PROCESS OF SOAP MANUFACTURING

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR GRADE 12 SCIENCE

IN CHEMISTRY

Submitted By:

Sameer Tamang

Class: 12

Roll No: 260

Section: M11

National School of Sciences

Submitted To:

Junu Kapali

Department of Chemistry

National School of Sciences

Kathmandu, Nepal

2022
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

It is certified that Mr. Sameer Tamang has carried out the project work entitled
"Process of Soap Manufacturing". This project work is the result of his endeavors
and research. It is finalized under our guidance and supervision in the academic year
2021-2022.

Supervisor

Ms. Junu Kapali

Department of Chemistry

National School of Sciences

Lainchour, Kathmandu

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my very good fortune to get very cooperative teacher Ms. Junu Kapali as my
supervisor. During the work in progress, her support, helpfulness and constant
encouragement kept me motivated to my research work. She provided invaluable
interest, guidance and support during the course of work.

I would like to thank all faculty members who have provided encouragement and
suggestions during course of work.

Further, I would also like to extend my gratitude to the principle Dr. Madhav Prasad
Baral and NSS Executive Director Ma’am Pranitha Sharma Baral for providing me
the entire faculty that was required.
Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the greatest mentor, my parents.
All the thanks are due to them for everything that I have achieved.

Sameer Tamang

8 February, 2022

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 ABSTRACT

Soaps have become parts of our daily life, not only because of its cleaning property
but also its cosmetic aspects. In the past, people used to manufacture it using naturally
available herbs, animal fats, etc. But with the increase in demand of the soap, its
manufacture has been done in modern ways in industries in a very large scale. Though
some modern ways have been developed for the manufacture of soap, the basic idea
of it has not been changed at all. The principal raw material of soap is oil and fats.
According to these raw materials the quality of soap and category of soap is changed.
The necessary raw materials are needed to be of high purity and the finished product
should have the balanced pH as its froth may enter the eye. Soaps has wide range of
use from daily household activities to industrial uses. The fact that soaps have less
negative impacts on human and environmental health proves the usefulness of soap.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ............................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

1.1. Types of soap: ................................................................................................. 1

1.2. Manufacturing process: ................................................................................... 2
2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 4

3. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 5

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................. 7

5. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 8

6. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .................................................... 9

7. REFERENCE ...................................................................................................... 10
 1. INTRODUCTION

Chemically, soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating
products. In a domestic setting, soaps are surfactants usually used for washing,
bathing, and other types of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are used as
thickeners, components of some lubricants, and precursors to catalysts. In the present
era, all are concentrating to appear elegant and improve their personality. The use of
soap as a cleaning agent has always been there for years as of symbol of instinct to
keep his body and parts clean. Soap aids to remove slag from the skin and imparts a
glow. The chief raw material for the manufacture of soap is oil and fats. According to
these raw materials, the quality of soap is assigned. The necessary raw materials
should be of high grade and the finished item should have a balanced pH as its forth
may damage the eye.

1.1. Types of soap:

a. Toilet and bathing soaps:
Toilet and bathing soaps are the ones that have cosmetic use. They are
capable of solubilizing and grimes, which can then be removed from articles
being cleaned. Surfacially, they both seem to be same. But the value of Total
Fatty Material (TFM) makes them distinct from each other. Though their
primary uses are for household and personal hygiene.
b. Non- toilet soaps:
Non-toilet soaps are soaps that are used for cleaning heavy dirt. These
soaps are used to get rid of tough stains and grease. They are more commonly
known as lithium soaps. They consist of the lithium salt of a fatty acid. While
toilet soaps are used in domestic cleaning, lithium soaps are components of
lithium grease. Lithium grease is formed by mixing lithium soap and oil. It is
used as a lubricating agent and thickener.
c. Glycerin soaps:
Glycerin soaps are one of the most moisturizing types of soap. They
are gentle to the skin. This type of soap not only moisturizes the skin but is
also equally effective for all skin types. Glycerin soaps can make your skin
appear moisturized and healthy. These soaps are 100% natural, which makes
them suitable for sensitive skin. People who have sensitive skin often

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 complain that bar soaps make their skin look rough or worsen their skin
problems. This worsening of skin conditions is due to the presence of
synthetic chemicals in regular beauty bars. However, glycerin soaps are
suitable for even the most sensitive skin.
d. Transparent soap:
Unlike regular soaps, transparent soaps are clear and see-through.
Instead of mixing soap material in water, it is mixed in a hot alcohol solution.
The particles that remain undissolved in alcohol are filtered out, and hence,
a transparent soap is formed. Transparent soaps are not as moisturizing as
opaque soap bars, but they are very effective for oily skin and acne. This is
because the alcohol neutralizes the soap during the process. Moreover, they
are quite slippery and can be shaved into several shapes.

1.2. Manufacturing process:

 Saponification:
Saponification is a process that involves the conversion of fat, oil,
or lipid, into soap and alcohol by the action of aqueous alkali
(e.g. NaOH). Soaps are salts of fatty acids, which in turn are carboxylic acids
with long carbon chains. A typical soap is sodium oleate. Vegetable oils
and animal fats are the traditional materials that are saponified. These greasy
materials, triesters called triglycerides, are mixtures derived from diverse fatty
acids. Triglycerides can be converted to soap in either a one- or a two-step
process. In some soap-making, the glycerol is left in the soap. If necessary,
soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with sodium chloride.

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  Glycerin recovery in soap production:
The final mixture obtained after saponification contains two parts, a
solid zone, and an aqueous zone. Considering the aqueous zone, its alkalinity
is low because of the reaction of sodium hydroxide. Also, glycerin is dissolved
in aqueous phase. Also, a small amount of soap is dissolved and slightly
ionized. Glycerin is more expensive than soap, so glycerin is removed. The
amount of glycerin left over gives the soap a smooth and soft texture. Most of
it is set aside for the production of more value-added beauty products.

 Soap purification:
The mixture obtained by removing glycerin further contains impurities
such as H2O, NaCl and NaOH. Therefore, in this step, the resulting mixture is
centrifuged. That is, the mixture is further rotated with the impurities at high
speed in a perforated vessel. It removes most of the water and salt that are the
main product. But the final soap product contains about NaCl 0.5% (w/w).
There may be further unreacted sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide can
cause itching of the skin and damage to the delicate tissues of the eye.
Therefore, any remaining sodium hydroxide should be removed. Sodium
hydroxide can be removed by neutralizing existing caustic soda by adding a
weak acid such as citric acid. In addition to citric acid, phosphoric acid can
also be used as a weak acid for this process.

The addition of different components in the soap makes their properties entirely
different from each other. For instance, glycerine and sorbitol (sugar- based alcohol
with emollient characteristics) are added to make clear soaps. Products labeled
"antibacterial" usually contains triclosan, substance that is harmful to pathogens like
bacteria and even prevents fungal growth.

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 2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The sole objective of this project work is to discuss about soap, its various types and
manufacturing process. It further discusses about how soaps are made in modern
industries and its uses on various fields.

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 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

The soap has been proved quite useful and important since its discovery. But it is
surprising to accept the fact that the discovery of soap was accidental. It is written that
Fanti of West Africa and Gauls of the first century apparently discovered soap
independently, at the time when Greek and Egyptians' civilization hadn't reached the
degree of civilization of, to whom the soap was still unknown. However, it is found
that people during that time used alkalis, tallow and various vegetable oils, together
with several ingredients. [1]

Despite people using soap from ancient times using various methods, the actual
manufacture of soap in industries started from somewhere between 15 th to 16th
century. In France, by the second half of the 15th century, the semi-industrialized
professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of Provence
Toulon, Hyères, and Marseille which supplied the rest of France. In Marseilles, by
1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at
Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers. English manufacture tended to
concentrate in London. [2]

Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th century, using vegetable oils
(such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced,
both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the
vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I
granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who
produced certificates from foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other
Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses
and others’, testifying that ‘the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the
Old Soap.[3]

Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as
advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the
relationship between cleanliness and health. [39] In modern times, the use of soap has
become commonplace in industrialized nations due to a better understanding of the
role of hygiene in reducing the population size of pathogenic microorganisms.[4]

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Modern industries use various methods to prepare soaps. One of the widely used and
effective method during 20 th centruy was kettle method which to took about 10 to 11
days to complete. But the flaw of this process was that the quality of soap obtained
after each batch was quite inconsistent. So later, scientists and engineers developed a
new manufacturing process called continuous process.

The continuous process:

a. Splitting:
The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids
and glycerin. Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while at the
other end water at high temperature (266°F [130°C]) and pressure is
introduced. This splits the fat into its two components. The fatty acid and
glycerin are pumped out continuously as more fat and water enter. The fatty
acids are then distilled for purification.
b. Mixing:
The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali
to form soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also mixed
in. The hot liquid soap may be then whipped to incorporate air .
c. Cooling and finishing:
The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a large
slab. It may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut into smaller
pieces of bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous
process, from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in several hours.
d. Milling:
Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The
milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap.
The cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which
crush and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because
their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the soap emerges
from the mills, it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded
soap is cut into bar size, stamped and wrapped.[5]

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 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Soap is the combination of potassium and sodium salts. Due to its cleaning, washing
and foaming property, it is very important in our daily life. Since it has a wide use
around the world, the soap should be of good quality. Hence, to determine the quality
of soap, Total Fatty Matter (TFM) index has been introduced, which basically
represents the amount of fatty matter, especially fatty acids in a soap. For instance, the
soap of highest quality, i.e. grade 1 soap should have TFM value ranging between
75% to 100%. [6]

The scope of the use of soap is quite large. Soaps are excellent cleansing agents and
have good biodegradability. Due to its foaming property, soaps are used to wash
various things, remove grease and stains from clothes, etc. They are even used to keep
hands and other body parts germs free. They are used to make various insects and
fungus repellant. Soap has also been proved quite effective for beauty purpose. Some
soaps can provide essential nutrients to the skin. The use of mild soaps can even
reduce dryness and itchiness of the skin. Although primarily used for their cleansing
ability, soaps are also effective as mild antiseptics and ingestible antidotes for mineral
acid or heavy metal poisoning. Special metallic soaps, made from soap and heavier
metals, are used as additives in polishes, inks, paints, and lubricating oils. Aside from
its household use, soaps also have important use in industries. Many paper, leather,
[7]
metal, rubber industries still use soap as an essential raw material.

In the present world, the use of soap is proved a sustainable solution for the use of
detergents that has many negative impacts on human and environmental health.
Various studies show that soap compounds break down long before they can pose an
environmental threat. Humans use up millions of tons of soap per year, but there is no
cause of concern. A recent study on the environmental impacts of soaps and their
associated packaging found that bar soaps have a lower environmental impact than
liquid soaps in many important categories including carbon footprint, eco-toxicity,
ozone depletion potential, and eutrophication potential.

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 5. CONCLUSION

This project as a whole discusses about the soap, its various types, manufacturing
process and uses. The soap, being a useful product has been in the use of humanity
since ancient ages, only varying in their forms according to the time and place. But
the sole purpose of it has always been the same. Different types of soaps are used for
different purposes. The manufacturing process of soap has also been changing
according to the requirement. Manufacturing companies and engineers are busy in
developing effective process which may prove the best. Since soaps are made using
natural products, they have limiting effects on the environment and hence can also be
used as solution for various other products.

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 6. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

In a narrow sense, the topic 'soap' may seem as a small topic to discuss. But on deeper

research, the study of soap has infinite depth in it. This project only discusses about

manufacturing process, uses, types and history of soap. Hence, many further research

can be done on this topic. Many information about soap can be found in various

articles, research papers, internet. So, with the reference to them, many other

researches can be done on this topic.

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 7. REFERENCE
1. Gibbs, F. W. (1939). The history of the manufacture of soap. Annals of
Science, 4(2), 169-190.
2. Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660
note 99
3. Keith Thomas, 'Noisomeness,' London Review of Books, Vol. 42 No. 14, 16
July 2020

4. Pears, Francis (1859). The Skin, Baths, Bathing, and Soap. The author.
pp. 100–. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04.
5. Ahveninen, Anna (2020-03-31). "Hand sanitiser or soap: making an informed
choice for COVID-19". Curious. Retrieved 2020-08-04
6. "Quality Laboratory Oil Examination Procedures and Practices". American Oil
Chemists Society. Archived on from the original on December 2012.Retrieved
17 December 2012.
7. McConlogue, W.A. Industrial uses of soap and synthetic detergents. J Am Oil
Chem Soc 29, 526–529

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