6.

S Indonesia

6.8.2 Application of Geophysical Methods to

Investigate the Extention of Primary Tin Deposits
in the Pemali Open Pit Mine, Bangka, Indonesia
EMPON RUSWANDI 1

Abstract

A study on the application of geophysical methods to investigate primary tin deposits

at Pemali has been conducted since early 1970 by the Geological Survey of Indonesia.
In 1980, an integrated gravity, magnetic, resistivity sounding and induced polarization
survey was conducted along profiles across the tin-bearing zone.
Magnetic and resistivity sounding methods fail to show anomalies relating to the
tin-bearing zone. Metal pipes and high voltage power lines in the mine area produce
noise which masks the low response anomalies. Furthermore, the complicated sub-
surface structure produces unreliable resistivity sounding results.
Bouguer gravity anomalies show a low value ranging between 2 and 3 mgals
stretching from south to north bending toward the northeast. This low gravity anom-
aly coincides with the alteration zone, along the contact between granite and metased-
iment.
Induced polarization shows relatively low apparent resistivity with a high percent
frequency effect (PFE) along the alteration zone. The apparent resistivity anomalies
ranging between 10 and 500 ohm-m occur in the south, whereas in the north the
anomalies range between 100 and 1,100 ohm-m. These anomalies coincide with a PFE
of (1-3) % and (2-5) % respectively.

Introduction

Pemali mine in Bangka, composed of relatively flat terrain with some nearby granite
hills, is situated about 75 km north of Pangkalpinang, the capital of Bangka (Fig. 1).
The mine lies in the contact zone between granite in the east and metasediments
in the west, 1,000 m long (N-S) and 500 m wide (E-W). Primary tin deposits in the
Pemali area have been mined by open pit methods since the early forties. Up to 1982,
mining activity has reached 30 m below sea level, or about 75 m below the ground sur-
face, and produced about 6.8323 tons of tin ore (Mulyadi, 1983).
Up until now, exploration by drilling, still being intensively carried out, has been
the only source of geological information. For a period of 43 years, from 1940 to 1983,

1 Directorate of Mineral Resources, Bandung, Indonesia

C. S. Hutchison (ed.), Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific
© United Nations New York 1988
 558 Indonesia

1°50' r---------o:-----,....----------.....,

1°55'
W
SCALE
Y
o Survey area
4

-- 5 Km

Fig. 1. Index Map of the Survey Area, Bangka

drilling had reached a tremendous cumulative depth of 22,763 m within a relatively

small area. Such a programme has been enormously expensive, representing a major
problem for this and other mines throughout Southeast Asia.
Because of this problem, the Southeast Asia Tin Research and Development
Centre (SEATRAD Centre) initiated a geophysical survey in the Pemali area. The
programme was carried out by the Directorate of Mineral Resources of Indonesia in
collaboration with McPhar Geoservices (Philippines) Inc. in 1980.

Geophysical Survey

The geophysical survey consisted of gravity, magnetic, induced polarization (IP) and
resistivity sounding methods along profiles crossing the tin producing zone. The sur-
vey lines, 1,000 m in length trending east-west, were laid out every 50 m. The
geophysical survey was done on 24 lines, covering an area of 1.2 km2 • Gravity and
magnetic observations were done at stations of 10 m intervals along each profile. The
induced polarization method was conducted by setting up a dipole-dipole arrange-
ment for every 50 m dipole length. The resistivity soundings were needed as controls
and thus only done at 21 selected stations 250 m apart.
Alteration processes, which followed the granite intrusion into the metasedi-
ments, reduced the rock densities 20 to 25 % . The alteration has also changed the elec-
tric properties through the formation of clay minerals. These changes have rendered
the rocks susceptible to gravity and electrical methods. Cassiterite and sulphide min-
erals in the alteration zone cause an enhancement of the induced polarization
response.
Empon Ruswandi 559

Geological Setting

The rocks observed in the mine area are classified into three groups, from old to
young respectively: metasediments, granite and alluvial deposits.
The Permian to U. Triassic metasediments (Priem et aI., 1975; Cobbing and Mal-
lick, 1984) consist mainly of slate and schist with quartzite lenses.
The metasediments generally strike NW-SE, dipping steeply northeast. Granite
intrusion took place around the Triassic/Jurassic boundary (Cobbing and Mallick,
1984) through the bedding plane fractures of the strata. The contact zones are thin and
narrow, dipping east at 70°.
Four types of granite are noted in the mine (Schwartz and Suyono, 1984):
1) Medium grained foliated granite, observed along the tin-producing zone (some
workers name it the Pemali granite). At many places the granite is altered to
greisen and is very rich in tin ore (Fig. 2).
2) Feldspar-megacrystic medium grained granite, known as the Klabat granite, is
observed in the southeast corner of the mine.
3) Fine grained equigranular granite, observed in very limited places east of the Pem-
ali granite.
4) Porphyritic (quartz) fine-grained granite is also noted, see Fig. 2. These granites
belong to the variable assemblage of coarse, medium and fine grained alkali-
feldspar-megacrystic granite of the Tanjung Raya Complex (Cobbing and Mallick,
1984).

3rOO~W~~2~0~0____~IOOr-____~0~__~IOO~__~2~OrO____~300

22

21

t
20

19
o

OJ ~~; ,
18

{/j!®
:
17
~ ~ 6J. . . .\ . . :, 16E

l .. i~~;I':~ ~
[.±]Medlum_orained foliated '.
granite '. ~
~ t 8 ~ 13

Fig. 2. Geological map of the

!xl Feilispar_megacrystic <fTTml> 12
LJ medium oro ined granite '\I.JV
Pemali mine (after Schwartz and rrrm Fine _ grained equlllrllnular II
Suyono, 1984). The Fig. 10 to lliW granite
22 refer to the geophysical lines, r:0I PorphyrItic (quartz) flne_
10
l:.:J grained granite
and 100 to 300 are distances in , Grelsen
m from the base line (0)
560 Indonesia

The metasediments and granite experienced alteration during a late magmatic

process, characterized by the alteration of feldspar into sericite and clay minerals,
along with the formation of veins that contain quartz, sericite, tourmaline, topaz and
fluorite (Setiawan et aI., 1984).
The alluvial deposits generally are very thin and are observed at the southern part
of the map. Some places are also covered by artificial deposits. The alluvial deposits
consist mainly of clay and sand.

Tin Mineralization.

Metasomatic and hydrothermal processes, which followed the granite intrusion into
the metasediments, resulted in the mineralization of cassiterite and its associated min-
erals in the contact zone.
The ore bodies can be found either in the granite or in the metasediments as
stockworks along the contact zone. Greisenization has led to the formation of pockets
and lenses of ore bodies within the granite. So far, the greisen is the primary host of
cassiterite ore in the Pemali mine. The richest ore production zone is associated with
the greisen.
Mulyadi (1983) stated that the tin enrichment is very much affected by fault struc-
tures along the contact zone. He observed that cassiterite in the metasediments is
always associated with fault breccia, and particularly the fault close to the contact
zone shows a higher grade of cassiterite when it contains fault breccia.
Commonly associated minerals in the ore are sulphide, tourmaline and topaz.
Noer (personal comm.) has noted from core samples that marcasite is common in the
area.

Geophysical Anomalies

l. Gravity

Figure 3 shows a simple Bouguer anomaly map of the Pemali area standardized
against the gravity national network at Kemayoran Airport in Jakarta and is calcu-
lated using a density of 2.67 ton-m,3.
On the west side, a high gravity anomaly is noted over the metasediments and is
part of the high gravity anomaly existing west of the map (Oentoeng, 1972). The coin-
cidence of this high gravity with the metasediments suggests an association of high
density metasediments with the regional tectonic trend of Bangka.
It is very difficult, however, to find samples of fresh metasediments for direct mea-
surement, but there is no evidence of the existence of intrusive bodies around the
anomaly. In this region, the anomaly shows a NW-SE contour lineation parallel to the
main structural trend of Bangka. In the actively mined area, a low gravity anomaly
with a northerly trend is observed (Fig. 4). The anomaly inclines northeast towards
that corner of the map.
Field evidence shows that this low anomaly is mainly related to the altered rocks
in the area. Here, as previously mentioned, late magmatic processes have caused the
alteration of feldspar into sericite and clay minerals, well known for their low density.
Empon Ruswandi 561

300 200 100 o 100 200 300 ~OOE

24
23

22
21
.,,.---,)
... - -_ ... " 20

19

"-
13

12

II

10

8
7

6
0 100 200M
I I I
/6~ ~

Fig. 3. Simple Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Pemali Area. The contour interval is 0.5 mgal

Within this low gravity zone, a relatively positive anomaly with very low amplitude
is observed just over the Pemali granite in the mine. The pattern of the anomaly shows
that the granite body is relatively thin, forming a dyke which dips steeply eastward at
about 70°. This Pemali granite consists of fine to medium grained minerals altered to
greisen.
In the southeast corner of the map, the anomaly is very weak and almost flat, of
6 to 7 mgals magnitude. This anomaly typically coincides with the Klabat medium to
coarse grained granite. The anomaly pattern suggests that the granite extends south-
eastward to the southern tip of the mine. A similar gravity anomaly in the northwest
of the map may be related to the granite underneath. Some granites have been discov-
ered east of the anomaly at the northern end of the mine. Smaller gravity anomalies
that differ from the earlier mentioned anomalies are interpreted as related to fault
structures, and are grouped into two general strikes. The first one is correlated with
normal faults; the second with wrench faults. These anomalies suggest that the second
group of faults most likely occurred later.
562 Indonesia

500W 300 200 100 o 100 200 300

24

23

22
21

20
19

" 13
12
II

10

8
7
0 100 200M
I 6
/6~ 5

Fig. 4. Geology and Bouguer gravity map of the Pemali Area. Faults interpreted from the gravity
are shown as dashed lines. For legend see Figures 2 and 3

Some north-south trending faults are also apparent, particularly one that can be
seen at the tin-producing zone.
The total magnetic anomaly shows an irregular pattern as predicted. Man-made
objects such as metal pipes, electric power poles, and high voltage power lines can
produce a magnetic anomaly as high as 1,500 gammas, while the magnetic anomaly
associated with granite ranges only between 20 and 100 gammas (Oentoeng, 1972).
Thus, it is clear that such high noise seriously mantles the low magnetic signal pro-
duced by naturally occurring granite.
The filtering process applied to the observed data did not agree with the predic-
tion since the process reduced the size of anomaly by about 15 % . The filtered data
show a clear anomaly in the 400 by 400 m area, and it indicates a relatively noise-free
anomaly with magnetic poles at lines 14, and 17 -18. An "upward continuation" for
h=2 shows a much clearer anomaly (Fig. 5). The magnetic pole at line 14 is clearly vis-
ible and is associated with the occurrence of fine grained granite. Meanwhile, the
magnetic pole at line 17 -18 is not very clear, but it may be related to granite in the
area.
Empon Ruswandi 563

~30 /((I~;;
~1f.'8
:~17
0) 20

10
20 40/.
30
16

·15

0
. 14

UPWARD CONTINUATION
OF TOTAL MAGNETIC ANOMALY
(CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 GAMMA)

·12
o 50 100M
o

200W 100 6 100 200E

Fig. 5. Upward continuation of total magnetic anomaly for h=2

On the whole, the magnetic method does not seem to work effectively in a place
like Pemali.

2. Induced Polarization

We must first discuss three parameters: resistivity, percent frequency effect (PFE) and
metal factor (MF). The resistivity anomaly, related to the cassiterite zone in the low
gravity zone, shows variable values between 10 ohm-m and 1,100 ohm-m. The
background resistivity anomaly ranges between 200 and 700 ohm-m for metasedi-
ments and between 200 and 1,800 ohm-m for granite.
In the south, the resistivity anomaly related to the alteration zone shows low val-
ues of 10 to 500 ohm-m, while in the north, the anomaly shows a higher value of 75 to
1,144 ohm-m. These results may be related to the mineralization in those mentioned
areas (Table 1).
One of the most striking features of the anomaly shown by resistivity profiles is the
mineralization observed at a contact zone between low and high resistivity contours,
showing that the mineralization took place in the contact zone between granite and
metasediments (Figs. 6 and 7).
564 Indonesia

Table 1. List of IP parameters correlated to the drilling log

Line No. App. resistivity PFE(%) MF(mhos) Remark
(ohm-m)
8 (S) 200 1- 3 20 - 200 Contact zone
9 10 - 500 1- 3 10 - 300 Contact zone
10 100 - 300 2 20 - 50 Contact zone
11 100 3 30 Greisen
12 30 - 300 2-4 20 - 50 Greisen
20 - 80 1.6 Contact zone
13 200 3 Greisen
14 114 - 1000 4-5 10 - 30 Greisen
15 100 - 500 2-5 10 - 20 Greisen
16 108 - 1144 3.5 - 5 10 - 20 Greisen
17 1000 5 - 6 10 - 20 Greisen?
18 1000 5 - 6 10 - 20 Greisen
19 (N) 500 2.5 10 - 30 Greisen
700 5 Contact zone?

LINE eN
o"50m

PFE
46 33 33
17 !l- ZZ ;19 14 I 06 49 • • •
': / . zo .
/zo 17 ~. o? \~Z;4"'33
• • • 36 5 .45
3. 30 ____ Z8~
.0----..::..-----.
(Z~) ~o~~~ ~~~.------...:
• ~ • • 10 0 38 Z6 •
'2.------ • •• (. I Z
I; Z q3 • 10 48
• • • •zo • J,.,~' 1;---1.5
' . .17
\ 5- 1 II 13 ., 0 {z;--" .
2~#9~1~ . •

I~ ~~ 0Z"
.~ ~

\
(07\·
• I
IZ
• '" I'\i \ / '(". <2
,0 3.:') .8~.' ,.".
:~
MF
10 14
16
I~ I.Z ? 16 9 18 ~ 24 <6' 1.8
2O~1~ .:. • 5 12 14 .' 2~ ~ ~
14

3O~5 ~3 ~ZvZ.2~Z.4 2~ ~~~4 2} I?I~ ~ !!

4.~~~5 ~2 z.~~,!"'~~/;
II i
3.6 ! < II

OJ; "b '>0-u \ "'00"''0 0 0

Fig. 6. Profile showing IP pseudo section and drilling log. Blackened drilling log section indicates tin
content prospect
Empon Ruswandi 565

LINE 10 N
a=50m
3.5W 3:L 2.5 2.0
·-----·--......,J.5

PFE
1;P....--I.o~e~.1 I.~ I' . 1.9~I.B
'"
1.0 I. 2.1
~22
• • 2.3 :1 6 47
3.7 I
2.~ ~
15
•
o.B 2~0~~
1.5~4 1.6 2.7 ~.3
1.7-......,. 4.3 ® 3'B~~L2
1.5 1.2 ~~
1.2 ~B' 9 . ~.o 1.9 I~ 3.1 3.9 \"1.1 1.3
1.9 2.2 1:7 I.B 1.6 ' - - 2. 2.5 ~
1.2 N.R 2,.2 e 1.7 1.9 N.R 1.8 ~.e 2.B ~ 1.5

LINE 12 N
a=50m
E

PFE
1.2 1.3 I.'!.-- e2.5 l5 • 2.2
4-'"
-:;7
27

1.6 .....2.0 2.6

./~.
2~ 12.4 e 5
I! ~l·7.7/7 3·4
~3.0 I ~27
1.5" 2
~ -
2.7 24 N·R '\..../
/" 1.0 us 1.6 2M X:.l' 6.6 ~~"'
1.2 1.5

~~~~~~ 5~
• N.R NR ~ 8 0 l\.8 5 •
3.5 N.R • \ 48 2.
N N.R ,,-6.1 e '1 .6 3 • " 1'1 N.R 5 3.5 3
.R N.R 0.5 1 .6 N.R N.R N.R N.R 3.7 4.3

MF

Fig. 7. IP pseudo sections for lines 10 and 12

566 Indonesia

The PFE values of the profiles in general show moderate to high anomalies rang-
ing between 1 % and 6 %, as expected.
Cassiterite is believed to be one of the oxide minerals which is an electric conduc-
tor and can be expected to give IP effects (Madden and Cantwell, 1967). Thus cassiter-
ite is a valid IP target.
The tendency for two different resistivity ranges, as mentioned above, is also
observed in the PFE anomalies. In the south, the PFE anomaly ranges between 1 %
and 3 %; in the north between 1 and 6 %. The transition area is between line 12 and
line 13.
The high PFE anomaly in the north is associated with sulphide mineral in the cas-
siterite ore which doubles the PFE anomaly. The IP effect will also occur in the pres-
ence of a small quantity of clay minerals/particles (membrane) in pores, called "mem-
brane polarization".
A large quantity of clay minerals existing in the contact zone (about 30% by vol-
ume) will result in less polarization than if a smaller quantity of clay minerals were
present (about 10%) (Marshall and Madden, 1959). In the presence of large quan-
tities of clay minerals, the IP effect will not occur since the membranes will be bypas-
sed by purely resistive paths (Ward and Fraser, 1967). We believe that the clay mineral
content in the alteration zone could be as high as 30 %, therefore the occurrence" of
relatively high PFE values here is considered to be associated with the presence of cas-
siterite. Drilling data in the area confirms this hypothesis.
The metal factor (some workers call it the metal conduction factor) is another way
of expressing the IP anomaly. It is done by normalization of PFE to its resistivity and
is a measure of the amount of conduction that involves polarization blockage.
The metal factor, which is considered to be associated with the cassiterite, ranges
between 20 and 50 mhos (Table 1). A higher value of metal factor seems due to low
resistivity caused by clay minerals.
Some twenty-one resistivity soundings were conducted at selected points, and five
of them were done on line 5 of the IP survey. The interpreted curves and IP pseudo
sections are drawn together as shown in Fig. 8.
In general, the figure shows that there are three different layers: fresh layers on
top and bottom, and an altered layer in between.
The top layer with resistivity ranging between 976 and 2079 ohm-m is interpreted
to be granite (S7, S9, S4 and SIS); S14 with a resistivity of 1357 ohm-m is interpreted
to be metasediments.
The altered rock, with its resistivity ranging between 57 and 409 ohm-m, thickens
on both sides. Meanwhile, the bottom layer, with its resistivity of 50 to 1364 ohm-m
and interpreted as granite, shows a shallow section around 135 meters between SIS
and S4. The situation contradicts the IP data here for the IP anomaly shows that this
area is still of low resistivity. This phenomenon repeats at S9.
It is apparent that the resistivity sounding tends to show a more shallow depth of
rock compared to the IP.
Heterogeneity of the rocks or a layering system causes errors in the sounding
method and fails to render reliable information.
The sounding method has not properly worked in areas similar to Pemali.
Empon Ruswandi 567

Line 5 0= 50 m

1258

Fig. 8. The IP pseudo section of line 5 with the resistivity sounding profile along the line. Sounding
numbers are shown as S4 etc. Larger size numbers refer to the resistivity values from the resistivity
sounding data

Discussion

The IP anomaly is superimposed over the Bouguer gravity anomaly in Fig. 9.

Here, the occurrence of the IP anomaly is clearly seen over the low gravity ano-
maly of the alteration zone.
The figure also shows that the suspected mineralization zone coincides with a
moderate slope of the gravity anomaly. This may be related to the fact that the cassit-
erite is always located at the contact between granite and metasediments, both of
which have been altered.
The alteration zone in the magnetic anomaly, in general is shown by a weak anom-
aly less than 20 gammas (Fig. 5). The alteration process has reduced the magnetic sus-
ceptibility of the rocks, so that the contrast between granite and metasediments is
very small. The magnetic poles at lines 14 and 17-18 that coincide with the occur-
rence of fine-grained granite are merely due to that granite.
This suggests that the fine-grained granite is likely to be more susceptible to the
alteration process. On the other hand, the difference between granites is not clearly
defined by the gravity anomaly.
A weak but positive gravity anomaly that coincides with the Pemali granite is well
outlined by the IP anomaly pattern. In many cases, the definite IP anomaly directly
568 Indonesia

500W 400 300 200 100 o 100 200 300 400 500E
24

23
/////// -~-,...-
22
21
20

19

13

12
II

10

B
7
o 100 200 M
6
I I I

-\0---- QQ///////// /6~ 5

,p::. Gravity anomaly contour I. P anomaly. definite

--- Fault. Interpreted /////;' loP anomaly ,probable

Fig. 9. Gravity and IP anomalies of the Pemali area

correlates with the above mentioned gravity anomaly. Thus, the cassiterite is primarily
related to the occurrence of the Pemali granite which has been greisenized.
A hypotheses concerning the existence of two fault directions is quite apparent on
the map, when the gravity and the IP anomalies are superimposed (Fig. 9).
The northwest and north-northwest faults are more likely pre-mineralization
structures that are related to the cassiterite enrichment (Fig. 10). Meanwhile, the
northeast faults are clearly post-mineralization. Lateral displacement of rocks is quite
distinct. The patterns of the gravity and the IP anomalies support this idea.
Fig. 10 also displays that the first mentioned faults are mostly observed in the
northern part of the area. The IP anomaly, either the resistivity or the PFE values,
observed in this region is noted to be of higher grade. The coincidence suggests that
the high IP anomaly may be related to the occurrence of sulphide minerals in the
areas affected by the granite intrusion. Hamzah and Rosadi (1979) noted a high PFE
Empon Ruswandi 569

300 200 100 o 100 200 300

24
23

1'//////,0''''''' 22

"...., / \ '~#'''''...."
-< \
21
20

17
\ 16

15

14
13

12
II

10
9

..~'///#/ 6
Fig. 10. Geophysical anomalies of
the Pemali area. See previous figures ///q//////// 5
for legend

anomaly of 5 % to 8 % during the measurement of IP along the greisen, which also

contains sulphide minerals.

Summary

The alteration zone at Pemali is well-defined by a low gravity anomaly of 2 to 3 mgals

amplitude, stretching from south to north and bending northeast. In the alteration
zone, the existing weak but positive anomaly is believed due to the occurrence of cas-
siterite-bearing granite. Flat gravity anomalies at the southeast and the northwest cor-
ners of the map are due to granite bodies. Meanwhile, in the west a steep gradient is
related to the high density metasediments, associated with the regional tectonic pat-
tern of Bangka.
Finally, the two fault directions are shown by the gravity data. The existence of the
Pemali granite in the low gravity zone is clarified by the apparent low resistivity and
the high percent frequency effect of the IP. In general, the IP anomaly shows a north-
south direction close to the base line, and the definite IP anomaly coincides with the
tin-bearing granite.
570 Indoniesia

Therefore, a possible extension of the mine, based on the gravity and induced
polarization anomalies, is expected in a north-south direction. In the south, the IP
anomaly indicates a deviation towards the south-southeast. The occurrence of granite
in the area is clearly shown by the gravity anomaly.
A combined geophysical survey of gravity, induced polarization and magnetic
methods is a good exploration method for primary tin mineralization.

Acknowledgements. I am grateful to Mr. Salman Padmanagara, Director of Mineral Resources of

Indonesia, for his guidance and support. I am also indebted to all the people of the Geophysical Ex-
ploration Division for their continuous help during the preparation of the paper. Special thanks are
due to Miss Sarah R. Whitmore for her assistance in correcting this paper.

References

Cobbing, E.J. and Mallick, D.l.J., 1984. South East Asia granite Project. Preliminary Report-
Indonesia. Report No. 1984/2. British Geol. Survey, Overseas Division.
Hamzah, E. and Rosadi, Yos, 1979. Induced polarization survey for primary and secondary tin
deposits in Pemali, Bangka (in Indonesian). Directorate of Mineral Resources of Indonesia.
Madden, T.R. and Cantwell, T., 1967. Induced polarization. A Review. Mining Geophysics vol. II,
part D, 373-400.
Marshall, D.J. and Madden, T.R., 1959. Induced polarization, a study of its causes. Geophysics, vol.
24 (4), 790-816.
Mulyadi, H., 1983. Primary tin deposits in Pemali area (in Indonesian). PT. TIMAH, Indonesia (un-
published) .
Oentoeng, M., 1972. Gravity and magnetic survey for tin primary deposits, Pemali, Bangka
Indonesia (in Indonesian). Geological Survey of Indonesia.
Priem, H.N.A., Boelrijk, N.A.l.M., Bon, E.H., and others, 1975. Isotope geochronology in the
Indonesian tin belt. Geol. Mijnbouw, 54, 61-70.
Schwartz, M. and Suryono, 1984. Pemali mine, Bangka, primary tin deposits (unpubl.). Directorate
of Mineral Resources, Indonesia.
Setiawan, R., Kridhoharto, P., and Sunarya, N., 1980: A combined geophysical exploration for
primary tin deposits in Pemali, Bangka Indonesia. Directorate of Mineral Resources.
Van Bemmelen, R.W., 1949. The geology of Indonesia vol. IA. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 315-
318.
Ward, S.H., and Fraser, D.C., 1967. Conduction of electricity in rocks. Mining Geophysics, vol. II,
Part B, 197 -223.