'--1 Pa~ b) -Analysis

During this lab, you will be using a very simple reactive voltage divider. Calculate the
current Io and voltages Va and Vb as shown in Figure 3 for V1 = 2.5 cos(2rr X 1k x t) V.

lk,. B
'\-~

-
•
Figure 3: A reactive voltage circuit.

Hint.'. Convert to Phasors and Impedances, and use equivalent combinations and voltage «
dividers

t; O ft r

V~ - - -i 3 77 Y9L 1 f✓ Y<
Ve. =z ½ 3<; L 1, 3 9/
I
V)

V
V -
- 4--_ _ _.:.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _i
I
 I.
Part II (Pre-Lab) - Simulation

---._____-- - To verify your calculations, simulate the circuit shown in Figure 3 in LTSpice.

1. To model the time varying signal, right click on the standard voltage source and ·
SINE Function then set 1
se ect the ,
a. DC Offset = 0V
b. Amplitude = 2.5V
--._____
c. Frequency= lk.Hz (i.e. 2k 1t radians)

2. Select the "Transient" Simulation Command, instead of the DC Sweep or DC Op Pnt

and set the Stop Time to record 5 periods. '

3. Run the simulation and plot the Voltages at Node A and Band the Current thru the lk
resistor all on the same plot.
--.-----
Notice the difference between the curves in the 1st cycle and those in the 5th cycle. This
is because the capacitor is discharged at the start of the simulation and it takes .9 ms for
things to reach a steady state (more on this later). To eliminate this, edit the transient
simulation command to start recording data at 1.25ms.
- -- ----- - Add annotations identifying the amplitude and the time of the first upward going zero
crossing after the signals have reached a steady state (> 1.25 ms). Place a copy of this
figure in your lab book. -
--------
------
----

2.0m.~ .
I,_ 1 6n1~.'

I O 31T'A
[_ o.4m.~

----.-..- ..-·--- 3 25ms 3.75ms 4 .25ms 4 75ms

 4. Using Node A's first upward zero er0 .
phase delay of Node Band the c
j
:~m_g
as a_ reference point (0° phase), calculate the
urren o m radians by

tr NOTE: For this equation to work you must compare the exact same point (zero crossing,
max, min, ...) on the two different waveforms.

How does the phase delay and amplitude of the simulated voltages and current compare
to the calculated from Part 1?

zrr

1, 73 r1i //

I O
8J-(ja,
~
Part ID (Pre-Lab) - Oscilloscope Operations

WARNING: In order to avoid wasting a lot of time, carefully read and

follow all directions!!

While DMM's can measure time varying signals, it can be difficult to record the changes as th
happen. The Oscilloscope (O-scope) operates like a volt meter with a memory as it provides aey
voltage graph as a function of time, see Figure 4 and 5. To control the display, the O-scope
provides three types of adjustments

• Vertical Adjustments: The vertical (Voltage) axis is controlled via the vertical
Position knob and the vertical Scale knob. The arrow on the left of the graph in
Figure 5 represents 0V. The volts-per-vertical-divis ion setting is shown in the
lower-left of the display window.
• Horizontal Adjustments: The horizontal (Time) axis is controlled via the
horizontal Position knob and the horizontal Scale knob. The arrow on the top of -
the graph in Figure 5 can be interpreted as t = Os, but keep in mind that this is a
_______
- ---..
relative measurement. The seconds-per-horizontal -division setting is shown in
the lower-middle of the display window.
• Triggering Adjustments: As mentioned above, the time (x) axis is relative to some
starting condition, usually called the triggering condition. In its simplest form,
the voltage must reach a triggering level before a sweep will be displayed. This
point is controlled via the trigger Level knob and is shown as an arrow on the
------ right side of the display and text information in the lower right of Figure 6. The
sweep can also be set to trigger on either a rising or falling transition of Channel -
1, Channel 2, an Exterior Input, or the AC power line via options in the Trigger
Menu.

In addition, Digital Oscilloscopes have the capability of storing the waveform for some
post processing. While most of these concepts are beyond the scope of this course, the o- _
scopes in the lab have been configured to interface with OpenChoice Desktop software
,._,r___ on the Lab computers. With the oscilloscope on, power on the desktop and open
OpenChoice Desktop on the lab computer (not the blade server). Inside OpenChoice
-----~-t
-- __.... Desktop, Select Instrument and set it to the USB interface. Then once the image of the
oscilloscope is correct, click Get Screen to capture the image. Captions can then be
------- - added via the Modify Note button before the bitmap image is saved or copied to the
clipboard. If the o-scope is not selectable in OpenChoice (the computer is not

-------b~.,.. - - - - - - - + - -- - - -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -
·-----
 recognizing the USB connection), leave the o-scope on and cycle the computer. Then
provide enough time for the desktop to identify the "new" usb device, before opening
OpenChoice.

vertical Position Horizontal Positior

Adjustment Knob Adjustment Knob

0
0
0
0
D Horizontal
~ :;m.;;;a.:..;.;.;;..;.;~::;J @J Scale
:::JO@O:=J □□· Adjustment
lO • Knob

Vertical Scale
Adjustment Knob

Figure 4: Adjustment controls for a typical oscilloscope

One Vertical Te~k~~,:::. g',...,

'r-;::_::,-:;:.~-;:.-:;:.-:;_":1.--:--..,._T-.rl,;:..
u":.;..,...,.-4-,--,-........-.C::;::;:;::;;::.:;:,;:,::;:~ d --i
,,i,;
Divis ion
.·l· .......... .
-- . ·-1

_J-
I
r
0V Marker
-· .. . .............. . .... . . _J '
..:.. I
i . . ---1- One Hori zontal
Divis i on

r Time Per
· ~ - - ' - - - - 1 Hor i zontal Divisior

u1so.oo %
Volts Per
Ver tical Division

. ( "th 2 5 v DC offset) with a period of

Figure 5: Screen shot of a Oto 5 V square wave WI a •
960µs or a frequency of 1.042 kHz.
 gg @ ~ I
.J QC JO
,.....~ ~~--......- ~ · ·1
1
Trig ger Lev el
Adj ustm ent Kno b •
. .
--·····-----
. .
·
. .
·
. : . . • · ·· · ·
:
· · ·
. :
· · · · · ·
: : Tri
· · · · •. (Vi:~ :~ Level
-- t...... t· ~
)I. .,, --1 ®
'""'" ·

+H·
: · . . · • / Marke r)
~ a @ 1~ H ·+++ i·+t-f -H+. :+·➔ ·+·f-i- H++ ~ H - H - ~·..--t-1-+i-H+ .
~ · -• e !:El - Trig ger
,I JI ~ - Men u . . .. . . ... . . . .... ...
But ton
..
.. ... ' . .. . . . . .. - -·... .. . .. .
. . : . . : :
~ .. :- . .
: : Trigg er Leve l
.. . : : ..: ; ~
· :; t (Num eric Value )

j .
;1-'...,_~.....................,_LJ._, -1.
_, · ·-Ml 4l00µs
• ...i~~.L-l.~•
.i....i.
Al Ch 1 J '
I
I '
2 . 74 V
'

1
I \ _ _ _ _ Trigg er Slope
Trigg er Sourc e (Risi ng/Fa lling)
Chan nel (1 or 2)
Figure 6: Oscilloscope trigger buttons one display
information.

Prob e ~ Ear th gro un d shi eld

Ear th grou nd cli

-- -~---
.

(a)
(b)
Figure 7: An oscilloscope prob e comprises a prob
e tip and an
earth ground clip. A grabber attachment is typicall
y used.

Some oscilloscopes also hav e the ability to store

images directly to USB drives via the
Save features on the o-scope.

To capture the information the o-scope probes,

like volt met ers, typi call y hav e very high
input resistance (typically 1-10 M.Q). But unli ke
DM M leads, o-sc ope probes have
additional electronics in them to aid in mea suri ng
quic k sma ll volt age variations. Since
these sensing electronics require a ground, the o-sc
ope prob es are only able to measure
NODE voltages (with resp ect to a com mon grou
nd), see Figu re 7. The probes also
commonly come with a spring load ed "Grabber"
that should be kep t on for most
measurements. The sensing point, prob e tip/grabb
er, sho uld be con nec ted to the NOD~
of interest and the Earth Gro und alligator clip sho
uld be atta che d to the common circuit
ground point.
 1. (Pre-Lab) Skim thru (or use the find function, ctrl-f) XYZ of Oscilloscopes by Tektronix
and answer the following questions:

a. Are Oscilloscope "limited to the world of electronics"?

b. List at least 5 automated waveform measurements that most Digital Oscilloscopes
can perform?
c. What are the oscilloscopes front panel's "3 Main" sections?
d. What is the difference between AC and DC input coupling?
e. List at least 4 common trigger types that most Digital Oscilloscopes can perform?
f. What is the difference between a IX and lOX passive probe?
g. What are the signs of a poorly compensated probe?

- t{_ no b d b6of r f/ ( 9-_ ll._ c -. C c R.'I e.. 'I/A..-< Fe,/ (( f ,, (~ A,Pl.'v._

Cl vt rf/l, t, / f // l
C ,r h o .r / 2 (//1,<e, t

J_ It ( b (o{.;k f t /,,c (_ (_ o /1..-~ ! ,, c ~ 1 , DC (.Q /\ '1 -c!~

e__ Q (/{ f v no '1,✓.v2 11 t 7; ( /l / -c ~ ~ - ...-:~ 7 c,..,,, U/ 4

f 5'6-,C-t ( -c b ':l- / C / fa
\ ,
y {--c ({ q t tvt.rtt f (_ i/l--cc,,, lt / '~ r
~
VL e1 / ..) l - &Lcf-~I. '
,C.
I '

J___ -!--- - - - - - - - - - - - --- --

 2. (IN LAB) Tum on the O-scope and verify proper probe operations by connect'
7
th
grabber of both channel ! and 2 to the calibration po~ (5V_ square wave outpu:~~ e
Figure 7 and 8. Then press the "Autoset" button and identify a clean square wa ee
probes. If the probe is not properly compensated, leading edge of the square wve ~n both
. ~ . ~e~not
clean, contact your mstructor 1or assistance.

5V square wave
output
Figure 8: Typical location of the 5V square wave test point and Autoset button. Someo-
scopes may place the test port on near the bottom right front side.
3. (IN LAB) Test the screen capturing feature of the O-scope by,
a. Opening "OpenChoice Desktop" on the lab computer (not the blade server).
b. Inside OpenChoice Desktop, Select Instrument and set it to the USB interface.
c. Click Get Screen to capture the image when the oscilloscope image is correct.
--·- ----- NOTE: If the o-scope does not appear in OpenChoice, reboot the computer and wait
for it to identify the USB device before starting OpenChoice.

-.J"----,_·-_ _ _ _jl___ ___ ___ ___ ___

---------·- - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -

....,.._
-- . . . . , . . . - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -----.r-- _ _ _ _ _ __.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
__,.__
-~.- - - - - - - - - - t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ Part IV -IFunction
. Generator Operations
.

1. Turn on the function generator and allow it to reach a constant operating temperature
(approximately 5 minutes or more for improved stability). In the future to avoid turning
off the function generator and loosing frequency source lock, most manufactures allow
you to enable/disable the output while leaving the device on.

Using a BNC (Bayonet Neill- Concelman) to Banana adaptor, see Figure 9, and Banana
to alligator adaptor to attach the oscilloscopes Channel 1 "hook" to the Signal plug (the
center wire in the BNC connector) and the Channel 1 "alligator clip" to the GND plug
(the shield/outside of the BNC connector.

"GND" tab
GND--"' t
~ --BNC Connecto r
Signal _ ___,.,;r

Figure 9: A BNC-to-banana adapter.

The function generator is design to display on its screen the expected output voltage at its
ports, after it's internal Thevenin resistance (more on this later). To properly match the
function generators display to the output voltages, you need to specify the expected load.
Since the o-scope is designed to measure voltages, its input resistance is approximately
RL = 1OMO, while the Function Generators Thevenin resistance is 50 n (both printed
next to the ports of the respective device). Since RL = l0MO is much larger then 50 n .
a. On the Function Generator press the "Utility'' button,
b. Then select the "Output Menu" soft key ( on the right of the screen),
c. Set the expected "Load Impedance" of the function generator to "High Z" the
approximate impedance of the oscilloscope probe (more on this later in the lab).
2. Set the following waveform parameters on the Function Generator to:
a. Output signal type = Sine wave
b. Frequency =1 kHz (Period = lms per cycle)
c. Offset = 0 V
d. Ampitude = 2.5 V Peak or 5V Peak to Peak

- Part V - Basic Oscilloscope Measurements

1. When you tum on the Function Generators output DO NOT PRESS "Autoset" on the 0- _,
scope. Instead, adjust the vertical and horizontal scale and position knobs until the entire
waveform is centered on the screen using the majority of the vertical scale, similar to
Figure 10. DO NOT use the "Wave Inspector" feature if equipped.
_ ,
 sure that you have not "ground" out
NOT E: Ify our sign al is very small, chec k to mak e
gene rato r GND.
the 0-sc ope prob e by conn ectin g it to the func tion
Trlg'd
TekRun
. . J
.... .... · •··•
. . .
. .

. .
. . . .

.. .... .

. .. ·1 .. . .. . . . . . ·1

··l ····· ················· 1

., ,,,,_ L ~ l . :~ ,; .:. 'I
.o*o #v :!='-'- '-'-'-'- '-
~ ~,d,,1=,;1
ctm Ml 2ooµs Al Chl f o.oo v
21 Oct 2015
fi ...... ,o. 00000 s 23 :40:3 6

offse t
Figu re 10: 1 kHz 5V peak to peak sinu soid with 0V

ge divi der circu it, see Appendix Al, that -

1. Mos t oscilloscope prob es include a built -in volta
I Ox). Som etimes the oscilloscope is
is selectable via a slide swit ch on the prob e (lx or -r-
mus t spec ify this prob e setting such
able to directly detect this, but mos t often, the user
fy this setting, activ ate "CHI" and
that the voltage divider can be acco unte d for. To veri
J

bott om of the disp lay will display

then press it's' "Menu" button. "Sof t Keys" alon g the
fy that the "Pro be Setti ng
the current a-sc ope prob e setting for channel 1. Veri
e (loc ated eithe r on the probe end or
--·---- --- Multiplier" matches the setting on the phys ical prob
d soft key and use eithe r the
the BNC end). If it doesn't match, pres s the asso ciate
appr opri ate righ t soft key to make it
adjustment knob (nea r the top of the a-sc ope) or the
if need ed.
match. Contact your instructor for addi tiona l help
Offs et to the sine wav e and monitor the
2. Adjust the Function Generator to add a 1V DC
nnel 1 setti ngs, you can also modify
effects seen on the oscilloscope. Whi le in the Cha
key" allow s the user to select between
----...__ --- how the probe is coup led into the a-scope. A "sof t
the sign al into the scope (AC
"DC": (Typical mod e of operation): Allo ws all of ·
and DC.
into the scop e with the
"AC": Only allow the alter natin g part of the sign al
for sma ll signal
DC/ cons tant part bein g bloc ked/ filte red out. Use d
have larg e DC bias
--._ analysis on diod e and tran sisto r base d circu its that
------- voltages.
en desp ite the grap h position.
"Ground": Used to find the 0V loca tion on the scre
axis .
This 0V is also repr esen ted as the arro w on the left
~~ -- ·- -- ~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-----
 Cycle thru the different coupling modes on the o-scope and document the effects on the
display. j) l ,· J i
I tJ YI/5 -e .- /4 c.. ,' 1 Ce ,1-f ( "/c~
/
-€li frn) / 1 f-/11 f /t~e,
3. Remove the DC offset (Function Generator Offset = OV) and place the o-scope in DC
".,.--- coupled mode. Then identify how may major vertical and horizontal divisions are needed
y-- to frame one complete period and record the data in your lab book, express your answer
as 2 significant figure value. Major divisions are defined as the space between the dotted
,,--- horizontal and vertical lines, with 5 additional minor divisions ( I/5 th of a division),

'\--
displayed on the axes and edge,Aor,' i . O S-:
,er U t; s~ /
2. Using the vertical and horizontal scale values (V/div and sec/div), displayed on the

----
v--
bottom of the screen (see Figure 5), calculate the peak to peak voltage swing and the time
required for one complete period. Does this calculated value match the function
g~n~rators ~etting? Remember that period = I/frequency. ✓ I ✓ .. ~c dh,- r. Iv -
4. Digital Oscilloscopes (that sample the signal) like those in the lab also have the capability -
of adding cursers to the screen to aid in performing measurements, see Figure 11 .

Cursor Selector Knob Cursor Adj ustment Knob

.5-
:S
Cursor Button ~ 0 • , 1 11tS
0 j- : ~ @l\
:i 0 @). 'l
81 0 8
, 0 01
~ ~ iij)
0
8 - - •. ~ - -I
,. C a . ,001 = ( 60 o Hz./
& · 3 ._ ~ __a _ s

Ln· •
::JO::'JOJ i.'.JCJ
--~lltt¥iGitfflk1
@'•(95 @~(§)
r
r
Figure 11 : Cursors are controlled with the Cursor button and Cursor Adjustment knob.

a. Press the "Cursor" button to turn on the cursors and cycle thru the different types

r- of cursors.
b. Use the "Cursor Adjust Knob" (or the Multipurpose knobs if equipped) to position

1' a cursor at the top (highest point) of the wave form.

c. Press the cursor "Select" button (or use the other Multi-purpose knob if equipped)
to activate the other cursor and position it at the bottom (lowest point) of the wave
form
d. Press "Menu Off' to move the measurement values to the side of the screen.
Does the /1 measurement match your calculated and generated values for both
time and amplitude? Print out and paste a copy of the screen in your lab book.
~ 0 I'\ Yl~,,( /~J .Lr
5. Modern digital oscilloscopes also have built in processing that identifies critical
waveform points and calculated common values. Press the "Measurement" button to
access these features. Using the measurement tools, set the o-scope to display the

• Period
• Frequency
• Peak-to-peak voltage
 part VI - Function Generat?r Loading

The function generator is an ideal_example o~a Real Voltage_(Thevenin equivalent) source.

_,.,. Often users d~ not care about the inner workings of the function generator, they just want it to
_,.,. roduce a desired ?utput. The challenge however becomes accounting for the internal circuitry
pfthe source for different loads. Older function generators tried to control the ideal voltage
_ ;ource, but more modem systems (like the one in lab) display the output of the Thevenin system,
see Figure 12.
-
- 1. Set the function generator to output a 2.5 V peak 1 kHz sine wave, place a lk.Q resistor
across the terminal of the function generator (Figure 12 with RL = lkn). You may want
to use some banana to alligator adaptors to hold the resistor in place.

Function
Generator J
•outeut J

I
Figure 12: Schematic of a function generator with 50 n internal resistance
connected to a load resistor RL 7
2. Use the O-scope to measure the peak voltage dropping across the load resistor. Watch
where you connect the "grounds" as they are connected to each other inside the test
equipment. If you connect the O-scope incorrectly, you may short out the function
generator and see approximate OV instead of the 2.5 V sine wave. When connected
correctly, does the Function Generators display and the O-scope data match?
. Z c ~vV(, Zr. 't & <J __, Jf f(c7 4_ r e. s//'ihtt,;_ of?'
Smee the lk.Q resistor is much greater than the 50 n source resistance, the 50 n source
resistance can be "absorbed" in the manufacturing errors of the 1 kn. In voltage divider
tenns, all of the source voltage will drop across the load resistor with approximately no
voltage dropping across the source resistance. L-

I
II
In order for the function generator to display the proper signal on its scre_en, it must b~
told that it is driving a load>> its source resistance. This is done by settmg the function
generator's "Utility -> Output Menu" condition to "High Z".

II
 set ting~ or o:~ ~~ e. _Bthuthtreplace Ile ,
the ...
AD JU ST the Fu nct ion Gen era to_ rs _ Q
3. DO NO T com par e the fun ction gen era or se WI e
0 cop e
l d ·th R = 4 70 and . th th R th 8
oadinWI L
t sin ce the
.
crr cm
.
t has cha nge d WI e new L, e O-scope
rea gs. No te tha output
sbpuld change. O ~ , l. l.l //
.
I-;:-(}_ : 2 i<'"'V ;?<rlk . • -:, . " ~ ' 'f1 I,,'~: t:t k .
the new loa d is app rox ima tely equ al to the mtem~I sou rce resistance of the fun
Since Ctioo
tor the 50 n sou rce res ista nce can not be app rox ima te~ as an error in the I
genera ~ad.
tea d the ide al 2.5 V sou rce bur red "de ep" wit h in the function gene_rator is sp}i
Ins ct· .
b tween the internal resistance of the. sou rce and the load. Th e res ultm g Voltage IV1der
e ts the actual ide
spli . al voltage source m h a If.

aller resishtor prdesentfs _tto ~he sourlce, the

function
acc oun t for the "lo adi ng" tha t the sm ce.
4. To a loa d on t e or er o i s mte rna resistan
generator must be told that it is driving
a. Press the "Utility'' button,
t key (on the rig ht of the screen),
b. Then select the "Output Me nu" sof
eda nce " to "50 Oh ms "
c. Finally set the expected "Lo ad Imp
age
nge to mo re acc ura tely rep res ent the volt
Does the function generators display cha "'
on the O-scope.
F. C-• .: /, 2£ V C), S , ,.. /, C(c/;
.L
Pa AC Measurements ,,-z, /
[( c, Cw s e .----
n generator, a
adb oar d, con stru ct the circ uit shown in Fig ure 3 usi ng the functio
168 nF. Re me mb er tha t the 50 n resistor
I. On the Bre is
I kn resistor, and 2+ capacitors to create
inside the function generator

2. Set the function generator to out put

a. Output signal type = Sine wa ve
cycle)
b. Frequency =I kH z (Pe rio d= lm s per
c. Off set = 0 V
k to Pea k
d. Amplitude = 2.5 V Pea k or 5V Pea
loa d to the rig ht value. Otherwise the
actual
NO TE : Do n 't for get to set the exp ect ed
1 kn plu s the cap is >> 50 n ..
output may not be what you expect sin ce
B, with
t the 0-s cop e's Ch ann el I pro be to No de A and Ch ann el 2 pro be to Node
3. Conn~c
alli gat or gro und clip con nec ted to the com mo n circ uit gro und . Me asu re the
the e
s and freq uen cy of bot h Ch ann els . Als o rec ord the tim e difference between th
amplitude
cro ssin gs" bet we en Ch ann el 1 and 2. Ho w doe s thi s inf orm atio n compare witb
"zero Par t 1 and 2?
your calculations and simulations fro m
4 els I and 2, ~ O-s cop es can mathematically
· In ad~ itio
e
n
the
to dis
'.;ha
pla
nn~
yin
ls.
g
Tu
bot
m
h Ch
on
ann
the "M ath " tra ce and nsi ng the sof t key s s"! it to_
disP:S
:;ombm Vll1 O f
I - Ch 2 · Thi s 1s the bra nch vol tag e dro p acr oss the !kn res isto r, wh ich
Ch uency 0
current. Re cor d the am pli tud e and freq
law also is a scaled version of the loo p
/ the Math signal. Also record the zero crossin
g time delay of the Math signal to Channel
'V 1. -~-r:::G¥:e 7s - -+z 6 - 5 i 2 o
✓ How does the Math signal's amplitude and
I phase com par t:th e calculated and
✓
simulated current from the Parts 1 and 2?
ca.,/&: l,, l<o ,,,,11-
~/~ ~ L73nA-
Ve: 'r
c ~ < ~ 5 «-"I £_.
NOTE: For this method fo work properly both
/
✓ Channel J and 2 must have the same
scaling. Also remember the 0-scope measure
s voltage, which can be converted to
,,,,--- current via Ohms law. ( '{ 2 r;J{.µ:r;-l ~
74 / •-
~ I J - .J.{ c;, ~
0
......,,,--- s. Show your lab instructor the Oscilloscope
I i {_, Itf t ~
with all three curves displayed.
{,- - G
I 2 <J} 2rr :: , 7 ~ }7 ·:=- lf 5t ( ~ <:;
Laboratory Deliverables

You are to submit an electronic copy of your

t assignment link on Blackboard before the nex
carefully completed lab notebook pages to the

t submitted as a single pdf file with all pages in

a clear record of your work from the above step
discussion comparing the analysis, simulation,
t lab session. The lab notebook pages should
be
correct order and clearly displayed. In additio
s, also include a ½ - 1 page conclusion-based
n to

f specifically include discussions and/or tables

• % error between the analysis, simulat

on:
and building of your circuit. It should also

ion, and build

• Derive an equation that can be used to find
the phase delay in radians of a signal using
the frequency instead of the period.
7
7

Theorectical Experimental Simulat ion

current (mA) 1.76 1.76 1.73
Percent error
to experimental
I
I
I 0% 0% 2%
rt:,
 4, L t,...,.-e,_ f (.., iF / L; f'rr:u 1,,,.f-lr;

r '-'- tt. 1 tt.0·(( -1-o ti tl 61,,,/ 1 Cc_ tJ{ )✓ e (_ f-..J '-k

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