ASSIGNMENT 8

H03 Medical Terminology

URINARY SYSTEM

Our urinary system, sometimes referred to as the excretory, genitourinary (GU) or urogenital

system (UG), consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder and one urethra. We depend on

our urinary system in order to protect the body from poisoning itself and to maintain adequate

balance of fluids. The kidneys collect waste from the circulation and transform the waste into

urine. The urine goes from the kidneys via the ureters (a muscular tube going from each kidney

to the bladder that is approximately 28-34 cm long) to the bladder. Once the bladder is full, by

micturition (urination), the urine is expelled through the urethra. In women, the urethra is

positioned between the clitoris and vaginal opening and solely transports urine. In males, the

urethra transports both urine and semen. (Rice, J., 2012, p. 400)

Our bodies rely on kidneys for blood filtration. The kidneys wash and filter roughly 1,122 mL of

blood in one minute. In 2007-2015, (www.medicalook.com), It is the kidney's nephrons that

serve as both the organ's structural and functional unit. (Rice, J., 2012, pp. 402 and 403) To

maintain blood balance, these nephrons control the return of water and electrolytes (water and

water ions) into the bloodstream as needed to remove waste (urea, uric acid, creatinine, along

with excess levels of sodium, chloride, potassium, and ketones). In order to transfer the urine

from the kidneys to the bladder, each ureter has a muscular wall that contracts and relaxes. About

every 10-15 seconds, the bladder is filled with urine and the urethra is used to expel it.

(Zimmerman, B., 2015) (Zimmerman)

Damaged or dysfunctional kidneys prevent adequate filtration of toxins from blood and fluid

balance is disrupted. Hypertension, swelling, and/or edoema may result, and this may be an early

warning indication of various health problems such as tumours, type 2 diabetes, bacterial

infection, or renal failure. Dialysis (the use of artificial kidneys or devices to filter the blood for

toxins) may be necessary in certain situations of renal failure. A tumour, renal calculi

(nephrolith- kidney stone), or hyperplasia (enlargement) of the prostate gland may produce

blockages in the ureter (hydronephrosis), which can lead to kidney damage, decreased capacity

to urinate, and pain and discomfort.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FOR DIABETIC INDIVIDUALS

Type I diabetes is characterised by a lack of insulin production by the pancreas'

Islets of Langerhans cells. Insulin regulates glucose metabolism and the body's use

of carbs, fats, and proteins to keep blood glucose levels normal. On page 447 of

Rice's (James) 2012 book, This causes other glands to overwork themselves and

become overstimulated when insulin is absent from the body. Essentially, the

hypothalamus acts as a bridge between the neurological system and the endocrine

system, directing the pituitary gland to produce and when. Excessive thirst, for

example, is a typical sign of Diabetes. It's possible that the pituitary gland is

working overtime to compensate for the increased glucose levels in the blood,

resulting in this sensation. Hyperglycemia (a high amount of glucose in the blood)

may create a variety of other health issues as well. Glucose enters the bloodstream

every time we eat, and without insulin, it cannot enter the cells of the body and
give the vital energy or fuel they need. While carbs are digested, they are excreted

from the body in the form of urine because of an imbalance in fat-burning

metabolism. The buildup of acids and ketones is known as ketoacidosis. According

to Rice (Josephine 2012, p. 448), Hormones aren't working correctly in the body of

someone with Type II Diabetes. Although the pancreas is generally releasing

insulin, the body is "insulin-resistant" and cannot maintain a normal blood sugar

level or digest carbs, fats and proteins as well as it should. This results in an

abnormally low blood sugar level. Depending on the age at which the patient was

diagnosed with either kind of diabetes, the hormone imbalance may also impact the

production and absorption of growth hormones for muscles, bones, and other

glands. In 2014 and 2015, (www.medicalnewstoday.com) A single hormonal or

glandular problem may set off a cascade of problems throughout the body, all of

which can have a significant effect on the person's quality of life.

MAMMOGRAPHY ORDER OTHER THAN ROUTINE EXAMINATION

When a screening mammography reveals an abnormality, a physician would prefer to conduct a

diagnostic mammogram. Mammograms are often recommended if the patient has any of the

following symptoms: a nontender, moveable lump, abnormal nipple secretions or changes,

localised burning, stinging or hurting, or unexpected changes in symmetry. According to Rice's

(J.2012) p. 629, 689) 2012 book (Rice's, J).

TRIPLE NEGATIVE BREAST CANCER (FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM)

Breast cancer is identified based on three receptors: oestrogen, progesterone and human

epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) (HER2). Hormone receptor positive breast cancer

(HR Positive) may be diagnosed by the presence of these receptors and the most effective

therapies presently target these receptors. When none of these receptors are present, the breast

cancer type is referred to as "triple negative" (TNBC).

In the United States, Susan G. Komen (2014) estimates that 15-20% of breast cancers are TNBC.

Having a BRCA1 gene mutation increases your chance of developing TNBC, as does being

younger, black, or female. TNBC may be more aggressive and more likely to recur than other

breast cancers. For Life, p. 1)

As with other kinds of breast cancer, symptoms of TNBC may include a nontender, movable

lump; pain or burning in a well-localized location; and changes in breast symmetry and nipple

area. TNBC is more difficult to detect on a regular mammography than other forms of the

disease.

TNBC patients have fewer therapy choices, and those that are available are distinct from those

provided to HR positive receptor patients. Treatment may begin with a neoadjuvant

chemotherapy treatment to help shrink the tumour before surgery, depending on the size of the

tumour and the extent of the cancer's invasion. In addition, chemotherapy may be used to prevent

metastases (recurrence and spreading of the cancer cells beyond the original cancer-tumor site).

The oncology team will be able to determine the cancer's responsiveness to treatment based on

how well it responds to chemotherapy. There are two options for breast cancer surgery: a

lumptectomy (retaining as much breast tissue as possible if the tumour is tiny) or a mastectomy
(removing the whole breast). In 2013, (www.tnbcfoundation.org),

(http://www.tnbcfoundation.org)

Radiation therapy is often administered as a post-operative treatment. In order to prevent cancer

from returning to the surgical site, this is a local treatment that kills any remaining cancer cells. It

is often delivered through a beam from outside the body. In 2013, (www.tnbcfoundation.org),

(http://www.tnbcfoundation.org)