bead, lack of penetration,  Travel too slow.
lack of fusion, difficult slag removal.  Travel too fast.
11-2
Operating Factor for MMA Typical Welding Defects
 Welder needs time to change electrodes. Most caused by:

 Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any  Lack of welder skill.
imperfections.  Incorrect settings of equipment.
 May be required to observe interpass  Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes.
temperatures.
 Inspection will be required. Typical defects:
 On long runs welder has to reposition.  Slag inclusions.
 Arc strikes.
 All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
 Porosity.
 Arc time % to total time is operating factor. For  Undercut.
MMA this is rarely above 30%.  Shape defects (overlap, excessive root
penetration, etc).
Advantages and Disadvantages MMA Welding Consumables
Advantages Disadvantages Plastic foil sealed cardboard box

 Field or shop use.  High welder skill.  Rutile electrodes.
 Range of  High levels of fume.  General purpose basic electrodes.
consumables.  Hydrogen control
 All positions. (flux). Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Tin can
 Portable.  Stop/start problems.  Cellulosic electrodes.
 Simple equipment.  Low productivity.

Vacuum sealed pack
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

 Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.
Cellulosic Electrodes Rutile Electrodes
 Use industrially extracted cellulose powder or  High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite).
wood flour in the formula.  Coatings often coloured.
 Characteristic smell when welding.  AWS type E6012 are DC: E6013 run on AC.
 Slag remains thin and friable.  Many designed for flat position.
 Strong arc action and deep penetration.  Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal.
 AWS E6010 types DC: E6011 run on AC.  Need some moisture to give gas shield.
 Gas shield principally hydrogen.  Not low hydrogen.
 Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.  Available for ferritic and austenitic steels.
 High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.  Fair mechanical properties.
11-3
Rutile High Recovery Electrodes Basic Electrodes
 High amount Fe powder added.  CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients.

 More weld metal laid at the same current.  AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC.
 Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.  Superseded by E7016 or E7018 – AC and DC.
 End of coating can rest on workpiece.  E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc.
 Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.  E7016 good rooting and all-positional.
 Only for flat position.  Both can give good mechanical properties.
 These AWS E7024 have recovery between 150  Often hybrid; small dia. no Fe powder, larger
and 180%. dia. increasing amounts.
 Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.  Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu.
BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:

 E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Covered electrode
Tensile strength 440-570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
Toughness
Tensile strength 470-600 N/mm2
Chemical composition  E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Flux covering Tensile strength 500-640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530-680 N/mm2
Welding position  E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560-720 N/mm2
AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables
E 60 1 3 TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
Covered electrode BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1

Tensile strength (p.s.i)  Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
Welding position
 Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Flux covering EXX13
 Rutile heavy coated E XX X RR EXX24
 Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
11-4
Any Questions
?
TIG Welding
TIG Basics Equipment for TIG
Film TIG
Gas nozzle Power control Transformer/
panel Rectifier
Non-consumable tungsten electrode
Power return
cable
Gas shield
Arc Inverter
Filler rod power source
Weld pool Torch
Weld metal assemblies Power
Parent metal control panel
Tungsten
electrodes Power cable
Flow-meter
Arc Starting Polarity
Scratch start DCEN

 Tungsten touched on workpiece.  Most used.
 Short-circuit starts current.  Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
 Arc established as torch lifted.  Workpiece receives more heat.
 Can leave tungsten inclusions.
DCEP
Lift Arc  Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
 Electronic control very low short-circuit current.  Heat tends to melt tungsten.
 Builds to operational current as torch lifted.  Can be done with water cooled torch.
HF AC
 Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.  Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.
11-5
Constant/Drooping Cathodic Cleaning
Current Characteristics Square Wave Maximum
AC
OCV Amperage range
50-90 +/- 5 amps
- Voltage +
Operational
range 20-40V
Cleaning cycle
70 70
- Amperage +
As arc length increases
30 30
voltage increases and
amperage decreases
Square Wave Maximum Penetration
AC
Penetrating Cycle
30 30
+
-
70 70
Polarity
Current DCEN AC DCEP

type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work
30% at electrode 50% at electrode 70% at electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
+ Cleaning action Yes – every Yes
Negative cycle Positive cycle No
half cycle
0
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
- capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)
11-6
Manual TIG Ideal for Root Runs
DC Arc AC Arc
GTAW Torch GTAW Torch
Torch types: Tungsten

electrode
Torch cap / tungsten Electrode
housing collet Collet
holder
Torch
body Ceramic
 Gas cooled: Cheap, simple, large size, short life nozzle
for component parts.
 Water cooled: Recommended over 150A, On/off
expensive, complex, longer life of parts. switch
11-7
TIG Welding Sequence Purpose of These Functions
3 4 5
1
2 4 2
1 5
1. Purges the line, protect weld area, improve ionization.

1. Slope
2.
3.
4.
5. Postwelding
Pre
Main gas
welding
up
down
supply
current
gas
current
current
to
supply
protect 2. Prevent thermal shock to tungsten electrode.
Timeline
molten pool
prevents burn
upon
craterthrough,
cooling
cracks 3. Main welding current.
tungsten inclusions 4. Prevents thermal shock and crater cracking.
5. Protects weld and tungsten electrode from contamination.
Shielding Gas Selection Gas Lens
Argon (Ar) He/Ar mixes Stainless steel

 Suitable for welding  Suitable for welding wire sieve
C-steel, stainless C-steel, stainless
Thread for gas
steel, Al and Mg. steel, Cu, Al and Mg.
ceramic
 Lower cost, lower  High cost, high flow
flow rates. rates. Thread for
torch body
 More suitable for  More suitable for
thinner materials thicker materials and
and positional materials of high  Reduces eddies in gas flow.
welding. thermal conductivity.  Extends length of laminar flow
prevents contamination.
 Highly recommended for reactive
metals (eg Ti, Al).
Commercially Available
Special Shielding Methods
Trailing Shields
Torch trailing shield Welding in protective tent
11-8
Pipe Backing Gas Dams Purging Methods
 There are many ways to purge a pipe or void,

the easiest being to displace all the air with
inert gas by pumping it in and capping the end
of the pipe allowing the heavier inert gas to
push the oxygen up through the top of the
butt.
 Soluble dams and tapes can also be used as
well as the chain and bung method.
 Calibrated purge monitors should record the
oxygen content in the pipe and confirm that
welding can commence.
Tungsten Types Electrode Tip for DCEN
Pure W – green band Penetration

increase
Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
electrode diameter
W +ThO2 – yellow (1%), red (2%)

2-2.5 times
 High current carrying but slightly radioactive. Increase

W + CeO2 – grey (Europe), orange (USA) Vertex
Good for low current DC work.

angle
W + La2O3 – black
 Increasing use to replace thoriated. Decrease
W + ZrO2 – white (Europe), brown (USA)
 Used for AC. Bead width
Electrode tip for low increase Electrode tip for high
current welding current welding
Electrode Tip for AC Autogenous Welding and Fillers
 TIG can be used autogenously.

 Can mechanise and use more than one head.
 Can add filler from reel for mechanised.
 Manual filler – 1m rods in 5kg pack.
 Stamped for identity:
Electrode tip ground Electrode tip ground

and then conditioned
11-9
Orbital TIG Orbital TIG
Click for Orbital TIG video….
Orbital TIG Potential Defects
Click to play Tungsten inclusions

 Thermal shock splinters W.
 Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
 Spitting and melting can throw pieces into pool.
 Very visible on radiograph but not critical defect.
Solidification cracking
 Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
 Impurities often make eutectics.
 Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.
Potential Defects Advantages of TIG
Oxide inclusions  No spatter, high cleanliness.

 Oxides contribute to lack of fusion.  Good welder easily produces quality welds.
 No fluxing to absorb oxides.  Good for penetration beads in all positions.
 Need to keep good gas cover to avoid oxidation  Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
of reactive metals.  Good protection for reactive.
 Very good for joining thin materials.
 Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
11-10
Disadvantages of TIG
 Low deposition rates.



Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
Less economical for thicker sections.
Any Questions
?
 Not good in draughty conditions.
 Low tolerance of contaminants.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur.
MIG/MAG Welding
 Also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding.

 Uses continuous wire electrode.
 Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
 Classified as semi-automatic – may be fully
MIG/MAG Welding automated.
 Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
metal cored hollow wire.
MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
 DCEP from CV power source.

Gas nozzle  Wire 0.6 to 1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
Consumable  Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
flux/metal cored wire constant arc length/arc voltage.
electrode
Contact Tube
 WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
Gas shield
Weld Pool Arc  Burn-off rate directly related to current.
Slag  Semi-automatic – set controls arc length.
Parent Metal Weld Metal
 Can be mechanised and automated.
11-11
MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding
External wire Transformer

feed unit / Rectifier
Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose
assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
Separate wire feeder Wire feeder in set
15kg wire spool
Welding gun
Power return assembly
cable
Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System
Internal wire drive system Plain top roller
Two roll Four roll
Half grooved Wire guide

bottom roller
Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG
 Often have plain top roll.

 Bottom, and sometimes top, roll grooved.
 V shape for steel.
 U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
 Knurled for positive feed.
 Care needed on tightness of rolls.
 Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls.
Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam.

Close wound Teflon liner
 If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. stainless
steel wire
11-12
The Relationship Between
Torch Components
Amps and Volts
Welding gun assembly Welding gun body
(less nozzle) Voltage Dial on
On/Off switch weld machine
Spatter Hose
- Voltage +
protection port
Arc
Length
Nozzles or Spot welding
- Amperage +
shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips
Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc
Arc and wire feed Arc length increased Wire feed rate is Arc and wire feed Arc length is decreased Arc length returns to
rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn constant so original arc rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn off original condition.
off reduces. length is re established. increases.
Example: Self-Adjusting Arc Welding Parameters
Wire feed speed:

 Increasing wfs automatically gives more current.
Wire feed at Voltage:
constant speed
 Controls arc length and bead width.
CTWD is increased
which momentarily Current:
increases arc length
 Wire feed sets, Mainly affects penetration.
As wire feed is Inductance:
constant, the original
arc length is re  In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. Gives
established. hotter or colder welding.
More info on several websites, eg:
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-
GMAW-welding-basics
11-13
The Effect of Increasing Arc Voltage Shielding Gas
Argon:
 OK for all metals weldable by MIG.
 Supports spray transfer, not good for dip.
 Low penetration.
Carbon dioxide:
 Use on ferritic steel.
Arc Length @ Arc Length @  Supports dip and globular, not spray.
28 V – 250A 34 V – 230A
Ar based mixtures:
 Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration.
 >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and
dip.
MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal
 Usually Ar shielding. crosses from wire to work in:
 Can be Ar + He mixture – gives hotter action.  Spray mode – wire tapers to a point and very
fine droplets stream across from the tip.
 Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni.
 Globular mode – large droplets form and drop
Metal Active Gas (MAG) under action of gravity and arc force.
 Has oxidising gas shield.  Short-circuiting (dip) mode – wire touches pool
 Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. surface before arc re-ignition.
 Often Ar + 12 to 20% CO2 for both dip and  Pulsed mode – current and voltage cycled
spray. between no transfer and spray mode.
 Ar + O2 for stainless steel.
Use of Transfer Modes Droplet Growth and Detachment
Spray Transfer: V > 26; i > 220  Current heating wire causes melting and
 Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition. droplet formation.
Globular Transfer: between dip and spray  Droplet held by surface tension and viscosity.
 Mechanised MAG process using CO2.  Droplet detachment by electromagnetic forces
Dip Transfer: V < 24; i < 200 (Lorentz and arc forces), gravity.
 Thin material positional welding.  Electromagnetic forces proportional to current
– hence dip at low current.
Pulse Transfer: spray + no transfer cycle
 Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second.
 Positional welding and root runs.
These values will depend on gas mixture.
11-14
Dip Transfer Dip Transfer
 Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing

short-circuit.
 Current rises very quickly giving energy to
pinch-off droplet violently.
 Akin to blowing a fuse – causes spatter.
 Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current
falls.
 Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.
The Effect of Inductance Practical Effect of Inductance
Controls the rate of current rise Maximum inductance Minimum inductance

 Reduced spatter.  Colder arc used for wide
Current (A)
 Hotter arc more gaps.
Short circuit Excessive current,
current high spatter penetration.  Convex weld, more
 Fluid weld pool flatter, spatter.
No inductance
smoother weld.  Good pool control.
 Good for thicker materials  Recommended on thin
and stainless steels. materials.
Desired current for good

stability, low spatter
Time (sec)
Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer
Advantages  Transfer by gravity or short

 Low energy allows welding in all positions. circuit.
 Good for root runs in single-sided welds.  Requires CO2 shielding.
 Good for welding thin material.  Drops larger than electrode
hence severe spatter.
Disadvantages  Can use low voltage and bury
arc to reduce spatter.
 Prone to lack of fusion.
 High current and voltage, so
 May not be allowed for high-integrity
applications. high distortion.
 Tends to give spatter.
11-15
Gas Metal Arc Welding Spray Transfer
Spray transfer  Continuous transfer

When current and voltage are raised together higher energy of metal.
is available for fusion (typically > ~ 25 volts & ~ 250 amps).  High voltage long
This causes a fine droplets of weld metal to be sprayed from arc.
the tip of the wire into the weld pool.  High heat input.
Transfer-mode advantages  Fluid weld pool.
 High energy gives good fusion.  High deposition.
 High rates of weld metal deposition are given.  No spatter.
 These characteristics make it suitable for welding thicker
joints.
 Transfer-mode disadvantages.
 It cannot be used for positional welding.
Dip, Globular and Spray Transfer Spray Transfer
 Tapered tip as anode

climbs wire.
 Small droplets with free
flight from pinch effect.
Dip, Globular and Spray Film  Requires Ar-rich gas.
 High current and
voltage, high distortion.
 Large pool, not
positional.
 Used for thick material
and flat/horizontal weld.
Pulsed Transfer Pulsed Transfer Attributes
Advantages
 Good fusion.
 Small weld pool allows all-position welding.
Disadvantages
 More complex and expensive power source.
 Difficult to set parameters.
Amps
Back Peak current  But synergic easy to set, manufacturer

Current provides programmes to suit wire type, dia.
and type of gas.
Time
11-16
Pulse Transfer The Effect of Increasing CTWD
The self adjusting arc

quickly re adjusts to
Pulse Transfer Film
establish equilibrium.
AMPS 190 AMPS 170

VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23
Although the arc length remains the same, the current will decrease
due to the increased resistance of lengthening the CTWD.
The Effect of Decreasing CTWD Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance
Metal transfer mode Contact tip to nozzle

Dip +/- 2mm
The self adjusting arc Spray 4-8mm inside
quickly re adjusts to Spray (Al) 6-10mm inside
establish equilibrium.
Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip
Electrode recessed extension
AMPS 170 AMPS 190 extension
(0-3.2mm)
extension (3-5mm) 19-25mm
6-13mm
VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23
Although the arc length remains the same, the current will increase
due to the decreased resistance of shortening the CTWD. Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer
Filler Wire Potential Defects
 Similar composition to base material.  Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or
 Solid, flux cored or metal cored. incorrect settings of equipment.
 FCW run in spray, gives good fusion. FCW  Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up
allows all-positional welding, slag formation. and this causes wire to stub into work.
 Metal cored wires similar to solid wires, but  Silica inclusions build in steels if poor inter-run
better deposition rate. cleaning.
 Some FCW are self-shielded.  Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
 Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc).
 Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on
deep narrow welds.
11-17
MIG/MAG Attributes
Advantages Disadvantages
 High productivity.
 Easily automated.
 Lack of fusion (dip).
 Small range of Any Questions
?
 All positional (dip consumables.
and pulse).  Protection on site.
 Material thickness  Complex equipment.
range.  Not so portable.
 Continuous
electrode.
Gas Shielded Principle of Operation
Flux Core Welding
Self-Shielded Principle of Operation Benefit of Flux
 Flux assists in producing gas cover, more

tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
 Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
 Slag holds bead when positional welding.
 Flux alloying can improve weld metal
properties.
 Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current, higher
resistance.
11-18
FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG Self-Shielded Welding Gun
 Usually operate DCEP

but some self-shielded Close wound stainless steel
Handle
24V insulated
spring wire liner (inside switch lead
wires run DCEN. welding gun cable)
 Some hardfacing wires Conductor
are larger diameter – tube
need big power source.
 Don't work in dip. Welding
Trigger
gun cable
 Need knurled feed rolls.
 Self-shielded wires use Thread protector
Hand shield
a different torch.
Contact tip
Backhand (Drag) Technique Forehand (Push) Technique
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

 Preferred for flat or  Produces higher weld  Preferred method for  Produces low weld
horizontal with profile. vertical up or profile, with coarser
FCAW.  Difficult to follow overhead with ripples.
 Slower travel. weld joint. FCAW.  Fast travel gives low
 Deeper penetration.  Can lead to burn-  Arc gives preheat penetration.
through on thin effect.  Amount of spatter
 Weld hot longer so
gasses removed. sheet.  Easy to follow weld can increase.
joint and control
penetration.
FCAW Advantages Deposition Rate for C-Steel
 Less sensitive to lack of fusion.

 Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
 High productivity, up to 10kg per hour.
 All positional.
 Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
 Basic types produce excellent toughness.
 Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
 Ease of varying alloying constituents gives
wide range of consumables.
 Some can run without shielding gas.
11-19
FCAW Disadvantages
 Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.

 Slag covering must be removed.
 FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective. Submerged Arc Welding
 Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
and draughts like MIG.
 More fume than MIG/MAG.
SAW Principle of Operation SAW FILM
Flux recovery Contact tube
Consumable Weld pool

electrode
Flux feed SAW Film
Weld metal Arc Parent metal
Slag
Process Characteristics Process Characteristics
 Arc between bare wire and parent plate.  Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound
 Arc, electrode end and the molten pool along line of intended weld.
submerged in powdered flux.  Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter,
 Flux makes gas and slag in lower layers under weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV light.
heat of arc giving protection.  Un melted flux reclaimed for further use.
 Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven  Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions
rollers to ensure constant arc length. in most cases.
11-20
SAW Basic Equipment Types of Equipment
Transformer/
Power return Rectifier
cable
Power control Welding carriage Hand-held gun
panel control unit
Tractor
Welding carriage
Granulated Electrode wire

flux reel
Granulated
flux
Column and boom Gantry
SAW Equipment Tractor Units
Wire reel  For straight or gently

curved joints.
Slides  Ride tracks alongside
Flux
joint or directly on
hopper workpiece.
Wire feed  Can have guide
Feed roll motor wheels to track.
assembly  Good portability, Courtesy of ESAB AB
used where piece

Torch
assembly cannot be moved.
Tracking
Contact tip
system Courtesy of ESAB AB
Column and Boom Gantry
 Linear travel only.  2D linear movement

 Can move in 3 axes. only.
 Workpiece must be  For large production.
brought to weld  May have more than
station. one head.
 Mostly used in
workshop.
Courtesy of ESAB AB
11-21
Power Sources Constant Voltage Power Supply
Power sources can be:  Most commonly used.

 Transformers for AC.  Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
 Transformer-rectifiers for DC.  Self-regulating arc so simple WFS control.
 WFS controls current, power supply controls
Static characteristic can be: voltage.
 Constant Voltage (flat) – most popular.  DC limited to 1000A by severe arc blow.
 Constant Current (drooping) – used for high
current.
Constant Current Power Wire
 Preferred >1000A.  Usually 2 to 6mm diameter.

 Can be mechanised or automatic welding.  Copper coated to avoid rusting.
 Not self-regulating arc so must have voltage-  25 or 30kg coils.
sensing WFS control.  Can be supplied in bulk 300 to 2000kg.
 More expensive.
 Voltage from WFS control, power source
controls current.
 Not for high-speed welding of thin steel.
Fused Fluxes Bonded or Agglomerated Flux
 Original Unionmelt design – manganese,  Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate.

aluminium and calcium silicates.  Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic.
 Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.  Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic.
 Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary.  Can add de oxidants for good properties.
 Some can accept up to 2000A.  Composition can vary as particle breakdown.
 Very limited alloying and property control.  Needs to be filtered when recycling.
 Cannot make basic fused flux.  Can add Mn and Si flux.
11-22
SAW Operating Variables Starting/Finishing the Weld
 Welding current.
 Current type and polarity.
 Welding voltage.
 Travel speed.
 Electrode size.
 Electrode extension why?
 Width and depth of the layer of flux. Extension bars Run off plate Extension bars
simulating
identical joint
preparation
Any Questions
?
11-23
Thermal Cutting Objective

will be able to recognise different cutting
methods and their advantages and limitations
over each other in respect to materials and
applicability.
Thermal Cutting Processes
Section 15
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been preheated to The cutting torch
its ignition point, to produce the oxide Fe3O4 by exothermic
reaction. This oxide is then blown through the material by the
velocity of the oxygen stream.
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the pre-heating

flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: ie acetylene, hydrogen, propane
etc.
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able to cut most
metals - Iron Powder Injection.
Neutral cutting flame.
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will cause
hardening in low alloy and medium/high C steels - they are
thus pre-heated to avoid the hardening effect. Neutral cutting flame with
oxygen cutting stream.
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Related Terms Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide
and a sharp bottom edge.
Cut too slow - top edge is melted, Cut too fast - pronounced
deep groves in the lower portion, break in the drag line,
heavy scaling, rough bottom edge. irregular cut edge.
15-1
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide
and a sharp bottom edge. and a sharp bottom edge.
Preheat flame too high - top edge Nozzle is too high above the works Irregular travel speed - uneven
Preheat flame too low -
is melted, irregular cut, excess of - excessive melting of the top space between drag lines, irregular
deep groves in the lower
adherent dross. edge, much oxide. bottom with adherent oxide.
part of the cut face.
Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting
 Can use portable carriages or gantry type  Cutting and

machines high productivity. bevelling head.
 Accurate cutting for complicate shapes.
OFW/C Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 No need for power  High skill factor.
supply portable.  Wide HAZ.
 Versatile: preheat,  Safety issues.
brazing, surfacing,  Slow process.
repair, straightening
 Limited range of
 Low equipment cost. consumables.
 Can cut carbon and Oxy Fuel Film
 Not suitable for
low alloy steels. reactive and
 Good on thin refractory metals.
materials.
15-2
Plasma Cutting
 No need to promote
oxidation and no preheat.
 Works by melting and
blowing and/or vaporisation.
 Gases: air, Ar, N2, O2, mix of
Ar + H2, N2 + H2.
Plasma Cutting  Air plasma promotes
oxidation and increased
speed but special electrodes
need.
 Shielding gas – optional.
 Applications: stainless
steels, aluminium and thin
sheet carbon steel.
Plasma Cutting
Arc Air Gouging
Click for Plasma Cutting Video….
Arc Air Gouging Features Arc Air Gouging
 Operate ONLY on DCEP.

 Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode.
 Can be used on carbon and
low alloy steels, austenitic
stainless steels and non-
ferrous materials.
 Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply.
Click for Arc Air Gouges Video….
 Provides fast rate of metal removal.
 Can remove complex shape defects.
 After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory.
 Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
15-3
Any Questions
?
15-4
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are

used up in the production of a weld.
Welding consumables may be:

Welding Consumables  Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode
wires.
 Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
Section 16
 Separately supplied fluxes.
 Fusible inserts.
Welding Consumable Standards Welding Consumables
MMA (SMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW) TIG/PAW rods

 BS EN 2560: Steel  BS EN ISO 1668: Filler wires . Welding
electrodes.  BS EN ISO 14341: Wire fluxes
 AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed electrodes. (SAW)
steel electrodes.  AWS A5.9: Filler wires.
 AWS A5.4 Chromium  BS EN ISO 14175: Shielding Cored wire
electrodes. gases.
 AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
electrodes. SAW
 BS EN ISO 14171: Welding SAW strips
consumables; solid wire
MIG/MAG
electrodes, tubular cored solid wire
electrodes and electrode/flux
combinations. Covered
SAW
 BS EN ISO 14174: Fluxes. electrodes
 AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes. solid wire Courtesy of ESAB AB
Welding Consumable Gases Welding Consumables
Welding Gases Each consumable is critical in respect to:

 GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy-Fuel.  Size.
 Supplied in cylinders or storage
 Classification/supplier.
tanks for large quantities.
 Colour coded cylinders to  Condition.
minimise wrong use.  Treatments eg baking/drying.
 Subject to regulations concerned  Handling and storage is critical for consumable
handling, quantities and control.
positioning of storage areas.
 Handling and storage of gases is critical for
 Moisture content is limited to
avoid cold cracking.
safety.
 Dew point (the temperature at
which the vapour begins to
condense) must be checked.
16-1
Quality Assurance Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables:
 Filler material must be stored in an area with
controlled temperature and humidity.
 Poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage
coatings, rendering the electrodes unusable.
MMA Covered Electrodes
 There should be an issue and return policy for
welding consumables (system procedure).
 Control systems for electrode treatment must be
checked and calibrated; those operations must be
recorded.
 Filler material suppliers must be approved before
purchasing any material.
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MMA: Function of the Electrode Covering:

 Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm  To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability.
in length and from 2.5-6mm in diameter.  To generate gas for shielding the arc and molten metal
 The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. from air contamination.
 To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the
 The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming
slag.
steel.
 To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying
 The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and cooling weld metal.
and refining agents in the flux coating.  To provide alloying elements to give the required weld
 The flux coating contains many elements and metal properties.
compounds that all have a variety of functions  To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
during welding. freezing temperature to support the molten weld
metal).
 To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type).
The three main electrode covering types Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
used in MMA welding:  Rutile electrodes.
 General purpose basic electrodes.
1. Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion. Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
2. Rutile - general purpose.

Tin can
3. Basic - low hydrogen.  Cellulosic electrodes.
Vacuum sealed pack

 Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.
16-2
Cellulosic electrodes: Cellulosic electrodes

 Covering contains cellulose (organic material).
 Produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the Disadvantages:
arc voltage.  Weld beads have high hydrogen.
 Deep penetration/fusion characteristics enables  Risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during
welding at high speed without risk of lack of welding to allow H to escape).
fusion.  Not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking
 Generates high level of fumes and H2 cold risk too high (may not be allowed for Grades
cracking. stronger than X70).
 Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.  Not suitable for very thick sections (may not be
 Not require baking or drying (excessive heat will used on thicknesses > ~ 35mm).
damage electrode covering).  Not suitable when low temperature toughness is
 Mainly used for stove pipe welding. required (impact toughness satisfactory down to ~
 Hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100g of weld metal. -20°C).
Cellulosic electrodes Rutile electrodes:

 Covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
Advantages: Disadvantages:  Easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
 Deep  High in hydrogen. welding.
penetration/fusion.  High crack tendency.  Stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
 Suitable for welding in  Rough weld  Slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
all positions. appearance.  Reasonably good strength weld metal.
 Fast travel speeds.  High spatter contents.  Used mainly on general purpose work.
 Large volumes of  Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
 Low deposition rates.
shielding gas.  Electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot
be baked as it will destroy the coating.
 Low control.
 Hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100g of weld metal.
Rutile electrodes Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages: Advantages: Disadvantages:

 They cannot be made with a low hydrogen  Easy to use.  High in hydrogen.
 Low cost/control.  High crack tendency.
content.
 Smooth weld profiles.  Low strength.
 Cannot be used on high strength steels or  Slag easily detachable.  Low toughness values.
thick joints - cracking risk too high.  High deposition
 They do not give good toughness at low possible with the
temperatures. addition of iron
powder.
 These limitations mean that they are only
suitable for general engineering - low
strength, thin steel.
16-3
High recovery rutile electrodes High recovery rutile electrodes
Characteristics: Disadvantages:
 Coating is bulked out with iron powder.  Same as standard rutile electrodes with
 Iron powder gives the electrode high recovery.
respect to hydrogen control.
 Extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean
that weld deposit from a single electrode can be as  Large weld beads produced cannot be used for
high as 180% of the core wire weight. all-positional welding.
 Give good productivity.  The very high recovery types usually limited to
 Large weld beads with smooth profile can look PA and PB positions.
very similar to SAW welds.
 More moderate recovery may allow PC use.
Basic covering: Basic electrodes

 Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
 Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section Disadvantages:
steel and for high strength steels.  Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
 Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk
for 2 hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels of cracking.
and achieve low hydrogen potential status.  Typical baking temperature 350°C for 1 to 2hours.
 Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate  Holding temperature 120-150°C.
compounds.  Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
 Cannot be rebaked indefinitely!  Welders need to take more care/require greater skill.
 Low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good  Weld profile usually more convex.
toughness and YS.
 Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.
 Have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5ml/100g
of weld metal).
Basic Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 High toughness  High cost. Compulsory
values.  High control.
 Low hydrogen  High welder skill
contents. required.
 Low crack tendency.  Convex weld
profiles.
 Poor stop/start
properties.
Optional

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd
16-4
BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:

Covered electrode Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
Toughness Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
Chemical composition
Flux covering Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
Welding position
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
BS EN 2560 Electrode Designation AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
Recovery and type of Welding position E 60 1 3

current designation designation
Symbol Weld Type of Symbol Welding position
metal current
recovery 1 All positions Covered electrode
(%)
2 All positions Tensile strength (p.s.i)
1 105 AC/DC except vertical Welding position
2 105 DC down
3 >105 125 AC/DC 3 Flat butt/fillet,
Flux covering
4 >105 125 DC horizontal fillet
5 >125 160 AC/DC 4 Flat butt/fillet
6 >125 160 DC 5 Flat butt/fillet,
7 >160 AC/DC horizontal fillet,
8 >160 DC vertical down
AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables
E 70 1 8 M G Types of electrodes (for C, C-Mn Steels)

BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1
 Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
Covered Electrode EXX11
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)  Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Welding Position EXX13
 Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
Flux Covering
 Basic E XX X B EXX15
Moisture Control EXX16
Alloy Content EXX18
16-5
AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes Moisture Pick-Up
Example AWS electrode flux types:

 Cellulosic: Flux-ends in 0 - 1
Examples: E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
 Rutile: Flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
 Basic: Flux-ends in 5 - 6 - 7 - 8
Examples: E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018 Moisture pick-up as a function of:
 Temperature.
 Humidity.
Electrode Efficiency Covered Electrode Treatment
Baking oven:
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes  Need temperature control.
 Requires calibration.
Mass of weld metal deposited

Electrode Efficiency =
Heated quivers:
Mass of core wire melted  For maintaining moisture
out of electrodes when
removed from the holding
oven ie on site.
75-90% for usual electrodes
Covered Electrode Treatment Covered Electrode Treatment
Use straight from the Baking in oven 2

Cellulosic box - No Basic electrodes
electrodes hours at 350°C!
baking/drying!
If necessary, dry up
Rutile electrodes to 120°C- No baking! Limited number of After baking, maintain in
rebakes! oven at 150°C
Vacuum packed Use straight from the

If not used within
basic electrodes pack within 4 hours - Use from quivers
4 hours, return to Weld
No rebaking! at 75°C
oven and rebake!
16-6
Covered Electrode Treatment
1. Electrode size (diameter and length).
Any Questions
?
2. Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and
concentricity.
3. Electrode designation.
EN 2560-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)

See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
Welding Consumables TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:

 Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten
electrodes (non-consumable).
 Filler wires of different materials composition
TIG Consumables and variable diameters available in standard
lengths, with applicable code stamped for
identification.
 Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with
copper coating to resist corrosion.
 Shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium,
usually of highest purity (99.9%).
TIG Welding Consumables Fusible Inserts
Welding rods: Pre-placed filler material

 Supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes.
Before Welding After Welding

Other terms used include:
 Must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.  EB inserts (Electric Boat Company).
 Might require degreasing.  Consumable socket rings (CSR).
16-7
Fusible Inserts Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts: Application of consumable inserts

 Used for root runs on pipes.
 Used in conjunction with TIG welding.
 Available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic
stainless steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys.
 Different shapes to suit application.
Radius
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Argon Helium
 Low cost and greater availability.  Costly and lower availability than Argon.
 Heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium.  Lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate
 Low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile. compared with argon (2-3 times).
 Low ionisation potential - easier arc starting,  Higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability
better arc stability with AC, cleaning effect. with AC, less forgiving for manual welding.
 For the same arc current produce less heat than  For the same arc current produce more heat
helium - reduced penetration, wider HAZ. than argon - increased penetration, welding of
 To obtain the same arc power, argon requires a metals with high melting point or thermal
higher current - increased undercut. conductivity.
 To obtain the same arc power, helium requires a
lower current - no undercut.
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Hydrogen Nitrogen
 Not an inert gas - not used as a primary  Not an inert gas.
shielding gas.  High availability – cheap.
 Increase the heat input - faster travel speed and  Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge
increased penetration. for duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels
 Better wetting action - improved bead profile. and copper alloys.
 Produce a cleaner weld bead surface.  Not used for mild steels (age embrittlement).
 Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic  Strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys
stainless steels and nickel alloys. (porosity).
 Flammable and explosive.
16-8
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
MIG/MAG Consumables
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG Welding wires:

 Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding  Supplied on wire/plastic spools or coils.
gases.  Random or line winding.
 variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter
(0.6-1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers.
 Basic Selection of different materials and their
alloys as electrode wires.
 Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating
purpose is corrosion resistance and electrical pick-
up.
 Gases can be pure CO2, CO2+Argon mixes and Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Argon+2%O2 mixes (stainless steels).

Plastic spool Wire spool Coil
Welding wires: Wire designation acc BS EN 14341:

 Carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated.
Type of shielding gas
 Stainless steel wires are not coated.
Tensile properties
Standard number
BS EN 14341 - G 46 3 M G3Si1
Weld deposit produced

by gas shielded metal
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
arc welding
 Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust. Impact properties
 Flux cored wires does not require baking or drying. Type of wire electrode
16-9
Wire designation acc AWS A-5.18: How to check the quality of welding wires:
Chemical composition of the solid Cast diameter
wire or of the weld metal in case Helix size - limited to 25mm
of composite electrodes to avoid problems with arc
Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi)
wandering!
Standard number
Cast diameter improves the contact force and defines the contact
AWS A-5.18 ER 70 S-6 point; usually 400-1200mm.
Designate an electrode/rod (ER)
or only an electrode (E)
Solid (S) or composite (C) wire

Contact point close to Contact point remote from
contact tip end - GOOD! contact tip end - POOR!
MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases
Gas shielded Ar Ar-He He CO2

metal arc welding
MIG process (131) MAG process (135) Argon (Ar):

Higher density than air; low thermal conductivity - the arc
has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes;
BS EN 14175 low ionisation potential.
Helium (He):
Lower density than air; high thermal conductivity -
uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high
Group I - Ar, He Group R - Group M - Ar + Group C - ionisation potential.
and Ar-He Ar + H2 CO2/O2 CO2, CO2 + Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
mixtures (<35%) (<50/15%) O2 (<30%) Cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter.
MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases
Gases for dip transfer: Gases for spray transfer

 CO2: Carbon steels only; deep penetration; fast  Ar + (5-18)% CO2: Carbon steels; minimum
welding speed; high spatter levels. spatter; good wetting and bead contour.
 Ar + up to 25% CO2: Carbon and low alloy  Ar + 2% O2: Low alloy steels; minimise undercut;
steels; minimum spatter; good wetting and bead provides good toughness.
contour.  Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: Stainless steels; improved
 90% He + 7,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2: Stainless arc stability; provides good fusion.
steels; minimises undercut; small HAZ.  Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys.
 Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin  Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys;
sections. hotter arc than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation.
 Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys  Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys; greater heat input.
on thicker sections (over 3mm).
16-10
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
Flux Core Wire Consumables
Flux Core Wire Consumables Types of Cored Wire
Seamless cored wire Butt joint cored wire Overlapping cored wire
Functions of metallic Function of the  Not sensitive to  Good resistance to  Sensitive to moisture
moisture pick-up. moisture pick-up. pick-up.
sheath: filling powder:  Can be copper coated -  Can be copper coated.  Cannot be copper
better current transfer.  Thick sheath. coated.
 Provide form stability  Stabilise the arc.  Difficult to seal the
 Thick sheath  good  Thin sheath.
to the wire.  Add alloy elements. sheath.
form stability - 2 roll  Easy to manufacture.
 Serves as current  Produce gaseous drive feeding possible.
transfer during shield.  Difficult to
welding.  Produce slag. manufacture.
 Add iron powder.
Cored Wire Manufacturing Process Core Elements and Their Function
Strip reel  Aluminium - deoxidize and denitrify.

Flux input  Calcium - provide shielding and form slag.
 Carbon - increase hardness and strength.
 Manganese - deoxidize and increase strength and
toughness.
Closing rollers  Molybdenum - increase hardness and strength.
Thin sheet
metal  Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness
and corrosion resistance.
Draw die Forming rollers
 Potassium - stabilize the arc and form slag.
 Silicon - deoxidize and form slag.
 Sodium - stabilize arc and form slag.
 Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify and form slag.
16-11
FCAW Wire Designation FCAW Wire Designation
Wire designation acc. BS EN 17632: Wire designation acc AWS A-5.20:

Diffusible hydrogen content (optional) 27J at -40°C requirement (optional)
Shielding gas Electrode usability (polarity, shielding
Light alloy additions and KV); can range from 1 to 14
Tensile properties Welding position (0 - F/H only;
1- all positions)
Standard number
Designates an electrode
BS EN 17632 - T 46 3 1Ni B M 4 H5 E 71 T-6 M J H8

Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi x 10)
Tubular cored electrode Flux cored electrode
Impact properties Shielding gas for classification
Type of electrode core Diffusible hydrogen content (optional);
Welding position (optional) can be 4, 8 or 16
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
SAW Consumables
SAW Filler Material SAW Filler Material
Wire/flux combination designation acc. BS EN 14171: Wire/flux combination designation acc. AWS A-5.17:
Type of welding flux Temperature for impact test
Tensile properties Minimum UTS of weld metal (10 ksi)

Standard number
Standard number
BS EN 14171 S46 3 AB S2 AWS A-5.17 F 6 A 2-EM12K
SAW welding flux

Wire electrode and/or
wire/flux combination
Heat treatment conditions
Impact properties
Chemical composition
Chemical composition of wire electrode
of wire electrode
16-12
Welding wires Welding wires can be used to weld:

 Supplied on coils, reels or drums.  Carbon steels.
 Random or line winding.  Low alloy steels.
 Creep resisting steels.
 Stainless steels.
 Nickel-base alloys.
 Special alloys for surfacing applications.
Welding wires can be:
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
 Solid wires.
Coil (approx. Reel (approx. Drum (approx.  Metal-cored wires.
25 kg) 300 kg) 450 kg)
Welding wires: Copper coating functions:

 Carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated.  To assure a good electric contact between wire
 Stainless steel wires are not coated. and contact tip.
 To assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear).
 To provide protection against corrosion.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
 Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
SAW Consumables SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes: Welding flux:

 Are granular mineral compounds mixed  Supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25kg) or bulk
according to various formulations. bags (approx. 1200kg).
 Shield the molten weld pool from the
 Might be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
atmosphere.
 Clean the molten weld pool.
 Can modify the chemical composition of the weld
metal.
 Prevents rapid escape of heat from welding
zone.
 Influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting
action).
 Can be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
 Must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity. Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
16-13
Welding flux: SA Welding flux:

 Might be fused or agglomerated.  Must be kept warm and dry.
 Handling and stacking requires care.
 Supplied in bags. Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but
 Must be kept warm and dry. particles can hold surface moisture.
 Only drying.
 Handling and stacking requires care. Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded
 Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles water.

can hold surface moisture so only drying.  Similar treatment as basic electrodes.
 For high quality, agglomerated fluxes can be
 Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. recycled with new flux added.
Similar treatment as basic electrodes.
 If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly.
 If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It  Cannot be recycled indefinitely.
cannot be recycled indefinitely.
Fused flux Fused welding fluxes

 Flaky appearance. Components
 Lower weld quality. Components are melted in Charge is
are dry mixed. an electric cooled by:
 Low moisture intake.
furnace.
 Low dust tendency.
 Good re-cycling.
 Very smooth weld profile. Shooting the
melt through a
Fused flux: Product is stream of water.
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in crushed and
colour, cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture screened for
absorbent and tends to be of the acidic type. size. Pouring melt onto
large chill blocks.
Fused fluxes advantages: Agglomerated flux

 Good chemical homogeneity.  Granulated appearance.
 Easy removal of fines without affecting flux
 High weld quality.
composition.
 Normally not hygroscopic  easy storage and  Addition of alloys.
handling.  Lower consumption.
 Readily recycled without significant change in  Easy slag removal.
particle size or composition.  Smooth weld profile
Fused fluxes disadvantages: Agglomerated flux:
 Difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly
segregation or extremely high loss). shaped, friable, (easily crushed) can easily add
 High temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit alloying elements, moisture absorbent and tend to be
the range of flux compositions. of the basic type.
16-14
Agglomerated welding fluxes Agglomerated fluxes advantages:

Components  Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements.
Components The wet
are powdered  Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding.
are bonded. mix is
and dry mixed.  Colour identification.
pelletized.
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

 Tendency to absorb moisture.
Pellets are broken  Possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading
Pellets are
up and screened to porosity.
baked.
for size.  Possible change in flux composition due to
segregation or removal of fine mesh particles.
SAW Consumables Ceramic Backing
Mixed fluxes Ceramic backing:

Two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any  Used to support the
ratio necessary to yield the desired results. weld pool on root
Mixed fluxes advantages: runs.
Several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
 Usually fitted on an
critical or proprietary welding operations.
aluminium self
Mixed fluxes disadvantages: adhesive tape.
 Segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment,  Allow increased welding current without danger
storage and handling. of burn-through  increased productivity,
 Segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery consistent quality.
systems during welding.
 Different profiles to suit different applications.
 Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix.
 No backing/drying required.
Questions CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
Welding consumables:
 QU 1: Why are basic electrodes used mainly on high
strength materials and what controls are
required when using basic electrodes?
 QU 2: What standard is the following electrode
classification taken from and briefly discuss
each separate part of the coding? E 80 18 M Inspection and Validation
 QU 3: Why are cellulose electrodes commonly used
for the welding of pressure pipe lines?
 QU 4: Give a brief description of fusible insert and
state two alterative names given for the
insert?
 QU 5: What standard is the following electrode
classification taken from, and briefly discuss
each separate part of the coding?
E 42 3 1Ni B 4 2 H10
16-15
Inspection of Consumables BS EN 10204 - Type of Documents
Why? To assess whether the products are in compliance Non-specific

with the requirements of the order or not - see BS
inspection
EN 10204. documents
How?
Type 2.1 Type 2.2
Non-specific inspection Specific inspection
 Name: Declaration of  Name: Test report.
 Carried out by the  Carried out before delivery
compliance with the  Content: statement of
manufacturer in accordance in accordance to product
order. compliance with the
with its own procedures. specification.
 Content: statement of order (include test
 The products inspected are  Inspection is performed on compliance with the results!)
NOT necessarily the the products to be supplied order (doesn’t include  Who validate it - the
products supplied! or on test units of which the test results!) manufacturer.
products supplied are part.  Who validate it - the
manufacturer.
BS EN 10204 - Type of Documents
Specific
inspection
documents
Any Questions
Type 3.1 Type 3.2
?
 Name: Inspection certificate  Name: Inspection certificate
3.1. 3.2
 Content: statement of  Content: statement of
compliance with the order compliance with the order
(include specific test results!) (include specific test results!)
 Who validate it - the  Who validate it - the
manufacturer inspection manufacturer inspection
(independent of (independent of
manufacturing department!) manufacturing department!)
+ purchaser’s/official
designated authorised
inspector.
16-16
Weldability Objective

will have a greater understanding of what this
term means and have a better understanding of
cracking mechanisms and how steels and alloys
are defined.
Weldability of Steels
Section 17
Weldability of Steels Weldability of Steels
Definition  The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on

It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to carbon and other alloying elements content.
be welded with mechanical soundness by most  If a material has limited weldability, we need
of the common welding processes. The resulting to take special measures to ensure the
welded joint retain the properties for which it maintenance of the properties required.
has been designed is a function of many inter-  Poor weldability normally results in the
related factors but these may be summarised occurrence of cracking.
as:  A steel is considered to have poor weldability
 Composition of parent material. when:
 Joint design and size.  An acceptable joint can only be made by using very
narrow range of welding conditions.
 Process and technique.  Great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (eg
 Access. high pre-heat etc).
The Effect of Alloying on Steels Steel Alloying Elements
 Elements may be added to steels to produce Iron (Fe):

the properties required to make it useful for Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft,
ductile, with low strength.
an application. Carbon (C):
 Most elements can have many effects on the Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element
properties of steels. with major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases
weldability typically < ~ 0.25%.
 Other factors which affect material properties Manganese (Mn):
are: Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
 The temperature reached before and during welding. ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with
 Heat input. sulphur to form manganese sulphides typically < ~0.8% is
residual from steel de-oxidation. Up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn
 The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT.
steels) improves strength and toughness.
Silicon (Si):
Residual element from steel de-oxidation typically to
~0.35%.
17-1
Steel Alloying Elements Steel Alloying Elements
Phosphorus (P): Nickel (Ni):

 Residual element from steel-making minerals. Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids,
 Difficult to reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness. increases strength and toughness.
Sulphur (S):
Molybdenum (Mo):
 Residual element from steel-making minerals.
 Typically < ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.003% in Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum are less
susceptible to temper brittleness than other alloy steels.
very clean steels.
Increases the high temperature tensile and creep strengths of
Aluminium (Al): steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%.
 De-oxidant and grain size control.
 Niobium (Nb):
 Typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%.
 Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr):
 Titanium (Ti) :
 For creep resistance and oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless  Copper (Cu):
steels for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and Present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%) added to weathering
strength but reduces ductility. steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
 Typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels.
Materials Classification of Steels
Iron
Carbon
Fe
C is for Strength
Steels are classified into groups as follows:
Manganese Mn is for Toughness  Plain carbon steels.
Silicon Si < 0.3% Deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidiser +  Alloy steels.
Toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for Creep resistance
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot
shortness)
Phosphorous P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, Used a micro alloying
element (S&T)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, Used a micro alloying
element (S&T)
(S&T) = Strength & Toughness
Carbon – The Key Element in Steel Classification of Steels
Plain carbon steels:

 Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon.
It affects:
 Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon.
1. Strength.  High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon.
 Plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon
2. Hardness. as main alloying elements, but traces of Mn, Si,
Al, S and P may also be present.
3. Ductility.
17-2
Classification of Steels Classification of Steels
Alloy steels: Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy

 Low Alloy Steels <7% alloying elements. steels
 High Alloy Steels >7% alloying elements.
Carbon steels
Alloy steels are considered the type of steels that  Carbon contents up to about ~ 0.25%.
predominantly contain extra alloying elements  Manganese up to ~ 0.8%.
other than iron and carbon.  Low strength and moderate toughness.
Carbon-manganese steels
 Manganese up to ~ 1.6%.
 Carbon steels with improved toughness due to
additions of manganese.
Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy Types of weldable low alloy steels
steels low alloy steels Steels for Elevated Temperature Service
 Chromium (Cr) and Molybdenum (Mo) additions give
Strength and toughness raised even higher by improved strength at high temperature and good creep
very small additions of grain refining elements resistance.
like aluminium, niobium, vanadium.  Typical steels are:
 2.25% Cr +1% Mo.
Higher strength grades may be referred to as  9%Cr + 1%Mo.
HSLA steels (high strength low alloy steels, eg Steels for Low Temperature Service
API 5L X65 and higher).  Ni additions give good toughness at low temperatures.
 Steels may be referred to as cryogenic steels.
Typical examples are:
 3.5%Ni steel.
 9%Ni steels.
Types of Stainless Steels Types of stainless steels

Austenitic Grades Ferritic and Martensitic Grades
 Alloyed with Chromium & Nickel.  Alloyed with chromium (but have no or low nickel
 Examples - 304 & 316 (18%Cr + 8%Ni). content).
 Main phase is austenite.  Examples - 13% Cr (ferritic) 13%Cr +4%Ni.
 Very wide range of applications:  Ferritic grades have ferrite as main phase and so can be
 Very low temperature service (cryogenic).
magnetised.
 High temperature service.  Martensitic grades have martensitic as main phase
 Moderate corrosion resistance.  Similar characteristics to C and Mn steels but with
 Non-magnetic. improved corrosion resistance.
 Low thermal conductivity (hold the heat during  Not suitable for very low temperatures but some ferritic
welding). grades used for good resistance to scaling at high
temperatures.
 High coefficient of expansion - more distortion during
welding.
17-3
Classification of Steels Carbon Equivalent Formula
Types of stainless steels  The weldability of the material will also be

Duplex grades affected by the amount of alloying elements
 Alloyed with Chromium & some Nickel. present.
 Examples - 22%Cr + 5%Ni & 25%Cr + 7%Ni.  The carbon equivalent of a given material also
 Called duplex because there are 2 phases - 50% ferrite depends on its alloying elements.
+ 50% austenite.
 The presence of ferrite means that the steels can be  The higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to
magnetised. brittleness, and lower the weldability.
 Stronger than 304 and 316 and good resistance to  The CE or CEV is calculated using the following
certain types of corrosion. formula:
 Not suitable for very low temperature service or very CEV = %C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
high temperature service.
6 5 15
Classification of Steels Process Cracks
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)  Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking (C/Mn
 Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low steels).
hydrogen processes or electrodes are used.
 Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking (HSLA
 Preheat may be required when welding thick section
material, high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen steels).
being generated.  Solidification or hot cracking (all steels).
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)  Lamellar tearing (all steels).
 Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker  Re-heat cracking (all steels, very susceptible
sections will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen Cr/Mo/V steels).
processes or electrodes should be used.
 Inter-crystalline corrosion or weld decay
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5) (stainless steels).
 Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required.
Cracking Cracks
When considering any type of cracking mechanism,

*four elements must always be present:
Stress
 Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and contraction.
Restraint Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
 Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates
being welded to each other.
Susceptible microstructure
 The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding.
*Temperature (only applicable to certain types of
cracking).
17-4
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Also known as HCC, hydrogen, toe, underbead, Crack type:

delayed, chevron cracking. Hydrogen HAZ and weld metal cracking.
Location:
Occurs in: HAZ (longitudinal) weld metal (transverse).
 Carbon steels.
 Carbon-manganese. Steel types:
 Low, medium and high alloy steels: All hardenable steels.
 Mainly in ferritic or martensitic steels.
Including:
 Very rarely in duplex stainless steels.
HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels. Quench and
 Never in nickel or copper alloys.
tempered steels TMCP (thermal mechanically controlled
processed) steels.
Susceptible microstructure: Martensite.
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of

the 4 factors occur together:
Hydrogen: Susceptible
More than 15ml/100g of weld metal. Tensile stress microstructure
Cracking
Stress: (at room
More than ½ the yield stress. temperature)
Temperature:
Below 300°C. High hydrogen
Susceptible Microstructure: concentration
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers (Martensite).
May occur:  Hydrogen is the smallest atom known.

 Up to 72hrs after completion.  Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc.
 In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.  Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture
 At weld toes. pick-up on the electrodes coating, welding
 Under weld beads. fluxes or from the consumable gas.
 At stress raisers.
Water vapour in the air Moisture on the electrode

or in the shielding gas H2 or grease on the wire
H2
H2
Oxide or grease H2 H2
on the plate
17-5
Atomic
Steel in expanded condition
hydrogen
(H) Hydrogen Above 300oC
diffusion
Molecular
hydrogen
(H2)
Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction

Above 300°C Below 300°C
Cellulosic electrodes Susceptible microstructure:

produce hydrogen as Hard brittle structure – Martensite promoted by:
a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in a High carbon content, carbon equivalent (CE)
a long or unstable arc CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
Hydrogen introduced in 6 5 15
weld from consumable, b High alloy content.
oils or paint on plate Hydrogen crack
c Fast cooling rate:
 Inadequate pre-heating.
 Cold material.
 Thick material.
H22
H  Low heat input.
Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time
Martensite forms H2 diffuses in to HAZ Run out length x 103 (1000)
Effect of Carbon in the

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Properties of Iron
Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength,
Typical locations for cold cracking
but will also increase greatly the risk of formation of
martensite.
0.83 % Carbon
(Eutectoid)*
Tensile
Hardness
Strength
Ductility
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
%Carbon
17-6
Micro alloyed steel Carbon manganese steel Under bead cracking Toe cracking
Hydrogen induced weld Hydrogen induced HAZ

metal cracking cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking

 Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint
preparations, and slows down the cooling rate.
 Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination.
 The use of a low hydrogen welding process and
correct arc length.
 Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions.
 Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress.
 The use of a PWHT.
 Avoid poor weld profiles.
Toe cracking in MMA fillet weld
Hydrogen Scales Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011: Part 2. List of welding processes in order of potential
Hydrogen content per 100 grams of weld metal lowest hydrogen content with regards to 100
deposited. grams of deposited weld metal.
 Scale A High: >15ml

 TIG < 3ml
 Scale B Medium: 10-15ml
 Scale C Low: 5-10ml  MIG < 5ml
 Scale D Very low: 3-5ml  ESW < 5ml
 Scale E Ultra-low: <3ml  MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5ml
 SAW < 10ml
 FCAW < 15ml
17-7
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
To eliminate the risk of hydrogen cracking how do Reduce Hydrogen Level

you remove the following:  Select lower hydrogen potential process eg:
 BASIC vs RUTILE.
 MAG vs MMA.
Hydrogen: MMA (basic electrodes). MAG
 Increase hydrogen diffusion with increased
cleaning weld prep etc. preheat.
Stress: Design, balanced welding.  Maintain preheat after welding allowing diffusion
from weld.
Temperature: Heat to 300°C (wrap and cool  Bake basic MMA electrodes/SAW fluxes -
slowly). manufacturers recommendations!
 Cleanliness/dryness of consumables and weld
Hardness: Preheat-reduces cooling rate preparations eg rust scale grease cutting fluids.
which reduces the risk of  Use austenitic or nickel fillers (if acceptable).
susceptible microstructure.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Residual Stress
Prevention Residual stress will be increased by:

 Slow the cooling rate.  Increasing plate thickness.
 Reduce hydrogen level.  Restraint - rigid fixtures
 Reduce residual stress.  Weld volume.
 Insert in plate.
 Multi-pass vs single pass.
 Small weld beads vs large weld beads.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Pre-Heat Application
How to reduce residual stress Application of preheat

 Ensure good fit-up: Minimum root gap and  Heat either side of joint.
misalignment.  Measure temp 2mins after heat removal.
 Avoid restraints: Preset the join.  Always best to heat complete component rather
 Preheat may help: To slow down cooling rate. than local if possible to avoid distortion.
 Large weld passes: Higher deposition rate.  Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds
 Minimise volume of weld metal: Less residual due to different combined thicknesses and chill
stress. effect factors.
 PWHT from preheat temperature.
 Dress weld toes at preheat temperature.
17-8
Combined Thickness Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and The chilling effect of the joint
thickness.
t3
Heat flow
t1 t2 t1 t2
t = t1+t2 t = t1+t2+t3
Heat flow
Combined Thickness The Chill Effect of the Material
The chilling effect of the joint
Two dimensional heat flow
Three dimensional heat flow
Pre-Heat Application Pre-Heat Application
Furnace:
 Heating entire component - best.
Electrical elements:
 Controllable; portable; site use; clean; component cannot be
moved.
Gas burners:
 Direct flame impingement; possible local overheating; less
controllable, portable, manual operation possible, component
can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters:
 Capable of automatic control, no flame impingement, no
contact with component, portable. Electrical heated Manual gas
Induction heating: elements operation
 Controllable, rapid heating (mins not hours), large power
supply, expensive equipment.
17-9
Heating Temperature Control Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
 Tempilsticks - crayons, melt at set temps. Will Slow cooling rate

not measure max temp.  Apply or increase preheat - BS EN 1011 Part 2
 Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual Gives recommendations on suitable preheat
temp. levels.
 Thermocouples - contact or attached, very  Recommendations in specifications eg
accurate, measure actual temp. BS 2633, ASME VIII, ASME B31.3.
 Increase process heat input complying with
toughness requirements.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Heat Input
 Maintain calculated preheats, and never allow the High heat input - slow cooling.
inter-pass temperature to go below the pre-heat  Low toughness (grain growth).
value.
 Reduction in yield strength.
 Use Low Hydrogen processes with short arcs and
ensure consumables are correctly baked and
stored as required. Low heat input - fast cooling.
 If using a cellulosic E 6010 for the root run, hot  Increased hardness.
pass as soon as possible. (Before HAZ < 300°C).  Hydrogen entrapment.
 Remove any paint, oil or moisture from the plate  Lack of fusion.
or pipe.
 Carry out any specified PWHT as soon as possible.
 Avoid any restraint, and use high ductility weld
metal.
Cracks Solidification Cracking
Solidification Cracking
Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
17-10
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking
Also referred as hot cracking  Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the
weld metal to form iron sulphides (low strength,
Crack type: low melting point compounds).
 Solidification cracking.  During weld metal solidification, columnar
Location: crystals push still liquid iron sulphides in front to
 Weld centreline (longitudinal). the last place of solidification, weld centerline.
Steel types:  The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress. may now be very
 High sulphur and phosphor concentration in poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will
steels. result, weld centerline.
Susceptible microstructure:
 Columnar grains In direction of solidification.
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking in Fe Steels
Factors for solidification cracking

 Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld
metal (sulphur, phosphor and carbon). Liquid iron sulphide films
 The amount of stress/restraint.
 Joint design high depth to width ratios.
 Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying Solidification crack
grains.
 High contractional strains are present. *
 High dilution processes are being used.
 There is a high carbon content in the weld metal.
 Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded Contractional strain
joints.
Intergranular liquid film Precautions for controlling solidification cracking

Columnar The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
grains Columnar choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design.
HAZ grains HAZ
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further

dilution?
 Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain
cohesion.
Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead  As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content %
On solidification the bonding On solidification the bonding
should be a minimised by careful control in electrode
between the grains may be between the grains may now
and dilution.
adequate to maintain be very poor to maintain
 Limit the heat input, hence low contraction and
cohesion and a crack is cohesion and a crack may
minimise restraint.
unlikely to occur. result.
17-11
Precautions for controlling solidification Add Manganese to weld metal

cracking
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
 The use of high manganese and low carbon form between solidified grains
content fillers.
 Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting
on the joint during welding. Cohesion and strength between
 The use of high quality parent materials, low grains remains
levels of impurities (phosphor and sulphur).
 Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil,
grease, paints and any other sulphur containing
product).
 Joint design selection depth to width ratios. Contractional strain
Solidification Cracking Cracks
Solidification cracking in austenitic stainless steel

 Particularly prone to solidification cracking.
 Large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain
boundary area with high concentration of impurities.
 Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants
(sulphur, phosphorous and other impurities).
Lamellar Tearing
 High coefficient of thermal expansion/low coefficient
of thermal conductivity, with high resultant residual
stress.
 Same precautions against cracking as for plain
carbon steels with extra emphasis on thorough
cleaning and high dilution controls.
Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing
 Location: Parent metal just below the HAZ.

 Steel Type: Any steel type possible.
 Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility.
 Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the

solid inclusions in the parent material (eg sulphides and
Step like appearance
silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses.
 Low ductile materials (often related to thickness) in the
short transverse direction containing high levels of
impurities are very susceptible to lamellar tearing.
 It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction). Cross section
17-12
Susceptible joint types Critical area Critical area
Critical area
T fillet weld T butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur Assessment of susceptibility to lamellar

 Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities tearing:
there is a high sulfur content in the base metal.
 Carry out through thickness tensile test.
 Joint design, direction of stress 90° to the rolling
direction, the level of stress acting across the joint  Carry out cruciform welded tensile test.
during welding.
 Note: Very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress.
 High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction.
 There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
 There is high restraint on the work.
Short Tensile (Through

Lamellar Tearing
Thickness) Test
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing The short tensile test or through thickness test is a test to
determine a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing
 The use of high quality parent materials, low
levels of impurities. Friction welded
Plate material extension stubs
 The use of buttering runs.
 A gap can be left between the horizontal and Short tensile specimen
vertical members enabling the contraction
movement to take place. Sample of 6.4mm
parent material DIA
 Joint design selection.
 Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting
Final short transverse
on the joint during welding. tensile specimen
 Hydrogen precautions.
The results are given as a STRA value
Short Transverse Reduction in Area
17-13
Methods of avoiding lamellar tearing:* Modifying a T joint to avoid lamellar tearing

1 Avoid restraint*. Non-susceptible Susceptible Improved
2 Use controlled low sulfur plate*.

3 Grind out surface and butter*. Susceptible
4 Change joint design*.
5 Use a forged T piece (critical applications)*. Non-susceptible Susceptible Less susceptible
Prior buttering of the joint with

a ductile layer of weld metal
Use a forged T piece may avoid lamellar tearing
Lamellar Tearing Cracks
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar

tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Weld Decay
An open corner joint

may be selected to
avoid lamellar tearing
Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion
Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion

Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*
Occurs when:  During the welding of stainless steels, a small

An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation of grain area in the HAZ, parallel to the weld will
chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line form chromium carbide at the grain boundaries.
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld. This
This depletes this grain of the corrosion
depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains low in
chromium oxide which is what produces the corrosion resisting chrome oxide
resisting effect of stainless steels. If left untreated  We say that the steel has become sensitised or
corrosion and failure will be rapid* has become sensitive to corrosion*
17-14
1. Use stabilized stainless steels*. Also known as weld decay

2. Use low carbon stainless steels (Below 04%)*.  Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal).
3. A sensitized stainless steel may be de-sensitized  Steel type: Austenitic stainless steels.
by heating it to above 1100°C where the chrome  Susceptible microstructure: Sensitised HAZ
carbide will be dissolved. The steel is normally grain boundaries.
quenched from this temperature to stop re-
association*.
 Weld decay, intergranular corrosion or knife line Sensitisation range where peak temperatures in
attack, may occur in austenitic stainless steels. the HAZ reaches about 600°C to 850°C.
 At the critical range of 600-850°C chromium
carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries
takes place.
 At this temperature range chromium is absorbed
by the carbon at the grain boundaries, which
causes a local depletion of chromium content in
the adjacent areas.
 The depletion of chromium content in the
affected areas results in lowering the materials
resistance to corrosion attack, allowing rusting
to occur.
When heated in the range Grain boundary adjacent areas become depleted of
600°C to 850°C Chromium chromium and lose their corrosion resistance.
Carbides form at the grain
boundaries
Areas depleted of
Chromium below
Chromium migrates to site 12.5%.
of growing carbide
17-15
Inter-Granular Corrosion Weld Decay
Precautions against weld decay

 Using low carbon grade stainless steel eg 304L,
316L, as the amount of free carbon in solution is
sufficiently low to ensure that Cr carbide
formation is minimal and therefore that
sensitisation is not usually of practical
significance during welding.
 Stabilized grade stainless steel eg 321, 347, 348
recommended for severe corrosive conditions
and high temperature operating conditions
containing Ti or Nb, to form carbides
preferentially to Cr.
Weld Decay Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
Precautions against weld decay A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the
ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution*.
 Standard austenitic grades may require PWHT,
this involves heating the material to a The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and
temperature over 1100°C and quench the does not replace it in the atomic structure but fits between it*.
material, this restores the chromium content at
the grain boundary, a major disadvantage of this
heat treatment is the high amount of distortion.
Iron Carbon
atoms atoms*
Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

depending on the temperature. This is an important feature*.
Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this* At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this*
α Alpha iron γ Gamma iron

This structure occurs below 723°C and is This structure occurs above the UCT in
body centred or BCC in structure Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon structure.
Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron* It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon

Also called Austenite or FCC iron*
*
*
Compressed representation could appear like this
Compressed representation could appear like this
17-16
Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
 If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in Some steels if cooled quickly their structure looks like this*
equilibrium, then exact reverse atomic changes
take place*. Martensite can be defined as:
 If a steel that contains more than 0.3% carbon is A supersaturated solution of carbon
cooled quickly, then the carbon does not have in BCT iron (Body Centred
time to precipitate out of solution, hence
Tetragonal)
trapping the carbon in the BCC form of iron.
 This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or It is the hardest structure we can
tetragon*. produce in steels*
 This supersaturated solution is called martensite *
and is the hardest structure that can be produced Compressed representation could appear
in steels*. like this
The Important Points of

Summary of Steel Microstructures
Steel Microstructures
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*  To summarize the effect of increasing the
hardness of steels by thermal treatment, it can
Ferrite: a Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%* be said that the formation of Martensite is
caused by the entrapment of carbon in
Austenite: g High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%* solution, produced by rapid cooling from
temperatures above the Upper Critical*
Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is  In plain carbon steels there must be sufficient
produced by rapid cooling from the carbon to trap. In low alloy steels however, the
Austenite phase: alloying elements play a significant part in the
thermal hardening of steels*
It mainly occurs below 300°C*
Any Questions
?
17-17
Weld Repairs Objective

will be able to establish effective methods of
repair when required and methods of excavation.
Weld Repairs
Section 18
Weld Repairs Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward  Is welding the best method of repair?
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex,  Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
and various engineering disciplines may need to be  What is the composition and weldability of the
involved to ensure a successful outcome. base metal?
 What strength is required from the repair?
 Can preheat be tolerated?
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by  Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason tolerated?
for their occurrence, (material/process or skill  Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
related).  Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be
adequate?
In general terms, a welding repair involves what!  Will the repair resist its environment?
 Can the repair be inspected and tested?
Weld Repair Related Problems Weld Repairs
 Heat from welding may affect dimensional  Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc).
stability and/or mechanical properties of  A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
repaired assembly. defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub
surface NDE method.
 Due to heat from welding, YS goes down =
 Once established the excavation site must be clearly
danger of collapse. identified and marked out.
 Filler materials used on dissimilar welds may  An excavation procedure may be required (method used
lead to galvanic corrosion. ie grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
 Local preheat may induce residual stresses.  NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
removal.
 Cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld  A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate* welding process, consumable, technique,
metal cost! controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
need to be approved.
18-1
A weld repair may be used to improve weld In the event of repair, it is required:
profiles or extensive metal removal:  Authorisation and procedure for repair.
 Repairs to fabrication defects are generally  Removal of material and preparation for repair.
easier than repairs to service failures because  Monitoring of repair weld.
the repair procedure may be followed.
 Testing of repair - visual and NDT.
 The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties.
 During the inspection of the removed area prior
to welding the inspector must ensure that the
defects have been totally removed and the
original joint profile has been maintained as
close as possible.
The specification or procedure will govern how Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
the defective areas are to be removed. The 1. Production repairs.
method of removal may be: 2. In service repairs.
 Grinding.
 Chipping.
 Machining.
 Filing.
 Oxy-Gas gouging.
 Arc air gouging.
Production Weld Repairs Production Weld Repairs
Production repairs Before the repair can commence, a number of

 Are usually identified during production elements need to be fulfilled:
inspection.  If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred
at the fusion face the problem could be cracking or
 Evaluation of the reports is usually carried out lack of sidewall fusion.
by the Welding Inspector or NDT operator.  If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may
be associated with the material or the welding
procedure.
 If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be
apportioned to the lack of skill of the welder.
 In this particular case as the defect is open to the
surface, MPI or DYE-PEN may be used to gauge
the length of the defect and U/T inspection used to
gauge the depth.
18-2
In Service Weld Repairs In Service Weld Repairs
Service repairs Other factors to be taken into consideration:

 Can be of a very complex nature, as the Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
component is very likely to be in a different component ie electrical components, or materials that
welding position and condition than it was during may become damaged by the repair procedure.
production.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
 It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will
possible restriction of access to the area to be
need to be sought prior to any work being
repaired.
carried out.
 The repair welding procedure may look very For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
different to the original production procedure also take place on site and without a shut down of
due to changes in these elements. operations, which may bring other elements that need
to be considered.
There are a number of key factors that need to be  What will be the effect of welding distortion and
considered before undertaking any repair: residual stress?
 The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
 Will heat treatment be required?
 Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is
repaired?  What NDE is required and how can acceptability
 Are there any alternatives to welding?
of the repair be demonstrated?
 What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?  Will approval of the repair be required – if yes,
 How is the defect to be removed and what welding how and by whom?
process is to be used?
 What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
defect?
 Will the welding procedures require approval/re-
approval?
Weld Repairs Weld Repair Decision Tree
 Use of approved welders. Has nature of NO NDE + Determine the Determine welding
the defect been Destructive filler material standards
 Dressing the weld and final visual. determined? tests
 A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried YES Train the Qualify the
welder welder
out to ensure that the defect has been successfully Is repair the Replace
removed and repaired. right decision? NO the part NO
 Any post repair heat treatment requirements. Is welder

qualified?
Establish repair
procedure
Determine base Choose the
 Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and metal weldability welding process YES
carried out after heat treatment requirements.
Perform welding Prepare the
Inspection
 Applying protective treatments (painting etc as repair defect area
required). Has repair been NO
Procedure problem Fix problem
successful?
 (*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being
YES
repaired and may not apply in specific situations) Protect and
return to service Welder problem
18-3
Weld Repairs Production Weld Repairs
Side View of defect excavation

W
Plan View of defect

Side View of repair welding
Costs of Weld Repairs
Original weld Cost Repair weld Extra cost
Cut, prep, tack weld
Welder time
£
£
Inspector Repair report (NCR etc)
Inspector Identify repair area

££
££ Any Questions
Consumable & gas £ Inspector Mark out repair area ££
?
Visual inspection £ Welder Remove defect ££
NDT ££ Inspector Visual inspection of excavation ££
Documentation £ Inspector NDT area of excavation ££
Inspector Monitor repair welding ££
Welder time £
Consumable & gas £
Inspector Visual inspection ££
NDT ££
Extra repair Documentation £
Penalty % NDT ££
18-4
Residual Stress and
Distortion Objective
should be able to identify the reasons and
preventions of residual stress and distortion.
Residual Stress and Distortion
Section 19
Residual Stress Residual Stress
In case of a heated bar, the resistance of the

surrounding material to the expansion and
At room temperature
contraction leads to formation of residual stress.
On heating to 400°C
On cooling to room
200mm 1mm temperature
Residual Stress Residual Stress
Cool with
restraint
Ambient temperature.
present Heat to 400°C.
Cool with restraint present.
200mm
Cool with
restraint
removed The resistance of the surrounding material to the
expansion and contraction leads to formation of
residual stress.
199mm 1
19-1
Residual Stress Types of Residual Stress
Origins of residual stress in welded joints Transverse residual stress after welding
Maximum stress = YS at room temperature
Tension
Cold weld unfused
Compression
Hot weld
Cold weld fused The longer the weld, the higher the tensile stress!
Types of Residual Stress Types of Residual Stress
Longitudinal residual stress after welding Compression Tension
Compression Tension
Residual stress
after PWHT
YS at room
temperature
YS at PWHT YS at room
temperature temperature
The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone! After PWHT, peak residual stress is less than a quarter of its initial level!
Residual Stress Types of Distortion
Residual stresses are undesirable because: Transverse shrinkage

 They lead to distortion.
 They affect dimensional stability of the welded
assembly.
 They enhance the risk of brittle fracture.
19-2
Distortion Distortion
Origins of distortion in welded joints:
Hot weld and HAZ.
400mm
5mm
Separate cooling.
398mm
Combined cooling.
400mm
Residual Stress
Heating and cooling

causes expansion
and contraction.
Distortion Prevention Distortion Prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques. Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
Tack welding
Use of fully welded strongbacks. a Tack weld straight through
to end of joint.
7
1 5
2 3
3 41 25 4
6 6
7
b Tack weld one end, then
use back-step technique
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
for tacking the rest of the
joint.
c Tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step
Use of strongbacks with wedges. technique.
19-3
Distortion Factors Affecting Distortion
Factors affecting distortion: Parent material properties:

 Parent material properties.  Thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the
 Amount of restrain. value, the greater the residual stress.
 Joint design.  Yield strength - the greater the value, the
 Fit-up. greater the residual stress.
 Welding sequence.  Thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the
lower the residual stress.
Factors Affecting Distortion Factors Affecting Distortion
Joint design: Welding sequence:

 Weld metal volume.  Number of passes - every pass adds to the
 Type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs double side. total contraction.
Amount of restrain:  Travel speed - the faster the welding speed,
 Thickness - as thickness increases, so do the the less the stress.
stresses.  Build-up sequence.
 High level of restrain lead to high stresses.
 Preheat may increase the level of stresses.
Fit-up:
 Root gap - increase in root gap increases
shrinkage.
Types of Distortion Distortion Prevention
Angular distortion Distortion prevention by design

Consider eliminating the welding!!
Transverse shrinkage
producing angular
distortion.
Transverse
shrinkage
producing a. By forming the plate.
distortion. b. By use of rolled or extruded sections.
19-4
Distortion prevention by design Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

Consider weld placement. Back to back assembly
Neutral
axis a. Assemblies tacked
Neutral
axis
together before
welding.
Reduce weld metal volume
and/or number of runs. b. Use of wedges for
components that
distort on separation
after welding.
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

 Control welding techniques by use balanced
welding about the neutral axis.
Reduce the number
of runs required to  Control welding techniques by keeping the time
make a weld (eg between runs to a minimum.
a angular distortion
a
as a function of
number of runs for
a 10mm leg length
10mm
weld).
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques Distortion - Best practice for fabrication

corrective techniques
Control welding techniques by:  Using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap.
 Identical components welded back to back so welding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
can be balanced about the neutral axis.
1 4 2 5 3 6
 Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent
longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures.
 Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as
a. Back-step welding. b. Skip welding. quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas
welding and mechanised rather than manual welding.
 In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in
one direction; back-step or skip welding techniques
should be used.
19-5
Heat Treatment Objective

will have a greater understanding of the different
types of heat treatment and their purposes in
material manufacture and welding operations.
Heat Treatment of Welded Structures
Section 20
Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Methods
Why? Gas furnace heat treatment

 Improve mechanical properties.
Advantages:
 Change microstructure.  Easy to set up.
 Reduce residual stress level.  Good portability.
 Change chemical composition.  Repeatability and
temperature
How?
uniformity.
 Flame oven.
 Electric oven/electric heating blankets. Disadvantages:
 induction/HF heating elements.  Limited to size of
parts.
Global Where? Local
Heat Treatment Methods Heat Treatment Methods
Local heat treatment using electric heating HF local heat treatment

blankets
Advantages:
Advantages:  High heating rates.
 Ability to vary heat.  Ability to heat a
 Ability to continuously narrow band.
maintain heat.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:  High equipment
 Elements may burn out cost.
or arcing during heating.  Large equipment,
less portable.
20-1
Heat Treatments Heat Treatment Cycle
The inspector, in general, should ensure Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled.
that: Temperature
 Equipment is as specified.
Soaking temperature
 Temperature control equipment is in good and time at the Cooling rate
condition. attained temperature
 Procedures as specified, is being used eg.
 Method of application.
 Rate of heating and cooling.
 Maximum temperature.
 Soak time. Heating rate
Time
 Temperature measurement (and calibration).
 Documentation and records. Heating Soaking Cooling
Heat Treatment Heat Treatments
Recommendations Many metals must be given heat treatment before

 Provide adequate support (low YS at high and after welding.
temperature). The inspector’s function is to ensure that the
 Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal treatment is given correctly in accordance with the
expansions. specification or as per the details supplied.
 Control soak time to equalise temperatures. Types of heat treatment available:
 Control temperature gradients - No direct flame  Preheat.
impingement.  Annealing.
 Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling.  Normalising.
 Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure  Quench hardening.
formation.  Temper.
 Stress relief.
Heat Treatments Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments Preheat:

 Are used to increase weldability, by reducing  We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for a
sudden reduction of temperature, and control number of reasons. Primarily we use most pre-heats to
expansion and contraction forces during welding. achieve one or more of the following:
 To control the structure of the weld metal and HAZ on
cooling.
Post weld heat treatments  To improve the diffusion of gas molecules through an
 Are used to change the properties of the weld atomic structure.
metal, controlling the formation of crystalline  To control the effects of expansion and contraction.
structures.  Preheat controls the formation of un-desirable
microstructures that are produced from rapid cooling of
certain types of steels. Martensite is an undesirable grain
structure very hard and brittle it is produced by rapid
cooling form the austenite region.
20-2
Preheat temperatures are arrived by taking Pre-heat requirements

into consideration the following:  The welding heat input Increased – Reduced.
 The heat input.  Carbon Equivalent Increased – Increased.
 The carbon equivalent (CE).  Hydrogen content Increased – Increased.
 The combined material thickness.  Combined material thickness Increased -
 The hydrogen scale required (A, B, C, D). Increased.
The temperatures mentioned are for steels: Advantages of preheat:

 Process: Pre-heat for welding.  Slows down the cooling rate, which reduces the
risk of hardening.
 Temperature: 50-2500C higher by
exception.  Allows absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity
of diffusing out, thereby reducing the risk of
 Cooling: Hold during welding.
cracking.
 Result: Prevents cracking and hard
 Removes moisture from the material being
zones.
welded.
 Improves overall fusion characteristics.
 Lowers stresses between the weld metal and
parent material by ensuring a more uniform
expansion and contraction.
Preheat Comparison Chart Methods of Measuring Preheat

175 150 125 100 75 50 20 0
200  Temperature indicating crayons (tempil sticks).
180  Thermocouples or touch pyrometers.
 At intervals along of around the joint to be welded.
Combined material
160
140  The number of measurements taken must allow the

inspector to be confident that the required temperature
thickness
120
has been reached.
100
 In certain cases the preheat must be maintained a
80 certain distance back from the joint faces.
60  If a gas flame is being used for preheat application the
40 temperature should be taken form the opposite side to
A B C D E the heat source.
20 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.53 0.55
 If this is not possible time must be allowed before
0 taking the preheat temperature eg 2 mins for 25mm
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Heat input thickness.
20-3
Post Weld Heat Treatment Post Weld Heat Treatment
Question: Removal of residual stress

What is the main reason for carrying out PWHT (to
 At PWHT temp. the yield
steel joints)? Cr-Mo steel - typical
Strength (N/mm2 )
500 strength of steel is
reduced so that it is not
Answer:
400 strong enough to give
 To reduce residual stresses. C-Mn steel - typical
restraint.
300
Supplementary question:  Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
 What is the benefit for reduce residual 200
rearrangement of the
stresses?
Yield
atomic structure.
100
Supplementary answer: 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

 To improve resistance to brittle fracture. Temperature (°C)
Post Weld Heat Treatment Heat Treatments
PWHT Procedures - Basic Requirements Annealing (steels)

Maximum heating rate
Usually from 300 or 400°C - need to avoid large temperature  Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient
gradients that may cause distortion/cracking. time (full austenitization).
Max rate depends on thickness but typically up to ~ 200°C/h.  Cooling: Hold, slow cooling in furnace.
Soak temperature depends on steel type - usually specified by
 Result: Produces a very soft, low
code (~550 to ~710°C).
Minimum soak time hardness material suitable
Need to make sure and whole item/full thickness reaches for cold working or
specified temp. machining operations.
Codes typically specify 1h per 25mm related to maximum Decreases toughness and l
joint thickness. owers yield stress
Maximum cooling rate
homogenising annealing.
Usually down to 400 or 300°C - for same reasons as
controlled heating rate.
Stress relief (steels) Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)

 Temperature: 550-650°C no phase  Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up
transformation. to 3 hours.
 Cooling: Hold, furnace or controlled  Cooling: Slow cool in air.
cooling.  Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
 Result: Relieves residual stresses,  Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat/
improves stability during interpass temperature after
machining, reduces hydrogen completion of welding for 2
levels, prevents stress to 3 hours.
corrosion cracking.
20-4
Any Questions
?
20-5
Welding Safety Objective

should be very aware of the risks posed in
welding and cutting operations.
Welding Safety
Section 21
Welding Related Risks Fire and Explosion
 Fire and explosion. Weld away flammable

 Fume and gases. materials
 Electrical shock.  Secure gas cylinders.
 Eye injuries.
 Skin burns.
 Mechanical hazards. Use flashback arrestors
 Protect the floor - layer
of sand or fire retardant
sheets.
Fire and Explosion Fire and Explosion Hazard Onsite
Gas cylinders must be

correctly secured,
otherwise:
1. May cause direct injury.
2. May snatch hoses and
blowpipe.
3. Regulator may break off
escape of gas.
4. Valve may break off escape of gas.
5. Valve may break off cylinder accelerating by
rocket action.
21-1
Checking Gas Cylinder for Leaks Welding Fume and Gases
Effect of welding fume and gasses on health:

 Fume - particulate and toxic: irritation of nose, throat,
lungs, asphyxiation.
 Ozone - irritation of nose, throat lungs; excess mucous
 Leak testing. secretion, coughing.
 Nitrous oxide, hydrogen chloride, phosgene - delayed
irritation and toxic effect on upper respiratory tract;
 Acetylene screws are
excess fluid in lungs.
left handed!
 Carbon monoxide - oxygen deficiency, drowsiness,
headache, nausea; fatal oxygen starvation.
 Carbon dioxide - oxygen deficiency, asphyxiation.
 Argon, helium, nitrogen – asphyxiation.
 Hydrogen, other fuel gases - explosion, fire, asphyxiation.
Welding Fume Welding Fume
Welding fume Things to be addressed:

sources: • Composition of the fume.
 Parent material. • Concentration of the fume.
(Cr6 thought to be
• Duration of exposure.
carcinogenic!)
 Welding consumables.
(filler, flux, gas).
 Action of heat/UV on air: Fume health effects:
Nitrous oxide and ozone.
 Surface treatments. Respiratory Metal fume Systemic Chronic
(paint, plating, tract irritation fever poisoning effects
coatings).
 Cleaning fluids.
Control of substances hazardous to health COSHH regulations requires fume

(COSHH) regulations set occupational measurement:
exposure limits
a. In workshop.
8hr TWA 10min TWA
b. In breathing zone.
mg/m³ mg/m³
Iron 5 10 c. Regular monitoring.
Cr6 0.5 d. Regular auditing.
Ozone 0.2 0.6
Cadmium 0.05 0.05
Weld fume 5 Note: COSHH regulations covers also noise
Aluminum 5 exposure.
TWA - Time waited average
21-2
How to avoid welding How to avoid welding fume exposure:

fume exposure:  Use fresh air welding helmets.
 Keep head out of fume.  Use respirators as second line of defense.
 Work upwind of weld.
 Use local fume
extraction.
Respiratory Protective Equipment

Electrical Shock
(RPE) Requirements
 Must be suitable for purpose. Points to be considered:
 Must be approved by relevant organisations. O.C.V. : for AC - 80V; for DC - 70V.
 Must be fully maintained.
Modern equipment: 50V.
 Must be safely stored.
 Must be correctly fitted. Plasma cutting: over 100V.
 Selection, maintenance and fitting require TIG uses HF: round 20,000V.
trained staff.
 Users must be trained in its use.
RPE can adversely affect:
 Communication.  Visibility.
 Work rate.  Use of other PPE.
 Mobility.  Tool use.
Electrical Shock Electrical Shock
Points to be considered: Welding current flows in

crane hook, wire rope,
Check weld connections and cable insulation.
crane bearings weakens
and damage them.
Possibly burning out the

crane electrics!
Bad! Good!
21-3
Electrical Shock Eye Injuries and Skin Burns
Welding return lead Electric arc produces ultra violet/infra red light
runs directly to the Gives arc eye and skin burns!
work: No damage. Measures to be taken:
 Wear PPE.
Earth lead divert  Choose shade of filter according to welding process.
current from the
crane:
Supplementary
safeguard.
Eye Injuries and Skin Burns Skin Burns
 Wear safety goggles and visor during grinding. Do NOT leave flame
 Wear ear defenders. unattended!
Warning
notice
Fire extinguisher (if

any combustible
material nearby!)
Work in Confined Spaces Summary
Definition: Any place by virtue of its enclosed  Be aware of health and safety regulations for each specific
nature, there is a foreseeable risk of any specified application!
 Are the cables the right size for your job?
occurrence.
 Are they spread out or run neatly to prevent overheating?
Example: chambers, tanks, silos, pits, pipes, etc.  Is the work lead connected securely?
 Is there enough insulation between your body and the
Specified occurrence:
work piece?
 Fire or explosion.  Are all connections tight, including the earth ground?
 Loss of consciousness or asphyxiation due to  Are electrode holder and welding cable in good
gas, fumes, vapour or lack of oxygen. conditions?
 Do not operate with power source covers removed!
 Drowning.  Disconnect input power before servicing!
 Asphyxiation due to free flowing solid.  Do not touch electrically live parts or electrode with skin
or wet clothing!
 Loss of consciousness due to high temperature.
 Insulate yourself from work and ground!
21-4
Any Questions
?
21-5
Calibration Objectives

will have a greater understanding of why we
need calibration and validation to monitor in
process operations.
Calibration
Section 22
Calibration/Validation Calibration/Validation
BS 7570: Covers the calibration and validation Calibration can only be done on equipment with
of welding equipment. meters or gauges as theses can be adjusted.
Grade 1 (general purpose equipment) all Validation can be done on equipment with and
parameters should be +/- 10%. without meters or gauges.
Grade 2 (Automatic or automated equipment) Oil fill transformers etc.

parameters should be +/- 2.5% for current and
+/- 5% for all other parameters. All equipment can be Validated but not all
equipment can be Calibrated.
Measuring in Welding Welding Current Measurement
The purposes Definition: The current delivered by a welding

of measuring power source during welding.
 Measured with an ammeter.
Demonstration of
Welding process  Measured in A.
conformance to specified
requirements control  The ammeter may be connected at any point in
the circuit.
 Due to its sensitivity, a shunt is needed.
Parameters to be measured:  Indirect measurement: Tachogenerator and tong
tester.
 Welding current.  Preheat/inter-pass
 Arc voltage. temperature.
 Travel speed.  Force/pressure.
 Shielding gas flow rate.  Humidity.
22-1
The Tong Tester Arc Voltage Measurement
 Used for AC current Definition: The potential difference across the

 No need to insert the welding arc.
meter into the circuit.  Varies with the arc length.
 Measured with a voltmeter.
 Measured in V.
 The voltmeter may be connected only across the
circuit (to the workpiece and as close as possible
to the electrode).
 If the voltmeter is connected at the welding power
source, a higher voltage will be recorded (due to
potential drops across cables).
 Usually not required for MMA and TIG.
Travel Speed Measurement Gas Flow Rate Measurement
Definition: The rate of weld progression. Definition: The rate at which gas is caused to
 Measured in case of mechanised and automatic flow.
welding processes.
 In case of MMA can be determined using ROL and Set with a gas regulator Can be checked with a flowmeter
arc time.
Welding Temperatures Definitions Welding Temperatures - Where?
Preheat  Is the temperature of the workpiece in Point of measurement -

temperature the weld zone immediately before any see BS EN ISO 13916
welding operation (including tack
welding).
Interpass  Normally expressed as a minimum.  If t  50mm - A = 4 x t
temperature  Is the temperature in a multirun weld but max. 50mm.
and adjacent parent metal immediately
prior to the application of the next run.  The temperature shall
 Normally expressed as a maximum. be measured on the
surface of the
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
workpiece facing the
 Is the minimum temperature in the weld welder.
Preheat zone which shall be maintained if
Maintenance welding is interrupted.
temperature  Shall be monitored during interruption.
22-2
Welding Temperatures - Where? Welding Temperatures - How?
Point of measurement - Test equipment

see BS EN ISO 13916
 If t > 50mm - A = min. 75mm. Thermocouple
 Where practicable, the (TE)
temperature shall be measured
on the face opposite to that
Temperature
sensitive Thermistor
being heated.
materials (CT)
 Allow 2 min per every 25 mm of
parent metal thickness for (TS)
temperature equalisation. Optical/electrical
 Interpass temperature shall be devices for
measured on the weld metal or Contact contactless
immediately adjacent parent thermometer measurement (TB)
metal. (CT)
Temperature Test Equipment Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature Thermocouple
sensitive materials:  Based on measuring the thermoelectric potential
difference between a hot junction (on weld) and
 Crayons, paints and pills.
a cold junction.
 Cheap.
 Convenient, easy to use.  Accurate method.
 Measures over a wide range of temperatures.
 Gives the actual temperature.
 Need calibration.
Doesn’t measure the
actual temperature!
Temperature Test Equipment Temperature Test Equipment
Thermistors Devices for contactless

 Are temperature-sensitive measurement
resistors whose resistance  IR radiation and optical
varies inversely with pyrometer
temperature.  Measure the radiant
 Used when high sensitivity is energy emitted by the
required. hot body.
 Gives the actual temperature.  Contactless method -
can be used for remote
 Need calibration. measurements.
 Can be used up to 320°C.  Very complex.
 For measuring high
temperatures.
22-3
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System) PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
PAMS UNIT What does a PAMS unit measure?

The purposes Gas flow rate
of PAMS (heating
Welding
current (Hall element
effect device) sensor)
For measuring For calibrating
and recording and validating
the welding the welding
Wire feed speed
parameters equipment
(tachometer)
Arc voltage
(connection
leads) Temperature (thermocouple)
Use of PAMS Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed Shielding gas flow

monitoring rate monitoring
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator Heating element
sensor
Calibration, Validation and Monitoring Calibration and Validation
Definitions: When is it required?

 Measurement = set of operations for determining a  Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of
value of a quantity. a quantity.
 Repeatability = closeness between successive  Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
measuring results of the same instrument carried out results of the same instrument carried out under the same
under the same conditions. conditions.
 Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that  Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
are intended to keep the errors within specified limits. intended to keep the errors within specified limits.
 Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or  Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
measuring device. device.
 Validation = checking the control knobs and switches  Validation = checking the control knobs and switches
provide the same level of accuracy when returned to a provide the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-
pre-determined point. determined point.
 Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and  Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
other items) are in accordance with the procedure or items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification.
specification.
 See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
22-4
Calibration and Validation Calibration and Validation
When it is not required? When it is not required?

 When verification of the process is not required.  In case of mass production when all the following
 In case of small series and single piece conditions are fulfilled:
production when all the following conditions are □ Production is controlled by pre-production testing,
fulfilled: followed by testing of samples from production at
 Procedures are approved by procedure testing. regular intervals.
 production is carried out by the same welding □ A statistical quality control system is used.
machine used during procedure testing. □ The process is stable between testing of samples.
□ Pre-production testing and sampling are
performed separately for each production line
(robotic cells).
Welding Parameter Example 1 -

Calibration/Validation MMA Elementary Monitoring
Which parameters need calibration/validation? In theory any MMA operation could require
 Depends on the welding process. monitoring of:
 See BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details.
How accurate?  Welding current.
 Arc voltage.
 Depends on the application.
 R.O.L.
 Welding current - ±2.5%.  Preheat/interpass temperature.
 Arc voltage - ±5%.  Electrode treatment and storage.
 Wire feed speed - ±2.5%.
 Gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas In practice (depending on the application) only the
flow rate). welding current could require monitoring with a
 Temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%. tongue test ammeter.
Example 2 - Example 3 -
High Integrity MMA Operation MIG/MAG Welding With a Robot
In theory, this might require monitoring of all the In theory, the following would require monitoring:
activities previously mentioned.  Wire feed speed.
The equipment thus required:  Amperage.
 Ammeter.  Voltage.
 Voltmeter.  Travel speed.
 Stop watch. Or a PAMS  Gas flow rate.
 Tape measure.  Repeatability of the controls.
 Thermometer. In practice, a data logger would be preferred to
 Calculator. monitor all the parameters; also a PAMS would be
All of the above equipment would require calibration; required to check the repeatability of the control
any meters fitted to the power source or electrode knobs.
ovens would also require calibration.
22-5
Summary
 A welding power source can only be calibrated if

it has meters fitted.
 The inspector should check for calibration
Any Questions
stickers, dates etc.
?
 A welding power source without meters can only
be validated that the control knobs provide
repeatability.
 The main role is to carryout in process
monitoring to ensure that the welding
requirements are met during production.
22-6
Practical Sessions Objective
When these presentation have been completed

you will have a greater understanding of the
examination requirement and how to identify
and plot weld defects around real life welds and
the classroom specimens on which you will be
Practical Plate Inspection examined.
Example of Weld Face Example of Plate Root

EXAMPLE PLATE REPORT
Candidates Name……………………………….. Specification……………………………..
MEASURE
Candidates signature…………………………… Welding process………………………..

A B
Welding Position………………………..
MEASURE
Root
WELD FACE concavity Lack of root
2mm deep Fusion
FROM
A Undercut
B 23
Gas pore 10 24
Lack of sidewall smooth 20
7
FROM
fusion 1.5 Ø 1.5 max

87 230 236 30
22
THIS
12 50
THIS
8
Incomplete root
51 8 15 40 Arc
penetration
DATUM
3 Strike
Slag
DATUM
Centreline 24
inclusion
crack 1
EDGE
EDGE
NOTES: Penetration Height = Toe Blend = Weld Width =

NOTES: Excess Weld Metal = Linear Misalignment = Toe Blend = Weld Width =
Plate Inspection Examination
2. Compare to acceptance standard.
1. Read the Questions and compare

Any Questions
with your thumb print.
3. Mark the answer in the OMR grid

in pencil and accept or reject
accordingly. When you are sure
about your answer mark the OMR
grid in BLACK PEN.
?
A2-1
Practical Sessions Objective
When these presentation have been completed

you will have a greater understanding of the
examination requirement and how to identify
and plot weld defects around real life welds and
the classroom specimens on which you will be
Practical Pipe Inspection examined.
Pipe Inspection Hi-Low and Root Gap Measurements

1
Root gap
dimension
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
Internal
alignment
Pipe Inspection Examination

Pipe Inspection Examination Pipe Inspection Examination
EXAMPLE PIPE REPORT
 After you have observed an imperfection and

Name: [Block capitals] ….............................. Signature: ……………….
Date…………………….
Code/Specification used: …………………… Welding process: ……………… Joint type: …………….
determined its type, you must be able to take Welding position: …………………. Outside Dia & thickness ……………
WELD FACE
Date ……………………
measurements and complete the thumb print A Lack of side B Arc Strike C
report sketch. 140
wall fusion
8 40
Under fill
12
98
 The first thumb print report sketch should be in

90 10 180 60 5
the form of a repair map of the weld. (ie all 20 15 46
Slag
observations are Identified sized and located). Lack of side Undercut Under fill
inclusion
wall fusion >1.0 mm
NOTES:
Excess Weld Metal Height = Misalignment = Weld Width = Toe Blend =
 The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP Lack of side wall fusion
Arc Strike
C D A
exam will look like the following example. Slag / incomplete fill
12 15 3 8 2
0 8 5
 The thumb print is to used in conjunction with

the multiple choice questions during the
examination .
NOTES:
Excess Weld Metal Height = Misalignment = Weld Width = Toe Blend =
A3-1
Pipe Inspection Examination Pipe Inspection Examination
PIPE ROOT FACE
1. Read the Questions and compare 2. Compare to acceptance standard.
A Lack of B C
root fusion Burn with your thumb print.
140 through
8 40 6
2 1 90 1 180 46 5
6
0 5 0
0
Lack of Undercut Excess Poor stop
root >1.0 mm penetration start
penetratio 5mm
n
NOTES:
Excess Penetration Height = Toe Blend =
Lack of
C D root fusion
A
38 8
3. Mark the answer in the OMR grid
in pencil and accept or reject
12 accordingly. When you are sure
0 120
about your answer mark the OMR
Smooth Undercut grid in BLACK PEN.
<1.0mm
NOTES: Excess Penetration Height = Toe Blend =
Any Questions
?
A3-2
Macro Objective

will have a greater understanding of Macro
examination and assessment to the acceptance
criteria.
Practical Macro Inspection
Macro Inspection Examination Macro Inspection Examination
For CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors examination

you are required to conduct a visual examination
of two macro samples.
Time allowed 45 minutes
Acceptance Levels TWI 09
Macro Defects Macro Defects
A5-1
Macro Inspection Macro Inspection
Welded with SMAW Welded with SMAW

9 1
1
6
8
2
2
7
5
6
3
5 4 3 4

7 1
Welded with SMAW
8 1
7 6
2
3
3
6
5
4
5 4
Welded with SMAW Welded with GMAW 1
7
10
1
6
9 2
3
2
5
4
4 3 8 7 6 5
A5-2
Macro Inspection Examination
1. Examine the Macro Photograph
10 3. Compare Against Acceptance Levels
Any Questions
9 1
8
TWI 09 Exam Acceptance Levels for Plate, Pipe and Macro
D=Depth L=Length H=Height t =Thickness

Acceptance Levels
Table Number
Acceptance levels Plate and Pipe
Defect Type
Macro Only
7 Remarks Maximum Allowance Remarks
At no point shall the excess weld

Excess weld metal will not exceed H= 2mm in any
metal fall below the outside surface
Excess Weld area on the circumference of the pipe, showing As for plate and pipe
1 of the pipe. All weld runs shall blend
Metal smooth transition at weld toes.
smoothly.
?
6
Slag inclusions are defined as non The length of the slag inclusion shall not exceed
metaltic inclusions trapped in the 50mm. continuous or intermittent. Accumulative
Slag/Silica
2 weld metal or between the weld totals shall not exceed 50mm 1mm diameter
Inclusions
metal and the parent material.
2
Under cut is defined as a grove The length of any undercut shall not exceed 50mm
melted into the parent metal, at the continuous or intermittent. Accumulative totals shall
3 Undercut toes of the weld excess metal, root or not exceed 50mm. Max D = 2mm for the excess
0.5mm deep
adjacent weld metal. weld metal. Root undercut not permitted.
Trapped gas, in weld metal,
Individual pores ≥ 1.5 max.Cluster porosity 10mm in
elongated, individual pores, cluster
4 Porosity area.Elongated, piping or wormholes
porosity, piping or wormhole
15mm max. L continuous or intermittent. 1mm diameter
porosity.
Transverse, longitudinal, star cracks

5 Cracks Not permitted Not permitted
or crater cracks.
Incomplete fusion between the weld Surface breaking lack of side wall fusion, lack of
.
metal and base material, incomplete inter-run fusion continuous or intermittent not to
Lack of fusion between weld metal. (lack of exceed 25mm. Accumulative totals not to exceed
6 Not permitted
fusion inter-run fusion) 25mm over a 300mm length of weld.
Damage to the parent material or
weld metal, from an un-intentional
touch down of the electrode or arcing Not permitted
7 Arc Strikes
from poor connections in the welding Not permitted
circuit.
Damage to the parent material or
Mechanical weld metal, internal or external
8 Max. D = 0.5 Not permitted
Damage resulting from any activities.
Mismatch between the welded or un- Max.= 1.5 L not exceed 30mm continuous or
Misalignmen
9 welded joint. intermittent As for plate and pipe
3
t
Excess weld metal, above the base
material in the root of the joint. At no
Max H ≤ 2mm
10 Penetration point shall the penetration fall below As for plate and pipe
the thickness of the material.
Lack of root The absence of weld metal in the root
5
Not permitted
11 penetration area. Refer to Table 10
Lack of root Inadequate cross penetration of both Lack of root fusion, not to exceed 50mm total
12
4
fusion root faces. continuous or accumulative. No t permitted
Burn
13 through Excessive penetration , collapse of
Not permitted Not permitted
the weld root
2. Read the Questions

4. Mark the answer in the OMR grid in
1. What is the defect at position 1 and pencil and accept or reject accordingly.
would you accept or reject the defect to
When you are sure about your answer
the given acceptance levels?
mark the OMR grid in BLACK PEN
a. Poor toe blend
b. Underfill
c. Undercut
d. Lack of fusion
e. Accept
f. Reject
A5-3

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CSWIP 3.

CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector

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CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector Course Objectives

 To understand factors which influence the quality of

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The Course Course Contents

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 Exam after  No continuous Before attempting the examination, you MUST

 Two passport size photographs, with your name

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CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination

Multiple Choice Examination  Any standard/code

Closed book exam

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Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation

This will be required to

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 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector.

For further information

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CSWIP Certificate Scheme TWI Certification Ltd

Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 899000

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When this presentation has been completed you

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Main Responsibilities Personal Attributes

 Code compliance. Important qualities that good Inspectors

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Standard for Visual Inspection

 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and Vision access:

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Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637) Measuring devices:

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Welding Inspectors Gauges Welding Inspectors Equipment

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

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Welding Inspection Duties of a Welding Inspector

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)  Before welding:

defined in the application standard or by agreement  (after assembly).

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Before welding Before welding

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before welding Before welding

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before welding During welding

Fit-up Weather conditions

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During welding During welding

Welding consumables Inter-run dressing

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

After welding After welding

Weld identification Repairs

Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector WI Duties Before Welding

After welding Resume:

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Summary of Duties Summary of Duties

It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure A Welding Inspector must:

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When this presentation has been completed you