DHANEKULA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated to SBTET-AP-Approved by AICTE

GANGURU, VIJAYAWADA-521139, A.P

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

A THIRD YEAR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT FROM SEPTEMBER TO FEBRUARY

PREPARED BY
Katikala Neela Somanath
REGNO : 19352-EE-021
SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

TRAINING FIRM NAME: VOLT ACTIVE POWER TECHNOLOGIES PVT LTD

STAMP…………………………….
FIELD SUPERVISOR: MR SANDEEP SIGNATURE………………………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 It is great pleasure for us to express our sincere thanks to our honorable
Principal Sri.Dr.K.Ravi who had inspired lot through his motivational speeches. He
is the only personality who had given the meaning to the technology and inspired us
how to survive in this competitive world.
I express our deep sense of heartful thanks to Sri. M.Praveen In-charge of
Diploma courses for his cheerful motivation and encouragement at the stage of his
endeavor. I am indebted to him.
I express our deep sense of heartful thanks to Mrs.D.Hema Head of Electrical
& Electronics Engineering Department for her cheerful motivation and
encouragement at the stage of her endeavor. I am indebted to her.
I record with pleasure our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved coordinator
Mr.J.Sreekanth Lecturer in Electrical & Electronics Engineering department for
stimulating guidance and profuse assistance.
I am very thankful to the entire faculty of Electrical & Electrical Engineering
department for the co-operation in completing this Industrial Training.

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DHANEKULA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

GANGURU, VIJAYAWADA-521139, A.P

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that K.Neela Somanath(19352-EE-021) of VI semester D.E.E.E has
undergone Industrial Training at industry for the award of Diploma in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering by Andhra Pradesh State Board of Technical
Education & Training during academic year 2021-2022.

Coordinator Head of the Department

Mr. J. Sreekanth M.Tech Mrs.D.Hema M.Tech

External Examiner
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DECLARATION
I K.Neela Somanath, do hereby solemnly declare that the work in this report was carried out by me
as a result of industrial training done at Answal Construction Company . The work I have presented
does not breach any existing copyright and no portion of this report is copied or any part thereof has
been submitted anywhere as an industrial training report or otherwise; hence I the author am solely
responsible for any mistakes or errors that may accrue. I also declare that any secondary information
that has been used has been duly acknowledged in this report

Signature………………………………………

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APPROVAL
This industrial training report has been submitted in for examination purposes with the approval of
the following people and their signatures below will serve to attest to the credibility of this assertion.

Signature……………………………........ Date ……………………………

Mr. Mutebi Yusuf
Site project supervisor.
Field Training Supervisor.

Signature……………………………........ Date ……………………………

J.Sreekanth M.tech
Coordinator.

Signature…………………………………. Date…………………………..
D.Hema M.Tech
H.O.D

Signature……………………………........ Date ……………………………

Name:
External Examiner

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
AKNOLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i

CERTIFICATE…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...ii

DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................................................ix
PREFACE.......................................................................................................................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................1
1.1 BRIEF BACKGROUND ABOUT INDUSTRIAL TRAINING..............................................................................1
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.......................................................................................................1
1.3 PROJECT BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................................1
1.4 STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SITE ADMINISTRATION...............................................................2
1.4.1 Description of the positions on site........................................................................................................................2
1.5 METHODS THAT WERE USED TO LEARN DURING TRAINING..................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................4
2.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT SOME SITE ELEMENTS..................................................................................4
2.2 FORMWORK/ SHUTTERING................................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Characteristics of a good formwork.......................................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Economy in formwork...........................................................................................................................................5
2.2.3 Types of formwork (shuttering) for concrete construction....................................................................................5
2.2.4 Concrete formwork operations..............................................................................................................................7
2.2.5 Order and method of removing formwork.............................................................................................................7
2.3 STEEL FIXING........................................................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Steel cutting...........................................................................................................................................................8
2.3.2 Steel positioning................................................................................................................................8
2.3.3 Cover to the reinforcements...................................................................................................................................8
2.3.4 Fixing/ binding.......................................................................................................................................................9
2.4 CONCRETE.............................................................................................................................................................9
2.4.1 Classification of concrete.......................................................................................................................................9
2.4.2 Production of concrete......................................................................................................................10
2.4.3 Reinforced concrete.............................................................................................................................................13
2.5 RIBBED (WAFFLE) SLAB SYSTEM..................................................................................................................14
2.5.1 Waffle Slab Construction.....................................................................................................................................14
2.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Ribbed slab Construction..............................................................................15

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2.6 SCAFFOLDING.....................................................................................................................................................15
2.7 SITE PRECAUTIONS AND SAFETY..................................................................................................................16
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL WORKS..........................................................................................................17
3.1 SETTING OUT, PEGGING AND EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION.............................................................17
3.1.1 Setting out............................................................................................................................................................17
3.1.2 Excavation of the foundation bases and trenches................................................................................................19
3.2 STEELWORKS......................................................................................................................................................20
3.2.1 Steelworks for the column and column bases......................................................................................................21
3.2.2 Steel reinforcement for the beams...................................................................................................22
3.2.3 Steel reinforcement for the floor solid slab......................................................................................23
3.2.4 Steel reinforcement for staircase..........................................................................................................................24
3.2.5 Steel reinforcement for the retaining shear wall..................................................................................................25
3.3 FORMWORKS AND SHUTTERING...................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Column formwork................................................................................................................................................26
3.4 CONCRETE WORKS............................................................................................................................................30
3.4.1 Concrete testing...................................................................................................................................................30
3.4.2 Concrete casting...................................................................................................................................................33
3.4.3 Compaction of the concrete by vibration.........................................................................................36
3.4.4 Curing of the concrete..........................................................................................................................................37
3.4.5 Removal of formwork / de-shuttering..................................................................................................................37
3.5 BLOCKWORK AND MASONRY........................................................................................................................38
3.5.3 Laying of blocks..................................................................................................................................................39
3.6 PLUMBING............................................................................................................................................................40
3.6.1 Chiseling..............................................................................................................................................................40
3.6.2 Laying and fitting of pipes................................................................................................................41
3.8 PLASTERING (FINISHING) THE STRUCTURE...............................................................................................42
CHAPTER FOUR: OBSERVATIONS, ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................................44
4.1 OBSERVATIONS..................................................................................................................................................44
4.2 ACHIEVEMENTS MADE DURING THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PERIOD..............................................44
4.3 CHALLENGES FACED DURING INDUSTRIAL TRAINING..........................................................................44
4.4 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................................45
4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................................................................45
4.3.1 To The University.............................................................................................................................45
4.3.2 To Answal Construction Company...................................................................................................45
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................................46
APPENDIX: PICTURES..............................................................................................................................................47

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vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BS ……………………………British standards.

Ltd…………………………....Limited.

PVC…………………………. Pro Vinyl Chloride.

PPR……………………….......Polypropylene

RC…………………………….Reinforced Concrete.

U………………………………Uganda.

US……………………………..United States.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:1: plan showing the 1st-3rd floor............................................................................................................................1

Figure 3:2 offsetting distances from the

baseline.....................................................................................................................................18

Figure 3.3 an RTK set up at a benchmark................................................................................................................................................18

Figure 3:4 excavation of foundation bases..............................................................................................................................................19

Figure 3:5 a dumpy level being used to monitor the depth of excavation…...........................................................................................19

Figure 3:6 men bending steel bars..........................................................................................................................................................21

Figure 3:7 steel column base..................................................................................................................................................................21

Figure 3:8 column and steel column base............................................................................................................................................. 21

Figure 3:9 secondary beam....................................................................................................................................................................22

Figure 3:10 primary beam.....................................................................................................................................................................22

Figure 3:11 placing of the waffles on shutters......................................................................................................................................23

Figure 3:12 concrete spacer for concrete cover.................................................................................................................................. 23

Figure 3:13 bottom and top reinforcement in the ribs......................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 3:14: fixing reinforcement.........................................................................................................................................................24

Figure 3:15 showing steel reinforcement for staircase............................................................................................................ ...........24

Figure 3:16 finished stair case........................................................................................................................................................... .24

Figure 3:17 reinforcement for a shear retaining wall ........................................................................................................................25

Figure 3:18 plumbing the column....................................................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3:19 squaring the timber for beam shutters............................................................................................................................ 27

Figure 3:20 cutting timber pieces with a bow saw............................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 3:21 shuttering for the beam and slab.................................................................................................................................... 27

Figure 3:22 shutters for the stairs...................................................................................................................................................... 28

Figure 2:23: shutters for the steps..................................................................................................................................................... .28

Figure 24: props for the retaining wall...............................................................................................................................................29

Figure 25: showing casting of concrete cubes.................................................................................................................32

Figure 26: showing the curing of concrete cubes in a pool of water...............................................................................32

Figure 27: Mixing concrete for blinding layer by hand...................................................................................................33

Figure 26: the blinding layer...........................................................................................................................................33

Figure 27: concrete mixer…......................................................................................................................................... ..34

Figure 28: concrete vibrating slab…...............................................................................................................................34

Figure 29: leveling with blinding layer…....................................................................................................................... 34

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Figure 30: measuring concrete cover….............................................................................................................................34

Figure 31 well propped column ready for casting................................................................................................................................35

Figure 32: showing concrete casting for a column..............................................................................................................................35

Figure 33: finished cast column….......................................................................................................................................................35

Figure 34: spreading the concrete for vibration.................................................................................................................................36

Figure 35: vibrating the waffles slab ribs...........................................................................................................................................36

Figure 36: showing a well cured floor slab........................................................................................................................................37

Figure 37: header bond for foundation..............................................................................................................................................38

Figure 38: cement mortar for bond....................................................................................................................................................38

Figure 39: showing a stretcher bond above foundation....................................................................................................................38

Figure 40: showing PVC pipes..........................................................................................................................................................41

Figure 41: showing created sleeves in slabs and fitting of pipes........................................................................................................41

x
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 showing normal sizes of members for timber formwork…........................................................................................................5

Table 2.2 showing period of removal of formwork/ de-shuttering time of different RCC members.........................................................7

Table 2.3 showing the period of removal of props to slabs......................................................................................................................7

Table 2.4 showing the period of removal of props to beams and arches.................................................................................................7

Table 3.1 showing mix rations for different layers for the wall finish....................................................................................................42

xi
PREFACE
Internship is a field based practical training experience that prepares trainees for tasks they are
expected to perform on the completion of their training. Training is a prerequisite in order to equip
students with skills for future demands
As part of fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Science in civil engineering, the department of
civil and environmental engineering under the college of engineering design art and technology of
Makerere University sends civil engineering students for industrial training/internship at every end
of academic year and this course is mainly intended to introduce students to various technological
skills in industries and provide on-the-job training and exposure and thereafter at end of program
come up with a report on the summary of activities done.
This report is basically a presentation of what I did, observations made, skills and different aspects
learnt and discovered in my industrial training with a construction firm called Answal construction
company during the construction of the three storied commercial building
Chapter one basically covers the introduction, brief background about industrial training and its
objectives, organizational structure and an overview about the project
Chapter two covers the literature review about the work done such as scaffolding and formwork
used on site, the different types of formwork, how it can be economized and its removal.
Furthermore it highlights the concrete classes and their production, reinforcements and their fixing.
Chapter three covers the practical work addressing the various tasks done in formwork, steel work,
concrete and how the problems and challenges concerning site work were solved.
Chapter four addresses the observations made, achievements, challenges faced and
recommendations to help foster a better training environment concerning the university and field.

xii
xiii
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BRIEF BACKGROUND ABOUT INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Industrial training is basically a field-based practical training experience that students go through to
prepare themselves for the tasks they are expected to perform on completion of their undergraduate
studies.
This training is usually conducted at the end of the second year and the third year and goes for a
period of at least eight (8) weeks per year. The students find out positions in various firms,
companies, organizations and/or government departments where they get hands-on training on site
or in office. Supervision is done by an on-site supervisor and a college supervisor who is a member
of the faculty at their respective college/school.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

 To enable the student to relate the theoretical knowledge acquired in class with the practical
skills and actual work on site.
 To provide an opportunity to students to incorporate the principals and techniques theoretically
learnt into real life problem solving situations.
 To identify and solve problems on site.
 To develop positive attitude towards work.
 To acquire good technical writing skills.
 To develop interpersonal and communication skills in associating with staff and people from
different background.
 To expose students to Civil Engineering ethics and codes of practice.
 To enable us acquire supervision skills and control of projects to ensure that the work being
done is of good quality.

1.3 PROJECT BACKGROUND

A renowned business man by names of Hajji Maimood desires to set up a 3 storied commercial
plaza along bombo road near Makerere University main
The overall objective of the development of a commercial plaza is provide room for the growing
many business around Makerere university and also provide an accommodation on upper floor to
the many numbers of students at Makerere.

Figure 3: plan showing the 1st-3rd floor

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1.4 STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SITE ADMINISTRATION
The Client: This is the owner of the project and is the one who provides all the necessary finance.
The client may be an individual, organization, company or government. In this case the client was
hajji Maimood. He provide the entire funding to the project.
The Consultant: This is the team hired by the client to oversee the construction process. This team
also interprets the needs of the client and express them on paper for the contractor to execute on site.
The consultancy firm on board was technology Consult.
The Contractor: This may be a company, organization or individual employed by the client to
provide the necessary resources and execute the work. The contractor for the project was
Answar contractors and Builders Company. The contractor on site has a big team of workers
skilled and non-skilled, full time and part time to carry out the day to day activities/tasks of the
project. Organizational structure ensures easy control and efficiency in the work done so that there
is no collision between the workers in the tasks to be performed.
1.4.1 Description of the positions on site.
 Contract Manager
He/she does the binding for the project and initiates the works contract packages.
 Site Manager
This is responsible for the site layout and planning. He is concerned with organization of the site to
make sure all the works go on timely and cost effective.
 The Site Engineer
This is responsible for all the technical work on the site. He supervises all staff below him and is
charged with ensuring timely completion of all work on the site. The student trainees are also
directly supervised by him.
 The Site Manager
This is concerned with coordinating all the activities on site, overseeing logistics and procurement,
finance, security, health & safety, store and human resource. He also oversees the mechanical
department which is concerned with ensuring that all the plant, machinery and vehicles on
the site are running and in good condition and the electrical department which caters for the
electrical energy needs on site. The installation of electrical and mechanical fittings on the site
however was subcontracted. The site manager reports directly to the site engineer.
 The General Foreman
This is in charge of overseeing all the technical labor force on the site below him. Under him
are the general supervisors for different trades (surveying, carpentry/shuttering, steelworks,
concrete works, earthworks) on the site and below these are the skilled workers (masons,
carpenters, steel benders) and the unskilled workers (porters).
 The Quantity Surveyor
This is employed by the contractor and his/her role is to evaluate project contracts and to prepare
bidding documents. His office makes sure that the project is kept within the estimated costs and if
there are any alterations or variations, they should be evaluated.

2
 The Health and Safety Manager
He/she is concerned with keeping safety and provide first aid at the site. His/her office provides
the necessary safety gear such as boots, helmet, goggles, safety belts, overalls, overcoats, safety
gloves and first aid in case of any injuries.

1.5 METHODS THAT WERE USED TO LEARN DURING TRAINING

In order to achieve the objectives of my training experience, a number of methods and avenues were
employed. The major methods I used are briefly described below;
 Observation.
During our site works, we were able to observe and interpret how most of the activities were done.
Through critical observations I was able to learn and grasp most of the techniques used
 Consultations.
This was mainly done through meetings with the Site Engineer, the consultants and other
personnel from different trades on site who could give us detailed professional information
concerning questions raised usually after rigorous sessions of site work.
 Participation in work.
My fellow trainees and I were able to work under various sections on site as a way to participate
and have a practical feel of all activities, which included; steelworks, Carpentry/formwork,
concrete works, and work force management.
 Project documentations.
Most of the documents concerning the project like Structural drawings, Surveying drawings,
electrical drawings, Material specifications, site store and work force management records and
documentations, material procurement records, plant, machinery, equipment and tools
management operational records among others which are necessary for proper interpretation and
understanding of all work on site were available and accessible at the site offices. I was able to
access them and draw out as much information and knowledge about the project.
 Internet and text based materials.
Through use of the internet, I was able to check out on various websites for information concerning
different activities and why most of these site works were done. I also used some textbooks and
printed material.


3
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT SOME SITE ELEMENTS
 Columns
This is a structural shaft of concrete which transfers applied vertical loads through its length and its
base.

 Lift shaft shear wall

This is a reinforced concrete wall that resists the horizontal forces along its length. This was
constructed for the lift that carries passengers and their goods from one level in a building to
another.

 Slabs.
This is a horizontal plate like structure usually of solid concrete or max spans (precast units)
reinforced with steel bars to function as a floor or roof structure.

 Beams.
These are horizontal structural members that transfer loadings from above to its bearing points (to
the supports and joints) which are always columns or load bearing walls.

 Staircase.
This refers to a series of steps leading from one floor to another. There are different types which
include; half turn staircase/ switch back/ u-shaped, Quarter turn staircase, Straight staircase, Winder
staircase, Curved staircase, Spiral staircases-shaped staircase, ladders

2.2 FORMWORK/ SHUTTERING

Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh concrete is
poured only to harden subsequently. Types of formwork for concrete construction depends on
formwork material and type of structural element.
Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab
formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively.
The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure up to 20 to 25% of the cost of the
structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic expenditure. The
operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused.
Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork is
that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable coats to the surface of wood
mitigates these defects.

4
2.2.1 Characteristics of a good formwork
 It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
 It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
 The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
 Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without
damage to the concrete.
 The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for reuse.
 The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane surface.
 It should be as light as possible.
 The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements.
 It should rest on firm base.

2.2.2 Economy in formwork

Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fiberglass used separately
or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-use of the same forms
are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made of precast
concrete and aluminum are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or members involving
curved surfaces. The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of
formwork:
 The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms, floor
area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
 Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
 Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the material a
number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the formwork.

2.2.3 Types of formwork (shuttering) for concrete construction

The type of formwork employed always depends on the structural design of the member and the
weight of concrete to be casted. Different types include;
 Timber formwork.
 Steel formwork.
 Plywood formwork.

Timber formwork
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirements. It should be;

 Well-seasoned.
 Light in weight.
 Easily workable with nails without splitting.
5
 Free from loose knots.
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on all
faces which come in contact with concrete.
Table 2.1 showing normal sizes of members for timber formwork.

Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and beam 25 mm to 40mm thick
bottom
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150mm

Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm

Plywood formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes. The
cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of timber shuttering and it may even prove
cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:

 It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
 By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labor cost of fixing and
dismantling.
 Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose, number
of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Steel formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size.
Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved
structures.
Comparison between timber and steel formwork

 Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their reuses are
more in number.
 Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
 The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces need no
further treatment.
 Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
 Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

6
2.2.4 Concrete formwork operations
This normally involves the following operations:

 Propping and centering.

 Shuttering.
 Provision of camber.
 Cleaning and surface treatment.

2.2.5 Order and method of removing formwork

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:

 Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed first
as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
 Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
 Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be removed
in the end.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of at least twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the
time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to
prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
Table 2.2 showing period of removal of formwork/ de-shuttering time of different RCC members.

Description of structural member Period of time/ de-shuttering time

Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams 1 to 2 days

Soffit formwork to Slabs 3 days (props to be refixed after removal)

Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days (props to be refixed after removal)

Table 2.3 showing the period of removal of props to slabs.

For slabs spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days

For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days

Table 2.4 showing the period of removal of props to beams and arches.

For beams and arches spanning up to 6 m 14 days

For beams and arches spanning over 6 m 21 days.

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2.3 STEEL FIXING
This involves a lot of stages and procedures such as,

 Steel cutting to obtain required sizes.

 Hooking to obtain different ring sizes.
 Steel positioning.
 Providing of cover to reinforcement.
 Binding

2.3.1 Steel cutting

Steel must be cut into appropriate sizes in order for it to be used. From the place of manufacture, it
comes a 39 feet long steel bar and hence for it to be used on different parts as reinforcement must be
cut in different size. An arc saw or a grinder are usually used on site to cut the steel into different
sizes depending on the desired speed.
2.3.2 Steel positioning.
Steel must be placed correctly or the strength of a structure may be greatly weakened. After putting
the semi-precast slab into position, reinforcement fixing of the in-situ slab is commenced for the in-
situ slab construction above the precast slab. For the lintel beam and wall reinforcement, the lintel
beam is placed above the wall opening to provide structural rigidity.

2.3.3 Cover to the reinforcements

Cover is the distance from the outside face of the concrete to the nearest surface of reinforcing steel.
If this distance is insufficient, the steel will rust. As the steel changes to rust, the diameter of the
actual steel decreases and the strength provided by the steel decreases. This can seriously shorten the
life of a building and has been a major problem concerning most projects.
Furthermore, when steel rusts, it expands to 2.2 times its original volume. This expansion bursts the
concrete open thus exposing the steel to attack by the weather which increases the corrosion. Cover
varies from 20 to 60 mm. The actual value depends on the concrete strength and on the location of
the concrete such as below the ground or inside a building. Other countries use higher covers.
Cover is also very important in maintaining the strength of reinforced concrete during a fire.
Depending on the length of time, the reinforced concrete must withstand the fire, the type of
concrete, and the location of the concrete (floor, column, slab, beam, shear wall) the minimum cover
varies from 20 to 70 mm.
In most of the projects, the cover to reinforcement is 50mm for foundations and RC walls, 35mm for
columns, 30mm for beams and 20mm for slabs.
The designers must allow for the effect of deformations on bars. If they increase the diameter of bars
and if not allowed for, reinforcing steel often cannot be placed properly. Usually it is the cover that
suffers.

8
Spacer blocks are used to maintain cover. They keep the steel the required distance away from the
edge of the concrete.

2.3.4 Fixing/ binding

Fixing is fastening the steel reinforcing bars so that they stay in the correct place between the
spacers and relative to each other. The steel must stay in place while workers walk on it, while
concrete is being placed, and during compaction. Tie-wire/binding wire is used at the junctions of
bars to hold them together.
It must be tied tightly. Free ends must not protrude into the cover space. All pieces of tie-wire must
be removed from the formwork before concreting otherwise rust-stains soon occur on the finished
product.

2.4 CONCRETE
Concrete a composite man-made material, is the most widely used building material in the
construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding material such as lime or
cement, well graded fine and coarse aggregates, water and admixtures (to produce concrete with
special properties).
In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix which in addition to filling the voids of
the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates and binds them together. The
matrix is usually 22-34% of the total volume.
Freshly mixed concrete before set is known as wetor green concrete whereas after setting and
hardening it is known as setor hardened concrete. The moulded concrete mix after sufficient curing
becomes hard like stone due to chemical action between the water and binding material.

2.4.1 Classification of concrete.

The concrete mix is always classified depending on the different categories such as;

 Based on cementing material.

Concretes are classified as lime concrete, gypsum concrete and cement concrete.

 Based on perspective specifications.

The cement concrete is specified by proportions of different ingredients, e.g., 1 (cement): 1.5 (fine
aggregate): 3 (coarse aggregate).

 Based on performance oriented specifications.

When the concrete properties such as strength, water-cement ratio, compaction factor, slump, etc.,
are specified the concrete may be classified as designed-mix concrete. For a design mix concrete the
mix is designed to produce the grade of concrete having the required workability and a characteristic
strength not less than the appropriate values as specified.

 Based on grade of cement concrete.

Depending upon the strength (N/mm2) of concrete cubes (150 mm side) at 28 days, concrete is
classified

9
 Based on bulk density.
On the basis of density, concrete is classified as super heavy (over 2500 kg/m3), dense (1800-2500
kg/m3), light weight (500–1800 kg/m3) and extra light weight concrete (below 500 kg/m3).

 Based on place of casting.

When concrete is made and placed in position at the site it is known as in-situ concrete and when
used as a material for making prefabricated units in a factory is known as precast concrete.
2.4.2 Production of concrete.
A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates
and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the cement and
water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate acts as a filler.
The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.
The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by the
cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the use of admixtures.
The stages of concrete production are:
1. Batching or measurement of materials.
2. Mixing.
3. Transporting.
4. Placing.
5. Compacting.
6. Curing.
7. Finishing
Batching or measurement of materials.
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used. The
aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of ± 3 per cent of batch quantity
and the admixtures by 5 per cent of the batch quantity.
There are two prevalent methods of batching materials,

 The volume batching

 The weight batching.
The factors affecting the choice of batching method are the size of job, required production rate, and
required standards of batching performance. For most important works weigh batching is
recommended.
Mixing
The object of mixing is to make the concrete mass homogeneous and uniform in color and
consistency. All the aggregate particles should have a coat of cement paste and all the ingredients of

10
the concrete should blend into a uniform mass. The mixing is done either by hand or by machine
called mixer.

Transporting
Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for transporting
concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during transportation and
placement.
The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the size and importance of the job, the
distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature of the terrain.
Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below;

 Use of a mortar pan

 Use of wheel barrows
 Use of dumpers
 Pumping
 Bucket and ropeway (pulley system).
 Skip and hoist

Placing of concrete
To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the homogeneity achieved
during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting.
Research has shown that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive
strength provided the concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather delay of
half to one hour is allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather it may be several hours.
Compaction.
After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete production is
its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or frameworks and
around embedded parts and reinforcement steel.
Considerable quantity of air is entrapped in concrete during its production and there is possible
partial segregation also. Both of these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the
concrete is the process to get rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation occurred
and to form a homogeneous dense mass.
It has been found that 5 per cent voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by over 30 per cent
and 10 per cent voids reduce the strength by over 50 per cent. Therefore, the density and
11
consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the degree of compaction.
For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100 per cent.
The voids increase the permeability of concrete. Loss of impermeability creates easy passage of
moisture, oxygen, chlorides, and other aggressive chemicals into the concrete. This causes rusting of
steel and spalling (disintegration) of concrete i.e., loss of durability. Easy entry of sulphates from the
environment causes expansive reaction with the tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) present in cement. This
causes disintegration of concrete and loss of durability.
Compaction is achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to overcome the internal
friction between the particles forming the concrete, between concrete and reinforcement and
between concrete and forms and by reducing the air voids to a minimum.
The compaction of concrete can be achieved by the following methods.

 Hand compaction  Compaction by jolting

 Compaction by vibration  Compaction by rolling
 Compaction by spinning
The following should be noted while compacting mass concrete;

 Compaction of concrete is required to be done in a very thin or very densely congested

reinforced section.
 In addition to internal vibration, compaction is required to be done specially in the cover area
where at times needle or poker vibrator is unable to do satisfactory compaction.
 Compaction of very stiff concrete is required to be done because such concrete cannot be
compacted by internal vibrators.

Curing.
Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and water. This
chemical reaction requires moisture, favorable temperature and time referred to as the curing period.
Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and durability.
The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker compound C 3S and
partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength contributed by C 2S is
gradual and takes long time. As such sufficient water should be made available to concrete to allow
it to gain full strength.
The process of keeping concrete damp for this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent
the loss of moisture from concrete due to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional
moisture or heat and moisture to accelerate the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least
three weeks and in no case for less than ten days.
Approximately 14 liters of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement. Soon after the concrete
is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and continues slowly thereafter for an
indefinite period.

12
Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger than that which is exposed to dry air
for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one month, the strength is about double than
that of concrete exposed only to dry air

The curing methods used include;

 Water curing
 Steam curing
 Electrical curing
 Chemical curing
 Curing by infra-red radiation

Finishing
Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
ultimate product is not that pleasant. Efforts have been made to develop surface finishes to give a
better appearance to concrete surfaces. The type of finishing depends on the purpose for which the
surface is to be used for.

2.4.3 Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete with reinforcements (steel bar).
This combination is made to utilize the compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel
simultaneously.

In reinforced concrete, the components work together to resist many types of loading. Concrete
resists compression and steel reinforcement resists tension forces.

Reinforced concrete, as an economic building material, is very popular nowadays. It is widely used
in many types building around the world. Along with many advantages, reinforced concrete also
poses some disadvantages also.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

 Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.
 Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount tensile
stress.
 Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
 The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
 Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically molded into a
nearly limitless range of shapes.
 The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
 In structures like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
13
 It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
 As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
 Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor for the
erection of the structure.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

 The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
 The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this affects
the final strength.
 The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
 For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel section as the
compressive strength is lower in the case of RCC.
 Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.

2.5 RIBBED (WAFFLE) SLAB SYSTEM

Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually supported directly by columns. They are
either one-way spanning systems known as ribbed slab or a two-way ribbed system known as
a waffle slab.

This form of construction is not very common because of the formwork costs and the low fire rating.
A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib thickness of 125 mm for continuous ribs is required to
achieve a 2-hour fire rating.

A rib thickness of greater than 125 mm is usually required to accommodate tensile and shear
reinforcement. Ribbed slabs are suitable for medium to heavy loads, can span reasonable distances,
and are very stiff and particularly suitable where the soffit is exposed.

2.5.1 Waffle Slab Construction

 Slab depths typically vary from 75 to 125 mm

 Rib widths from 125 to 200 mm.
 Rib spacing of 600 to 1500 mm can be used.
 The overall depth of the floor typically varies from 300 to 600 mm with overall spans of up to
15 m if reinforced, longer if post-tensioned.

The use of ribs to the soffit of the slab reduces the quantity of concrete and reinforcement and also
the weight of the floor. The saving of materials will be offset by the complication in formwork and
placing of reinforcement.
14
 However, formwork complication is minimized by use of standard, modular, reusable formwork,
usually made from polypropylene or fiberglass and with tapered sides to allow stripping

.For ribs at 1200-mm centers (to suit standard forms) the economical reinforced concrete floor span
‘L’ is approximately D x 15 for a single span and D x 22 for a multi-span, where D is the overall
floor depth.

The one-way ribs are typically designed as T-beams, often spanning in the long direction. A solid
drop panel is required at the columns and loadbearing walls for shear and moment resistance.

2.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Ribbed slab Construction

Advantages

 Savings on weight and materials

 Long spans
 Attractive soffit appearance if exposed
 Economical when reusable formwork pans used
 Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.

Disadvantages

 Depth of slab between the ribs may control the fire rating
 Requires special or proprietary formwork
 Greater floor-to-floor height
 Large vertical penetrations are more difficult to handle

2.6 SCAFFOLDING
This is sometimes called staging or literally scaffold. It refers to the temporary structure used to
support a work crew and materials to aid in the construction.
There are four main types of scaffolding used worldwide today. These are;

 Tube and Coupler (fitting) component

 Prefabricated modular system scaffold components.
 H-frame / facade modular system scaffolds.
 Timber scaffolds.
Each type is made from several components which often include:

 A base jack or plate which is a load bearing base for the scaffold.
 The standard which is the upright component with connector joins.
 The ledger (horizontal brace).
 The transom which is a horizontal cross section load bearing component which holds the batten,
board or decking unit.
 Brace diagonal and/or cross section bracing component.

15
 Batten or board decking component used to make the working platform.
 Coupler a fitting used to join components together.
 Scaffold tie used to tie in the scaffold to structures.
 Brackets used to extend the width of working platforms.

The basic components of scaffolding are tubes, couplers and boards.

Boards provide a working surface for scaffold users. They are seasoned wood and come in three
thicknesses (38 mm (usual), 50 mm and 63 mm) are a standard width (225 mm) and are a maximum
of 3.9 m long. The board ends are protected either by metal plates called hoop irons or sometimes
nail plates.
The key elements of the scaffolding tubes are the standard, ledger and transoms. The standards, also
called uprights, are the vertical tubes that transfer the entire mass of the structure to the ground
where they rest on a square base plate to spread the load.
Ledgers are horizontal tubes which connect between the standards. Transoms rest upon the ledgers
at right angles. Main transoms are placed next to the standards, they hold the standards in place and
provide support for boards; intermediate transoms are those placed between the main transoms to
provide extra support for boards.

2.7 SITE PRECAUTIONS AND SAFETY

Precautions and safety

 Always wear safety gloves, safety boots,overall,reflector jacket and a helmet at all times on
site to protect yourself from site injuries due to accidents.
 When climbing a ladder always ensure its steady and firm before climbing to protect yourself
from falls
 When walking on top of the shutters always ensure they are well propped otherwise you might
pass through and fall down.
 Always curve sharp nails on shutters and on cut timber pieces to avoid stepping on them.

16
 CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL WORKS

3.1 SETTING OUT, PEGGING AND EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION.

3.1.1 Setting out

Setting out is the process whereby survey techniques are used to establish an engineering project in
its correct position on site. Setting out begins with a plan and ends with some particular engineering
project correctly positioned on site.
Setting out is undertaken from control points already established in the area by previous work in
surveying. These may be vertical control points e.g. benchmarks or horizontal control points e.g.
traverse and triangulation stations.

The setting out of the baseline on site was done with the help of a hand held GPS and AN RTK and
below were the steps we undertook to set out the building:

 The RTK was setup at an established benchmark at the site with its battery and router.
 The GPS was then connected to the RTK and the benchmark at site put into the GPS.
 The surveyor then move around locating the control points coordinates desired as per structural
plan
 In the end the baseline were formed as the lines between the control points.
 After the setting out of the baselines was done by the surveyor the site engineer had a task of
offsetting the distances from the baselines in order for the excavation for the foundation trenches
to commence.
 The offsetting of the distances was done following the structural plan and dimensions and it had
to be done with the uttermost accuracy to avoid building varying from the original plan.
 Using a steel tape from each of the known fixed points, the distance given on the site plan to the
ends of the base line or building corner was measured and Where readings coincided a peg was
driven in the ground at that point
 The distance was measured again across the top of the peg and a nail.
 In the case of a building line, with the position of the ends fixed, a builder’s line is stretched
from nail to nail, and using a steel tape, building corners are established by measuring along the
line.and each corner is marked with a peg and nail,
 Having found two corners of the proposed building, further seting out is done and the others
marked.

17
 the Pythagoras theorem is used in any combination of right angled triangles having placed pegs
at all four corners, their positions checked by measuring the diagonals
 The lengths of the diagonals should be within 6 mm of each other on a medium size house.
 We now knew where the corners of the building’s walls would be.

 All points that were to be offset were ensured that were at right angles to the beeline and at a
distance of 2m from the baseline, this was as per the structural plan and design. The right angle
method was used ta site to ensure the offset were at right angles.ie
 A distance of 3m was measured along the baseline and the distance of 4m measured along the
offset. The diagonal distance was measured and found out to be 5m and hence this was a perfect
right angled triangle hence the offset were at right angles to the baseline.
 The site engineer found errors with the surveyors’ set baseline and were to be repeated. Further
still the project was to be shifted by 1m to reserve room for the feeder road. We repeated the
work and new points were set.
 Pegs were used to demarcate the offset distance and wire gauze was tied around the pegs to
clearly show the offsets and distances marked on the wire to clearly show the dimensions of the

building. Figure 3.3 an RTK set up at a benchmark

18
 3.1.2 Excavation of the foundation bases and trenches

After offsetting the offset distances, excavation were to commence for the foundation trenches. The
foundation trenches were dug as per the structural dimensions. Each of the trenches had different
dimension.

 The excavations were done at some distance from the pegs to avoid interfering with the set
points and were dug following the marked distances on the pegs to avoid going beyond the
required width
 Dumpy level and staff were used to monitor the depth of excavation and to ensure all parts of the
trenches were level
 As per the structural plan the trenches were to be 2m deep. But the width and lengths varied
depending on the location for the trench on the structural plan
 In areas where over excavation were done some filling was done while in areas where under
excavation was done, more excavations were done.
 After excavation it had to be ensured that all the foundation trenches were level. And this was
done by making use for the dumpy level and staff.

 A dumpy level was set up at distance far away from the foundation trenches and staff held while
inside the trench.
 Levels were taken at each corner and compared more excavations or filling was to ensure all
points in the foundation trenches were at the same level

Figure 3:4 excavation of foundation bases Figure 3:5 a dumpy level being used to monitor the depth of excavation
19
3.2 STEELWORKS
Steel is widely used as a reinforcing material for concrete. Steel is strong in tension while concrete
is strong in compression, therefore; the two materials are used to provide a strong structure.
The two materials bond together very well so there is little chance of slippage between the two, and
thus act together as one unit in resisting forces.
The natural roughness of the bars and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformations rolled on the bars
surfaces also contribute to the excellent bonding between steel and concrete.
The high tensile ribbed steel bars (H) were used on site for reinforcement. These were of different
diameters like H8, H12, H16, H20, and H25. The diameter size used depended on the purpose and
the structural member to be reinforced.
The design specifications required that;

 Steel bars for making of rings were to be of size H8

 Chair maximum spacing was to be less than 1m2
 Chair minimum of H12 bars were to be used.
 Minimum number of bars for square column were 4 and 6 for a circular column
 Main bars in the slab were not supposed to be less than 8mm and the distributors not less than
8mm and not more than an eighth of slab thickness.

The steel works included;

 Straightening of the bars: this was done with the help a steel bending tool
 Cutting the bars into appropriate lengths: for small diameter bars an arc saw was to cut the steel
bars into desired lengths and for large diameter bars greater than 25mm, a steel grinder was used
to cut them into desired lengths
 Bending to form rings; this was done on the steel bending plat form and the dimensions of the
ring are already demarcated on platform by large nails banged into the platform.
 Arrangement of the reinforcement bars depending on the structural design and plan for a specific
structural member
 Binding the bars to form the reinforcement frame work using binding wire.

20
3.2.1 Steelworks for the column and column bases
Rectangular solid reinforced concrete columns were designed by the structural engineer and there
sizes depended on the load sizes expected in different parts of the structure. Different column sizes
were used on site and these included;

 450*450mm being the commonest size for outer columns and supports for the ramp
 450*200mm designed to support the staircases and outer parts of the ramp
 650*650mm being the biggest in size and designed to support slabs were huge loads were
expected.
i. All the square and rectangular columns on site had at least 6 steel bars.
ii. Depending on the structural design, different steel bar sizes were used.
iii. H25 reinforcement bars were used in square columns of sizes 650*650mm.
iv. Rings of size H8 were used to hold these reinforcements together.
v. Ring spacing of 100mm was used and it was consistent throughout the column length.
vi. For square column sizes of 450*450mm, reinforcements of size H20 were used with ring
spacing of 100mm throughout the column length.

Figure 3:6 men bending steel bars Figure 3:7 steel column base Figure 3:8 column and steel column base
The Steel column bases were of 2m*2m Square network of
H16 steels bars with spacing of 100mm was used as column base. The bars were binded together
with help of binding wire and hook (kabugolo).

3.2.2 Steel reinforcement for the beams

The structure had both primary and secondary beams. These beams transfer loadings from above
and from the slab to the bearing points/ supports.

21
Primary beams are those beams that run from one column to another and hence transfer their
loadings to the columns directly while Secondary beams are those beams that span from one
primary beam to another primary beam. They therefore distribute their loadings to the primary
beams.
Secondary beams are less reinforced compared to primary beams and the sizes of the reinforcement
bars sometimes differs.
All the beams on site (primary and secondary) were of size 600*200mm having dropdowns of
400mm and therefore slab thickness of 200mm. and Depending on the structural load design,
different beams were reinforced with different steel bar sizes such H12, H16, H20, H25.
Primary beams were reinforced with stronger and bigger sized bars (H20 and H25) since they were
expected to be carrying a much larger load while secondary beams were reinforced with H16 since
are presumed to be carrying a lesser load compared to primary beams.

Figure 3:9 secondary beam c

Steps in making steel beam

 With the form work already in place, the lower steel bars for the beam were arranged first in the
mould meant for the slab, rings were then put and tied tightly with the reinforcement to avoid
them from moving out of position.
 Ring spacing was 150mm near the bearings/ supports for 1000mm from both side and 200mm
at the center.
 The upper reinforcement were then pushed in and tied tightly too using binding wire and a steel
hook.
 Centre reinforcements were then shoved in at the top near the supports and at the bottom in the
center if the beam, they were also tied together with the rings using binding wire and a pincher.
NB: Where the space for tying the steel bars on to the binding wire is narrow, the steel bars passed
through the rings are suspended on timber pieces resting on the slab formwork and the steel bars
easily tightened to the rings.
3.2.3 Steel reinforcement for the floor solid slab.
All the slabs on site were two way reinforced ribbed waffle slabs and reinforcement is put in ribs
where waffles meet or at joints.

22
 The ribs of the slab on site were of thickness 200mm. spacer blocks of thickness 20mm were used to
ensure provision of concrete cover.
Main bars and distribution bars were used. The ribs of the slab had double reinforcement on both the
lower and upper parts to counteract the hogging and sagging.
The upper reinforcements were applied close to the bearings/ supports so as to counteract the
hogging in the slab.
Main bars and distribution bars used on site were of size H16. The main bars are those bars
spanning a short length (width) and the distribution bars are those spanning a longer length.
Steel chairs to support the upper reinforcements were also used. These were of size H12 diameter
and they were placed at each square meter.
 The process began with placement of the waffles on the shutters.
 The main bars were then placed between waffle joints and arranged on the boards starting with
the extreme bars (bars close to the supports)
 Intermediate bars were then added within the spaces accordingly.
 Distribution bars were then arranged on top of these main bars following the markings made.
 At the ends, these bars were bent so as to get support from the adjacent beams.
 Binding wire was used to tie together the main and distribution bars at the points of intersection.
 Upper reinforcements were then arranged on top of these lower reinforcements close to the
bearing points.
 Steel chairs were used to support these upper reinforcements from moving out of position during
concrete casting.

Figure 3:11 placing of the waffles on shutters Figure 3:12 concrete spacer for concrete cover Figure 3:13 bottom and top reinforcement in the ribs

3.2.4 Steel reinforcement for staircase.

The stair case had side beams that were supporting it. Steel work for the side beams, landing and the
stairs commenced since they were going to be casted monolithically.
Steel bars of size H20 were used to reinforce the side beams since they would take up the loading
distribution from the staircases. Staircases had double reinforcements (lower and upper
reinforcements).

23
 The formwork already established the slope of the staircase and hence markings were made to
show the spacings in the reinforcements.
 Steel bars of size H16 were used as both the main and distribution bars.
 The steels bars for the upper reinforcements were bent to cater for the rises and goings of the
stair.
 The rise was 150mm and the going was 300mm.
 The steel bars for the landing were also arranged with the short span bars first followed by long
span bars (distribution bars).
 Binding wire was then used to bind the bars together at their points of intersection to make sure
they remain in their positions.
 Upper reinforcements were also arranged on top and tightly knotted.
 A water level was used to make sure that the reinforcement bars for the rises were at the same
vertical level.
 Similarly a spirit level was used to ensure that the goings for the staircases were horizontal
before casting.

Figure 3:14: fixing reinforcement Figure 3:15 showing steel reinforcement for staircase Figure 3:16 finished stair case
3.2.5 Steel reinforcement for the retaining shear wall
Retaining shear wall was reinforced with steel bars to ensure it resists the horizontal and lateral
forces along its length. The shear wall thickness was 200mm

 Steel bars for reinforcement were of size H12 and rings of size H8 were used to hold the
reinforcements together.
 Ring spacing was 150mm and consistent throughout the entire height of the wall.
 The steel bars were allowed to be continuous and protrude an extra 500-1000mm above the
level of the head room space to cater for a strong binding in case of another floor

24
 Figure 3:17 reinforcement for a shear retaining wall

3.3 FORMWORKS AND SHUTTERING

Formwork is the temporary mould or box into which wet concrete can be poured and compacted so
that it will flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould.
It resists the initial hydrostatic pressure caused by the wet concrete. It is also used in order to give
concrete the required shape.
Formwork may be either wooden or metallic and the materials commonly used as formwork are
timber and steel.

25
 The formwork is allowed to support the concrete for a duration that is long enough for the concrete
to gain enough strength to be able to support itself and the loads applied on it if any. This period
depends on the type of cement used because different types of cement have different setting and
hardening time.
Formwork is used to support concrete in columns, beams, slabs and concrete walls. The formwork
employed was first checked to see if it could satisfy the following properties.

 Rigid enough to resist hydrostatic forces from concrete

 Water tight to prevent any leakages
 Alignment in an orderly way
 Easy to dismantle and strike off once the concrete had set

3.3.1 Column formwork

Formwork for ground floor columns.

 After inserting the steel column base and binding rectangular steel column frame work on to it as
per structural dimensions, the steel frame work had be covered by timber formwork to enable
concrete casting for the column.
 The dimensions of the column were first established from the structural plan.
 Steel Column boxes were then erected to cover the
reinforcements hence forming a shaft for the concrete.
 Note that different column sizes had different steel
column boxes.
 The column boxes were then plumbed to ensure that they
were vertical.
 This was done by connecting a small block on the end of a
string. It was then suspended with the other end tied to the
box at the top end.
 It was then allowed to rest and checked to see if it was
vertical.
 In cases where they had to be adjusted, props were used to
support the boxes from different sides to ensure that the
Figure 3:18 plumbing the column small block at the end of the string was vertical.
Formwork for upper floor columns.

 The dimensions of the column were first established using a total station. The points were
then marked with nails.
 Holes were then drilled into the floor slab using a drilling machine.
 Short steel bars of length 200mm were inserted into the holes to help hold the column boxes
firmly on the ground.
 Steel Column boxes were then erected to cover the reinforcements hence forming a shaft for
the concrete.
26
 Note that different column sizes had different steel column boxes.
The column boxes were then plumbed to ensure that they were vertical.
This was done by connecting a small block on the end of a string. It was then suspended with the
other end tied to the box at the top end.
It was then allowed to rest and checked to see if it was vertical.
In cases where they had to be adjusted, props were used to support the boxes from different sides to
ensure that the small block at the end of the string was vertical.
3.3.2 Formwork for slabs and adjoining beams.
Formwork for the slab was always done after that for the adjoining beams. This is precisely
because the slabs get support from the beams. Levels are also obtained from the beam formwork
and transferred to the slab.
 The scaffolds were erected first making sure that they were well connected and strong enough to
carry the weight of the concrete to be casted.
 4*2 timber pieces were arranged horizontally on top of the transoms of the standards
 They were firmly fixed with nails into the transoms
 At points where there was a beam, spaces of thicknesses of 200mm were left.
 These beams had lengths of 600mm. hence dropdown thicknesses of 400mm were left.
 Soffit boards of this length were cut using a power saw, nailed into the timber boards forming
the decking and side supported with props and timber struts.

3.3.3

Figure 3:19 squaring the timber for beam shutters Figure 3:20 cutting timber pieces with a bow Figure 3:21 shuttering for the beam and slab
Formwork for staircases. saw

The formwork for the stairs was erected together with that of the supporting side beams and the
landing.

 Scaffolds for supporting the formwork were erected first ensuring that they were strong enough.
 The transoms on top of the standards were adjusted to cater for the slope of the stairs which was
1 in 2. (Rise of 150mm and going of 300mm).
 Standards for the landing were at the same height.

27
 Timber pieces (yellow timber) for supporting the soffit boards were then nailed into the
transoms with nails.
 Soffit boards were then placed next and using a hammer and nails, they were nailed into the
timber pieces below.
 Using a power saw, the boards were proportioned to the lengths of the rises and the goings of the
staircase.
 A spirit level was used to ensure that the boards for the going were horizontal by placing it on
top of the boards.
 A water level was also used to ensure that the boards for the rises were at the same vertical
heights from either side.

Figure 3:22 shutters for the stairs Figure 4:23: shutters for the steps

3.3.4 Formwork for the retaining shear wall

Tools and Materials used:
 Tape measure, for measuring lengths of the timber pieces used.
 Bow saw, for cutting the timber pieces.
 Claw hammer, for driving nails into the timber.
 4*2inch timber pieces
 A plumb bob for checking verticality of the column

28
Procedure for the formwork.
 After the reinforcements were put, the correct thickness of the shear wall had to be known
before any formwork commenced.
 The correct position of the corners of the retaining shear wall were then established using a
total station.
 They were then marked with nails.
 Holes were drilled into the concrete slab (floor slab) and short steel bars to act as kickers
were inserted into the drilled holes to help offer support to the boards near the ground.
 Timber boards were erected vertically from the kickers and maintained vertical by the help
of side supports.
 Long timber pieces of 4*2inches were nailed to the boards and then supported with metallic
props.
 Timber boards and timber pieces were cut to wanted sizes using a saw
 The formwork was then plumbed to ensure that it was vertical and parallel to the
reinforcements.

Figure 24: props for the retaining wall

3.4 CONCRETE WORKS

Concrete works were the major works on site. This involved a number of activities such as,

 Concrete testing
 Concrete casting
 Compaction of the concrete by vibration
 Curing of the concrete.
 Removal of formwork/de-shuttering
29
3.4.1 Concrete testing
Different classes of concrete were produced depending on what it was going to be used for such as
concrete blinding, for column bases, casting of the slabs, beams, columns and other purposes.
The different tests done on the concrete were to test for its workability and compressive strength.
These included;

 Slump test for workability of concrete

 Compressive strength test for shear strength

Slump test.

The test was carried out with reference to BS 1881: part 102: 1983.
This test was used to determine the wetness/fluidity and ability of wet concrete to flow.
The fresh concrete was compacted into a mould in the shape of a frustum of a cone.
When the cone was withdrawn upwards, the distance the concrete had slumped provided a measure
of the consistency of the concrete.
Equipment used include;

 Frustum of a cone (mould)  Scoop

 Tape measure  Spade or shovel
 Tamping rod

Procedure

 The mould was first dampened with water and cleaned to avoid the concrete from stinking
on the walls of the mould.
 The mould was then filled in two layers each approximately half the height of the mould.
 A tamping rod was used to compact the concrete by stroking it around 25times at each half
filling.
 Once the top surface had been compacted, the spilled concrete was removed by striking it off
by means of a sawing and rolling motion of the compacting rod
 The mould was removed from the concrete by lifting it up vertically in about 5s.
 After removal of the mould, a tape measure was immediately used to measure the distance
between the top of the frustum and the top of the slumped concrete.
 The distance gave the slump height.

This height was expected to be 74-100mm. In case the height was smaller than this, water was
added to the concrete and if it was higher, then the concrete was heated to reduce on the water
content.

30
Figure 24: showing measurement of the slump in concrete testing

Compressive strength test.

The test was carried out with reference to BS 1881: Part 116: 1983
This was used to determine the maximum load that the concrete could handle per unit area.
Concrete cubes were made, cured in a pool of water and stored in accordance with BS 1881. The test was
carried out to check whether the design strength was being achieved on site.
Apparatus used.

 Compressive testing machine

 Electronic Weighing balance
 Cubic moulds
 Tamping rod

Procedure.

 Concrete cubes were casted immediately after production. A little grease was rubbed in the walls
of the cubic moulds to prevent the concrete from stinking on their walls.
 These cubes were of size 150*150*150mm .they were immediately cured in a pool of water.
 The moulds are then allowed to dry.
 After 24 hours, the cubes were removed from the mould by the help of a compressor machine.
The cubes are then placed in the curing tank, such that they were fully submerged, to begin the
curing process.
 Curing is the protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after placing as possible,
and for the first few days of hardening
31
  Three of the cubes were tested after casting them at 7days and the next three at 28 days to
determine the compressive strength.
 The cubes were weighed on an electronic weighing balance to determine their weight.
 They were then placed in a compressive testing machine and crushed.
 The crushing load was noted in kN and with the surface area of the blocks, the compressive
strength was obtained at 7days and after 28days.
 After 7 days, the cubes were expected to have gained 70% of the total compressive strength
obtained at 28 days.
 Note: Admixtures were used to improve the properties of the concrete by adding them in the mix
during its production.

Figure 25: showing casting of concrete cubes Figure 26: showing the curing of concrete cubes in a
pool of water

Admixtures
An admixture is a substance introduced into a batch of concrete during or immediately before it’s
mixing in order to alter or improve the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete e.g. accelerators,
retarders and plasticizers or water reducers.
These admixtures were specifically added to;

 Increase in workability
 Increase in homogeneity & cohesiveness
 Increase in strength
 Increase in durability
 Increase or decrease in setting time

3.4.2 Concrete casting.

Once the different tests had been conducted and the concrete was found to be suitable for use,
casting commenced.
32
For high levels of the building, a pulley system was used to transport the concrete from the mixer
trucks to the required place.
In cases where the use of the pulley system to carry the concrete was unsuitable, a concrete pump
was used.
The casting of concrete for blinding layer.

The concrete was batched by volume. The concrete that was cast for the blinding layer was mixed
1
by hand at the site in the ratio of 1:1 :2 and was transferred to each of the foundation a wheel
2
burrow. It was then compacted by a vibrator to avoid voids in t the layer. A gauge was used to check
the thickness of the blinding layer.
The strength and durability of concrete depends also on the amount of water mixed with it. Too
much or too little Water can adversely affect the strength of concrete. Concrete is cast, water is used
to cure it so that the temperature is controlled and concrete matures slowly. It is very important to
use clean, potable water in quality concrete production. Brackish or salty water must never be used.
Contaminated water will produce concrete mortars with lower durability, erratic set characteristics
and inconsistent color

Figure 27: Mixing concrete for blinding layer by hand Figure 26: the blinding layer

Casting of concrete ramp, slab and beams.

33
 The slab and the adjacent side beams were always casted monolithically to enable a homogeneous
bonding of the concrete.
 After the formwork had been well struck and arranged, it was critically checked to ensure no
leakages and open spaces through which concrete would flow
 An air pump was used to remove any dust particles and other rubbish to ensure that the
formwork was clean.
 Gauge levels were placed on the formwork horizontally to help provide the level of the concrete
to be casted.
 The concrete was then transferred from mixer by a pulley and transferred by wheel burrows to
desired part
 The beam were cast first and workability of concrete for beam is desired to be low with less
water.
 Using a hoe or spade or trowel, the concrete was spread uniformly to try to reach the level of the
gauges and also reach other parts of the slab and side beams.
 The concrete was then vibrated to remove the air spaces and voids that would cause weakness
points.
 Finally a bow line timber was to cut the concrete to make it level following the concrete cover
thickness.
 Care was taken to avoid any disturbances of the steel chairs that supported the upper
reinforcements in the ramp and slab.
 The concrete was spread first to the side beams to fill the drop down thicknesses(400mm)
 Concrete cover was enabled by the help of the spacer blocks already put in place during steel
fixing.
 In cases where the fresh concrete was to bond with the already hardened concrete, the ends of
the hardened concrete were chiseled and a bonding agent applied on the chiseled hardened
concrete to enable a strong bond.

Figure 27: concrete mixer Figure 28: concrete vibrating slab Figure 29: leveling with blinding
Figure 30: measuring concrete
layer cover

34
 Concrete casting of vertical members (the columns and retaining shear wall).
 The formwork was closely checked to ensure there were no openings and leakages.
 Any dust particles and unnecessary material was blown out of the formwork by use of an air
pump.
 The formwork was plumbed to ensure its verticality. This was done by tying a plumb bob at a
suitable height on the formwork and ensured that it remains vertical. In cases where these
members were not vertical, side supports were adjusted accordingly
 Concrete pump was used to pump the concrete up into the moulds. Since these were 3.4m high,
the moulds were quarterly filled and then compacted thoroughly by use of a poker vibrator.
 At greater heights of the column, scaffolds were used to ensure that the working crew pouring
the concrete and vibrating it were able to see the inside of the metallic boxes and formwork.

Figure 31 well propped column ready for casting Figure 32: showing concrete casting for a column Figure 33: finished cast column

Concrete casting of the staircases.

 The formwork was checked to ensure that it was strong enough to resist the hydrostatic
pressures from the fresh concrete.
 The strong timber boards placed to support the rise were checked to ensure they were vertical
and the ends were at the same horizontal level. This was done by use of the water level and spirit
level.
 Dust particles were removed by use of an air pump.
 The staircase mould was therefore filled with concrete ensuring that the levels of the rise and
going were maintained as before.

35
3.4.3 Compaction of the concrete by vibration.
Compaction of the concrete is the process to get rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of
segregation occurred and to form a homogeneous dense mass.
Compaction was achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to overcome the internal
friction between the particles forming the concrete, between concrete and reinforcement and
between concrete and forms and by reducing the air voids to a minimum.
Furthermore compaction helped to avoid honey combing of the concrete.
Compaction by vibration was suitable since large masses of concrete were being handled.
This process of compaction by vibration was conducted as follows;

 The vibrator was immersed at certain points for about 10-30seconds

 The location of the vibrator was staggered to ensure that every bit of the concrete was
compacted
 The vibrator was also made to penetrate the concrete vertically (inclination of around 10
degrees)
 In places where the reinforcements were congested, the vibrator was inclined to ensure that such
areas were compacted.
 This was done for the whole concrete mass casted
 Care was taken to avoid over vibrating of the concrete as this would cause discontinuity in the
mix with the aggregates moving to the bottom and the slurry to the top
 In the case of slabs, beams, ramp and staircase, after compaction by vibration, a timber float was
used to tamp the surface of the concrete before it could set so as to enable a smooth surface
finish on top. Steel floats and rollers were also used to level the concrete
 For the retaining shear wall and column, the concrete was vibrated at every half a meter.

Figure 34: spreading the concrete for vibration Figure 35: vibrating the waffles slab ribs

36
3.4.4 Curing of the concrete
Curing is the protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after placing as possible, and
for the first few days of hardening
After casting of the concrete, it was allowed to first initially set so that it could be cured.
This process of curing was performed to keep the concrete moist so that the chemical reactions
occurring due to presence of cement could go on well undisturbed so that the concrete would gain
maximum strength after 28 days.
 First and foremost, a thin layer of sand was covered on top of the concrete to enable retain the
water and therefore help to avoid moisture loss.
 Gunny bags were used to cover the vertical sides of the beams and columns since it was difficult
to apply the sand cover.
 Water was then sprinkled on top of the concrete at regular intervals (preferably in the morning
and evening) for 2-3days using a water pump.
 Buckets were also used to transport the water in areas where the pump could not reach.

Figure 36: showing a well cured floor slab

3.4.5 Removal of formwork / de-shuttering

De-shuttering refers to the removal of formwork after the concrete has gained enough strength to
support its own weight and any small applied loads.
This was done after a few days or weeks depending on the structural member in question.
 The process started with the removal of side supports holding the vertical shutters.
 The scaffolds and timber (yellow timber) holding the decking unit were later removed with the
use of a hammer and a mallet.
 The soffit boards were then struck off taking care such that the concrete surfaces were not
damaged. Note that the shuttering forming soffit of slabs was removed first followed by the
shuttering forming soffit of beams.
 In case of columns, the metallic boxes were unscrewed.
 For staircases, the timber pieces forming the rises were left attached and removed at a later time
due to the high traffic using the staircases even during the construction.
37
  The removal of props was done last with those of the slab taking close to at least 7days and
those of the beam being removed after 15days.

3.5 BLOCKWORK AND MASONRY.

Blocks are walling units that form the vertical elements of the building meant to enclose and
partition the building. They are bound together by mortar and also help to transfer structural loads to
the foundation and ground.
3.5.1 Block work for foundation plinth walls
Blocks and mortar were thus used to create these walls. These walls are loading bearing and
therefore carry weight besides their own weight. Solid blocks of dimensions 400*200*200mm were
used for the foundation plinth walls
Cement mortar was used for bonding of blocks. Its primary purpose being to bind together the
individual block units, thereby allowing the transfer of compression, shear and tensile stresses
between adjacent units, as well as provide an effective seal between masonry units against rain
penetration.
The mortar thickness was ranging between 20-30mm and a header bond was used for proper
strengths

Figure 37: header bond for foundation

38
 3.5.2 Block work for foundation upper walling and
partitioning walls Figure 38: cement mortar for bond Figure 39: showing a stretcher bond above
foundation
Once the structural frame had been erected, there was need to wall and partition the structure to
create different rooms, office space, restrooms, theatres and wards.
Blocks and mortar were thus used to create these walls. These walls were non-loading bearing and
therefore it all about containing their own weight.
Different types of blocks were used on site. These included the solid blocks and frogged blocks. The
solid blocks were of dimensions 400*200*200mm.
Cement mortar was used for bonding of blocks. Its primary purpose being to bind together the
individual block units, thereby allowing the transfer of compression, shear and tensile stresses
between adjacent units, as well as provide an effective seal between masonry units against rain
penetration.
The mortar thickness was ranging between 20-30mm.
Since the block thickness was big enough, a stretcher bond was used

3.5.3 Laying of blocks.

Equipment used.

 Trowel.
 Plumb line.
 Spirit level.
 Water level.
 String.
 Spade.
Procedure of laying the blocks.

 A string was tied at one point and the direction of the wall established on the floor space.
 A layer of mortar was laid on the floor surface to bond the blocks and the concrete floor.
 The blocks were arranged on top of the mortar making sure that they were in line with the
string.

39
  Using a plumb line, the blocks were plumbed to ensure that they were vertically placed on
top of one another.
 More mortar was placed in between the blocks to bond them together with the use of a
trowel and a wooden float to avoid the mortar from falling.
 Stretcher bond was used. Blocks were arranged one over another making sure they
overlapped by almost half a blocks length hence providing a simple and strong bond.
 Half blocks were also used in cases where a full brick could not fit.
 Hoop iron was placed at every after three courses to ensure that no cracks remain continuous
in the wall in case of any stress release due to compression and tension forces
 Similarly to avoid cracks between the concrete columns and the wall, steel bars were placed
in the concrete columns at every three courses to enable bonding and avoid cracks.
 Mortar mix ratio was 1:3 with cement of class 32.5.

3.6 PLUMBING
Plumbing is the process of installing the pipework and other assemblies for a functioning water
supply and drainage system. The plumbing for the structure was carried out from floor to floor. The
process involved stages such as;
 Interpretation of the drawings and plans
 Chiseling of the walls and floors to create space for the pipes.
 Design and location of sleeves in slabs
 Laying and fitting of pipes.
 Testing of the connections to detect any leakages and blockages.
Different tools and equipment were used such as;
 Chisel
 Hammer and mallet

40
  PPR heating machine
 Tape measure
 Screw drivers
 Chalk for markings
 Drilling machine.
Note. From the design parameters, PPR pipes were used to supply the water to the hand wash
basins, kitchen sinks, to the toilets, urinals and all other areas. This is because they are thick and
strong hence can withstand the high pressures from the flowing water. PPR pies of diameter 63mm
were used to supply the water in large quantities.
In cases where the supply pipes were made to pass through the walls, PPR pipes of diameter 25mm
were used.
PVC pipes were used for drainage systems since they have large diameters and the wastes are
always much hence they can easily flow such pipes. Different sizes were used and these were 6inch
and 2inch diameter pipes.
All the components in the structure had the same water supply system pipes but the discharge pipes
were designed differently.
Wastes from the toilets, urinals hard their own discharge pipes. Similarly wastes from the hand wash
basins, kitchen sinks, and laundries had theirs too. This was done to avoid overflows and backflows.

3.6.1 Chiseling
Once the drawings were interpreted and well analyzed, the positions and directions of the pipes were
marked on the walls, floors and ceilings using chalk.
The walls were chiseled using a chisel and a hammer for the fitting of the plumbing pipes for sink
water drains and water distribution through the structure to the sinks, showers, bath tubs and water
heaters, washing machines and several others.
Sleeves were made in the slabs of the building before casting of concrete to provide inlets and
outlets for the water supply and waste discharge pipes to the bathrooms, urinal, hand wash basins,
toilets, laundries and kitchen sinks.
Internal ducts were designed using masonry to provide a path and cover to large diameter supply
pipes that couldn’t be covered in the walls.
3.6.2 Laying and fitting of pipes
The biggest point in this process is the slope of the pipes. Both the supply and discharge pipes had to
be laid at a certain slope to enable continuous flow.
For pipes on the ceiling, an expansion bolt was fixed in the ceiling and a rod pushed to fit into the
bolt. A bracket was later fixed at the end by use of a nut and these brackets held the pipes in position
at a certain slope.
One end of the plumbing pipes is always raised to a higher level than the other end to allow drainage
of the waste water by gravity and this is tested using a spirit level to indicate the higher end.
Different fittings at the corners were used depending on the distribution network and direction.
Bends, T-junctions and elbows were used.
41
In cases where the pipes were short and needed to be continued in the same direction, sockets were
used.
A PPR heating machine was used to melt and fuse the pipes together at the joints and junctions.
Discharge pipes from the different components were all directed to the nearby manholes.
The discharge pipes from the top floors of the building were passed through external ducts in the
structure.
With all the wastes in the manholes, a 6inch diameter PVC pipe was installed to carry the wastes to
the main sewer.
Reserve water tanks were positioned at the top of the building so that the water would have enough
pressure to flow.

Figure 40: showing PVC pipes Figure 41: showing created sleeves in slabs and fitting of pipes

3.8
PLASTERING (FINISHING) THE STRUCTURE
A finishing is final treatment, layer material or coating for a surface. These finishes included wall
finishes both interior and exterior views, floor and verandah finishes, staircase and ramp surface
finishes
Wall finishes.
The walling and partitions were finished through the following processes;

 Rough casting
 Plastering
 Application of lime
 Painting

42
Rough casting, Plastering and Application of lime
Equipment used.

 Trowel
 Wooden float
 Steel float
 Straight edge
 Straight corner
 Plumb line
Mortar was used to make the rough cast and plastering but in different mix ratios. The cement used
was class C32.5
The mix proportions were as follows;
Table 3.1 showing mix rations for different layers for the wall finish.

Rough cast mix ratio of 1:2

Plaster mix ratio of 1:3

Lime mixture mix ratio of 1:2 bags of lime

The procedure for the wall finish was as follows;

 The rough cast was the first layer applied on the masonry/ block surfaces to provide a bonding
layer for the plaster.
 The rough cast mixture was made more watery so that it could easily stick on the block surfaces
and the concrete column surfaces.
 This was followed by setting of the gauge levels for the plaster by making of markings on the
wall with the help of mortar to show the thickness of the plaster layer
 These gauges were approximately 20mm depending on the wall surface.
 These gauges were obtained by plumbing the wall at different points and hence the gauge
thicknesses obtained.
 The plaster layer was applied on top of the rough cast after it had dried and set.
 Using a trowel, the mortar (plaster) was applied on the wall until a suitable surface had been
covered.
 A straight edge (kyuma layini) and wooden float (kyuma kona) were used to make the plaster
layer level by moving it across the surface.
 A straight corner was also used to smoothen and make sure the corners were straight
 At points where the level was not obtained, more mortar was added.
 Note that for the concrete column surfaces, the plaster was mixed with less water unlike for the
block surfaces since the concrete has less absorption capacity compared to the blocks.
 The surfaces were then allowed to dry so as to be able to apply the lime.

43
 Lime mixture was applied on top of the plaster after it had dried. A steel float was used to apply
the mixture.

3.8 PAINTING
Paint is a coating of fluid material applied on a surface as protective coating which on drying forms
a thin film on surface. It is a dispersion of one or more pigments (coloring) in a vehicle (liquid)
consisting if a drying oil and a solvent thinner
Application of paint
Generally, painting was usually done by following the steps below;

 Cleaning: the surface (by rubbing) and ensuring that it is completely dry
 Application of filler using a steel plate and a scrapper is also done to cover cracks or holes.
Filler is a mixture of budget undercoat paint, plaster primer and white cement and it
forms a white paste.
 Priming and /or undercoating. The first coat applied using a primer (for metallic surface) or
undercoat paint (for masonry walls and concrete columns). These were applied by spraying
or using a hand brush or a roller brush.

The purpose of priming and undercoating was to;

 Seal the surface

 Protect the surface against damp air
 Act as a barrier to prevent any chemical action between the surface and the finishing coat
 Give a good surface to the finishing coat.
 After the application of the undercoat, the 2 finishing layers were applied one after
another ensuring that the first was able to dry first.
 The second coating was applied approximately after 24 hours when the first had dried.
 This was done with the help of a hand brush and with a roller brush at higher points of
the walls.

CHAPTER FOUR: OBSERVATIONS, ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES,

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 OBSERVATIONS
 I observed that the use of waffled slab makes the construction faster because less work is done
on shutters as no soffits are required, cheaper because it reduces on concrete and reinforcement
use and its easy and straight forward.
 I observed that there was inadequate propping for the waffles shutters and this is risky because
it can lead to collapse of slab during casting.
 I observed the stairs were too steep and this might be a disservice to the users especially
pregnant women, elderly and children

44
 I also observed that welfare of the workers was so poor at site as they could buy their own food,
water, poor security for their property and inadequate toilet facilities. This was likely to cause
demotivation at the site.
 Another observation was that the safety of workers at site was compromised as most would
work without gumboots, gloves and helmets and this was to put them at risk to injuries

4.2 ACHIEVEMENTS MADE DURING THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PERIOD.

Despite the challenges that I faced in my quest for knowledge and gaining experience, The 7 weeks
of my industrial training were a total success and it was quite a wonderful experience.
Besides the hands on experience I got from site, I also got to appreciate what it takes to be a civil
engineer, a technician and a laborer on site.
With this experience and exposure to various disciplines in the field, including site management and
organization, I hope to be an effective, efficient and professional engineer in the near future.
I was also able to learn the following aspects;

 .positive response to criticism from client and site onlookers.

 Teamwork among the workers.
 Punctuality and time management at work..
 Discipline when conducting work which is a very vital aspect.
 Professionalism in handling clients and the public.
 Efficiency when doing site work reduce on expenditures and also avoid compromising structural
integrity.

4.3 CHALLENGES FACED DURING INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

During my training I experienced a few challenges and they are as listed below;

 The time I had for my industrial training was short, yet multiple activities were taking place.
This therefore meant that that some activities were foregone due to this limiting factor.
 Financial restraints also came into play towards the end of my industrial training concerning
transport and meals.

4.4 CONCLUSIONS.
Industrial training is very vital for every University student. Therefore every student should try as
much as possible to ensure that they grasp the material and information given to them so that they
can use it to expand on their career and level of experience. This can help them in future while
applying for jobs.
Internship has boosted my career especially in structures department. It has also given me
confidence to face future employment opportunities. With this experience and exposure to various
disciplines in the field, including site management and organization, I hope to be an effective,

45
efficient and professional engineer in the near future. All in all I am grateful to the Almighty God
for having protected me throughout my training

4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS.
4.3.1 To The University.
 The University should take care of salary settlements in time to make sure that supervisors come
in time. This helps the student to push on with field activities with a clearer and settled mind and
prepare their reports in time.
 The department of civil engineering can also make the log books bigger to give more space for
writing field activities clearly.
 I would also recommend that the University extends the training period by a month so that the
students fully master the activities being carried out in field.

4.3.2 To Answal Construction Company

 . The company should employ more staff especially during carpentry work to avoid one person
working on whole project. This is hectic, tiresome and time consuming.
 The company should also care about the well-being of intern by at least providing them with
lunch or water while they are working on site.
 I would recommend that the company provides a site supervisor who is fluent in English to
students who go there for industrial training so that they may not miss on collecting and
amassing vast knowledge about field work.
 I would also recommend all the training firms to motivate, encourage and create serene
environments for the trainees. This will help them to appreciate their careers and work hard
towards achieving the best.

REFERENCES
 Jack C. McCormack and James K. Nelson, (2005) Design of Reinforced Concrete, seventh
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Roy Churdley and Roger Greeno, (2004) Building construction handbook. fifth edition, Great
Britain: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann
 F K Kong and R H Evans, (1998) Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete, third edition, Great
Britain: E and FN Spon
 M. Neville and J.J. Brooks, (2010) Construction Technology, second edition, Prentice Hall
 Advanced construction by Roy-Chudley-Roger
 Building construction hand book sixth edition by R. Chudley and R. Greeno

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