UNIT 4: Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues in

Philippine History

IV. Topic: Social, political, economic and cultural issues in Philippine history:

Mandated topics:

1. Land and Agrarian Reform Policies

2. The Philippine Constitutions of 1899, 1935, 1973 and 1987

3. Taxation

Additional topics: Filipino Cultural heritage; Filipino-American relations; Government peace

treaties with the Muslim Filipinos; Institutional history of schools,
corporations, industries, religious groups and the like; Biography of a
prominent Filipino

Learning Outcomes: Effectively communicate, using various techniques and genres, their
historical analysis of a particular event or issue that could help other people
understand the chosen topic; Propose recommendations or solutions to
present day problems based on their own understanding of their root causes,
and their anticipation of future scenarios; Display the ability to work in a
multi-disciplinary team and can contribute to a group endeavor;

Methodology: Lecture/Discussion; Library and Archival research; Document analysis

Group reporting; Documentary Film Showing

Readings:

4.1. Land and Agrarian Reform:

Primary Sources:

a. the American period and Quezon administration :

"The Philippine Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 (Act 4054)

http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno4054.html

b. the Magsaysay administration:

"Agricultural Tenancy Act of the Philippines of 1954 (R.A. 1199)

http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1954/ra_1199_1954.html

c. the Macapagal administration :

Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (R.A 3844)

http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1963/ra_3844_1963.html

d. the Marcos regime and under Martial Law

P.D. 27 of 1972 http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1972/pd_27_1972.html

e. the Cory Aquino administration

Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program of 1988 (R.A. 6657)

http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1988/06jun/19880610-RA-6657-CCA.pdf

Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms of 2009 (R.A. 9700)
http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno9700_pdf.php
 4.2. Philippine Constitution and Government

Primary Sources:

Malolos Constitution of 1899. http://www.lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.html

Commonwealth Constitution of 1935: http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1935-constitution-

ammended/

1973 Philippine Constitution: http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-

republic-of-the-philippines-2/

1987 Philippine Constitution, http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/

Secondary Sources:

Constitutional History of the Philippines: www.constitutionnet.org/country/constitutional -

history-philippines

Evolution of the Philippine Constitution

http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/constitution-day/

4.3. Taxation

Primary Sources:

Bureau of Internal Revenue, Republic of the Philippines. BIR History.

https://www.bir.gov.ph/index.php/transparency/bir-history.html

News5Everywhere. “Ano ba ang TRAIN Law?”. Jan 16, 2018.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDoiBodoP9A

https://www.rappler.com/nation/191729-rodrigo-duterte-signs-tax-reform-law

Secondary Sources

Valencia, Edwin G and Gregorio F. Roxas. (2013). Income Taxation: Principles and Laws with
Accounting Applications. Baguio City: Valencia Educational Supply.

Dizon, Efren Vincent M. (2013). Taxation Law Compendium. Manila: Rex Book Store.

Duncano, Danilo A. (2010). Philippine Taxation Handbook. Mandaluyong City: National Book
Store.

Saguinsin, Artemio T. (2009). Taxation in the Philippines. Mandaluyong City: National Book
Store.

De Leon, Hector and Hector de Leon Jr. The Fundamentals of Taxation. Manila: Rex Book Store.

Assessment: Groups are tasked to make a research output which may be in the form of a term
paper, exhibit, documentary presentation and other genres where students could express their ideas.
 The output should trace the evolution of the chosen topic through at least three periods. Group
members should collaborate to produce a synthesis that examines the role of this issue in
promoting/hindering nation-building, and provide appropriate recommendations rooted in a
historical understanding of the issue. This synthesis nust be presented in the class.

The Mandated topics must be discussed in the classroom either in the manner of lecture to be
delivered by the instructor/ professor or by way of performance task assigned to the students. The
assigned primary sources should be the basis of the lecture or activity. The students are obligated to
view these sources from the websites indicated. Departmental exams should be based on the
studies derived from the mandated topics.

The additional topics are generalized lessons from where various specific topics may be derived
from that may be assigned to students, in groupings, as term, topical, or position papers. Such
assignment of papers mentiones are suggested to be given at least four weeks prior to submission.

4.1 Land and Agrarian Reform in the Philippines

What is land/ agrarian reform?

Land reform refers to a wide variety of programs and measures usually by the government to
bring about more effective control and use of land for the benefit of the community. Land reform
generally comprise the takeover of land by state from big land lords with compensation , and transfer it
to small farmers or landless workers. It is aimed at changing the agrarian structure to bring equity and to
increase productivity. The structure includes both the relationship of man to his land, and man’s
relationship with others (tenant and landlord).

Agrarian reform is more complex. Along with land reform it also includes measures to
modernize the agricultural practices and improving the living conditions of everyone within the entire
agrarian community. It includes various supports to agricultural education, the establishment of
cooperatives; development of institutions to provide agricultural credit and other inputs; processing and
marketing of agricultural produce; and establishment of ago-based industries, and others.

The desire to obtain social justice and full development of the dignity of man within given
situations of land reform has gained great importance across the years in many countries of the world
especially in agricultural countries.

One of the effects of colonizing periods was the concentration of landholdings in the hands of
the law. These few people whom they call as landlords or “caciques” have yielded tremendous influence
in the social and economic life of the nation that they had been able to dictate to their dependents (the
tenants and their families) to such matters as to whom to vote for in political elections. They have also
influenced political action in various ways in order to maintain the status quo.

History of Land Reform in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish Era

Before the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the Filipino social system was feudal. Like the
feudalistic system in the medieval Europe, a warrior class existed bound by fealty to a warlord. This
class lived on the labor of the serfs and slaves but in exchange, this warrior class protected them and
exercised a ready though rough kind of justice.

Within the Filipino social structure, the datus (chiefs) comprised the nobility (maharlikas). Then
there are the timawas (freemen), followed by the aliping namamahay (serfs) and aliping saguiguilid
(slaves).

The freeborn did not pay tributes or taxes to the datu, but were bound to follow him to war.
They provided their own weapons and gears, manned the cars when they set sail, built their houses, and
planted their rice fields.

The serfs served his master or lord, who may be a datu or someone else who is a maharlika, and
tilled his land. Both master and serfs equally divided the produce of the land. They had houses of their
own, maintained private property, and passed these on to their children as legacy. They were also
allowed the free disposal of their chattels (movable personal properties) and their lands. The serfs
corresponded to the aparceros (tenants) of the late 19th century Spanish era.

The slaves served the lord or master in both his house and farm. They were allowed some share
of the harvest, but they were their master’s property. Thus they could be sold, particularly those
captured in wars, or born and reared as farm hands.

In the subsistence economy of the early Filipinos, money was unknown, and rice served as the
medium of exchange.

Spanish Era (1565-1898)

During the Spanish colonial period, lands were divided and granted to encourage Spanish
settlers or reward soldiers who served the Crown. These were called encomiendas. The conditions of
this grant state that the encomendero must defend his encomie nda from external attack, maintain
peace and order within, and support the missionaries. In consideration of these services, the
encomendero acquired the right to collect tribute from the indios (natives) in the amount and form
determined by the royal government.

The encomienda system was originally established more for the benefit of the natives than of
the encomenderos. Thus the latter could not be called lords because they were considered protectors,
advocates and tutors of the natives. The system, however, degenerated into abuse of power by the
encomenderos. The tributes they were authorized to collect soon became land rents, and the people
living within the boundaries of the encomienda became tenants.

The encomenderos became the first group of hacenderos in the country. Meanwhile, the
colonial government took the place of the datus. The datu was now called cabeza de barangay, but it
was the proprietors of the estates who held the real powe r in the barangay or community.

There were four classes of estate proprietors in the Philippines during the Spanish period: first,
the religious orders Dominican and Augustinian; second, the Spanish peninsulares; third, the criollos and
mestizos; and lastly, the native principales.

The Dominican friars leased their lands to both the natives and mestizos, who became known as
inquilinos. Each inquilino paid a fixed ground rent for the area he cultivated, and the estate owner was
not allowed to lease the land to others unless the incumbent leaseholder failed to pay the rent for two
consecutive years.

However, the inquilinos abused this policy by disposing off the lands as if they owned them.
They sold their interest in them or mortgaged to wealthy takers, or sub-leased them at rents higher than
what they themselves paid. Thus by being inquilinos, they earned more than the estate owners wi thout
doing virtually any work.
 This became the root of a system in which native agricultural entrepreneurs that tilled and
cleared the land with the aid of tenants whom they hired on a sharecropping basis had to lease the land.
In time, the system evolved a set of practices that soon began to exploit the tenant tillers.

Although Spanish authorities were aware of these pernicious practices, no effective measures
were made in spite of two royal decrees issued in 1880 and 1184 urging landholde rs to secure titles.
Under these decrees, the government granted a term of one year within which claims for free titles
were to be filed. But because the large majority of peasants either did not understand the law or found
the procedure too complicated and alien to tradition, only a few took advantage of the offer.

Those few were mostly of the cacique class, who claimed more lands than they actually had a
right to. As a result, the actual tillers were driven out of their land or forced to become tenants of the
caciques.

Spanish land practices came to a halt with the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution when
Spanish land owners started to sell off their lands as brought about by the power shift in government
where Spain was on a losing side against the Filipinos who had declared their independence in 1898 and
the Americans who were insisting to stay.

First Philippine Republic (1899-1901)

Immediately after the establishment of the First Republic of the Philippines on January of 1899,
the government of President Emilio Aguinaldo declared its intention to confiscate large estates,
especially the so-called Friar Lands.

The declaration was contained in the Malolos Constitution: “All the lands, buildings, and other
properties belonging to the religious corporations in these islands shall be understood to have been
restored to the Filipino state.” However, as the Republic was short-lived, Aguinaldo’s plan was never
implemented.

American Regime (1901-1935)

During the American era, several laws were passed to regulate and improve land tenure.
Among the significant legislative pieces:

1. Philippine Bill of 1902 – imposed specific conditions on the disposition of public lands
2. Land Registration Act of 1902 (Act No. 496) – provided for a comprehensive registration of land
titles under the Torrens system
3. Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 (Act No. 4054) – regulated relationships between landowners
and tenants of rice lands
4. Tenancy Act of 1933 (Act No. 4113) – regulated relationships between landowners and tenants
of sugar cane fields

At the start of the American era, some 400,000 native farmers were without titles because of
the defective land system rooted in Spanish institutions, and of the farmers’ ignorance of various laws.
The situation was aggravated by the absence of records of issued titles and accurate land surveys. Land
disputes began and agrarian troubles worsened.

To remedy the problem, the Americans introduced the Torrens system of land registration
whereby government-purchased titles were granted only after the completion of a survey and land
ownership had been proven in court. This, however, did not solve the problem completely. As with the
Spanish system, the majority of farmers did not avail of the government’s offer. Either they were not
aware of the law or if they did, they could not pay the survey cost and other fees required in applying for
a Torrens title.

As for the Friar Lands, even American authorities could not touch them as these were covered
by valid land titles issued during the Spanish era. Furthermore, the Treaty of Paris of 1898 bound the
U.S. government to protect the property interests of religious orders.
 The best solution offered for such condition was the outright purchase of the lands. By 1919,
about 69 percent of all Friar Lands had been bought and disposed of by the U.S. Civil Government of the
Philippines.

Commonwealth Period (1935-1946)

Manuel Quezon (1935-1944)

By the time the Commonwealth was established under Manuel L. Quezon, the malingering
problem of land tenure relationships had already given cause to armed discontent among oppressed
tenants of estates. Pedro Calosa spearheaded the so-called Colorum Revolt in Tayug, Pangasinan in
1931 and four years later, Benigno Ramos mounted the Sakdal Revolt in Cabuyao, Laguna.

In response to the spreading unrest, Quezon championed the tenants’ plight and faced the
agrarian crisis squarely by implementing a program of social justice.

During his administration, Quezon improved and strengthened existing laws on land tenure by
giving more freedom to landowners and tenants to enter into tenancy contracts not contrary to laws,
morals and public policy. These laws likewise provided for the compulsory arbitration of agrarian
conflicts, and suspend any action to eject tenants from the land they till and live in. Dictated by
Quezon’s social justice program, the expropriation of landed estates and othe r big landholdings was
started.

Another key policy was the orderly settlement of virgin public agricultural lands, with focus on
Mindanao under the National Land Settlement Administration.

The Quezon administration began under the 1935 Constitution which declares, “The promotion
of social justice to ensure the well-being and economic security of all people should be the concern of
the State.”

In 1933, the Republic Act No. 4054 or the Rice Share Tenancy Act was passed. The act provided
for a 50-50 sharing arrangement between landowners and tenants.

The Third Republic

The following are the accomplishments in land and agrarian reform of the administrations under the
Third Republic.

Manuel Roxas (1946-1948)

Republic Act No. 34 – Amends RA 4054; established a 70-30 sharing arrangement between tenant and
landlord. It provided that whoever shouldered the expenses of planting and harvesting and provided
the work animals would be entitled to 70 percent of the harvest. It also reduced the interest on
landowner loans to tenant at no more than 6 percent instead of 10 percent.

Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953)

Executive Order No. 355 – Replaced the National Land Settlement Administration with Land Settlement
Development Corporation (LASEDECO), which took over the responsibilities of the Agricultural
Machinery Equipment Corporation and the Rice and Corn Production Administration.

Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957)

Under the Magsaysay administration, the following were accomplished:

  Republic Act No. 1166 – Creation of National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration
(NARRA). It was particularly aimed at the peasant of the HUK movement and was successful in
attracting rebels to return back to a peaceful life by giving them home lots and farms in NARRA
settlement in Palawan and some parts of Mindanao.
 Republic Act No. 1199 – Agricultural Tenancy Act provided security of tenure for tenants. It also
granted tenants the choice of shifting from share tenancy to leasehold. It also created the
Courts of Agrarian Relations.
 Republic Act No. 1400 – Land Reform Act provided for the acquisition of large tenanted rice and
corn lands over 200 hectares if owned by individuals; 600 hectares if owned by corporations.

Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965)

Under the Macapagal administration, the Republic Act No. 3844, otherwise known as the, Agricultural
Land Reform Code was enacted. It abolished share tenancy; institutionalized leasehold; invested rights
of preemption and redemption for tenant farmers; provided for administrative machinery for
implementation; institutionalized a judicial system of agrarian cases; incorporated extension, marketing
and supervised credit system of services to farmer beneficiaries.

Martial Law and the Fourth Republic

Ferdinand Marcos (1965-1986)

Under the Marcos administration, the following were accomplished:

 Republic Act No. 6389 – Instituted Code of Agrarian Reform and created the Department of
Agrarian Reform
 Presidential Decree No. 2 – Placed the whole country under the land reform program
 Presidential Decree No. 27 – Restricted land reform scope to tenanted rice and corn lands

Presidential Decree (P.D.) 27

On October 21, 1972, a month after the proclamation of martial law, President Marcos issued
P.D. 27 with the main goal of emancipating farmers from the bondage of the soil. To the decree, there is
no more leasehold in tenanted rice and corn land. The tiller automatically becomes the amortizing
owner of the land he tills.

Two Aspects of Land Distribution

1. Determination of the land to be transferred – Rice and corn areas were selected because
they were the areas of urgent reforms because of social unrest associated with rice tenancy.
2. Financing – The - decree solved the problem of financing by fixing the value of land at a
relatively modest rate, and directing compensation that may be paid directly by the tiller to
the landowner or converted into three-way arrangement.Coverage of P.D. 27
All private tenanted agricultural land devoted to rice and corn in excess of seven (7) hectares. Priorities
of coverage shall be:

1. Larger than 24 hectares

2. Less than 24 but not below 12 hectares
3. 12 hectares less retention limit

Beneficiaries of P.D. 27
Bonafide tenant farmer of private agricultural land devoted to rice and corn are benefited with
an economic size farm fixed at three (3) hectares of irrigated lands and maximum of five (5) hectares for
non-irrigated.
Retention Limit of P.D. 27
Landowners may retain an area not more than seven (7) hectares, on conditions that each
landowner is cultivating such area.
Letter of Instruction 143 (October 31, 1973) compels landowner to transfer to their tenant, if
determined by DAR to be absentee-farmer, with sources of income other than their holdings.

Letter of Instruction 474 (October 21, 1976) provides that tenanted areas of seven (7) hectares
or less could be placed under P.D. 27, if the owner own other agricultural lands not devoted to
rice and corn, or other lands used for residential, industrial, or other urban purposes from which
they receive adequate income to support themselves and their families.

The Fifth Republic

Corazon Aquino (1986-1992)

The achievements of the Cory Aquino administration on agrarian reform:

 1987 Constitution (Art. II, Sec. 21) – “The State shall promote comprehensive rural development
and agrarian reform.”
 Proclamation No. 131 – Institutionalized the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP)
and Agrarian Reform Fund (ARF). It covers all agricultural lands regardless of tenurial
arrangement and commodity produced, all public and private agricultural lands and other lands
of public domain suitable to agriculture.
 Executive Order No. 129-A – Reorganized, streamlined and expanded power and operation of
DAR.
 Executive Order No. 228 – Declared full ownership to qualified farmer-beneficiaries covered by
P.D. 27. It also provided for the manner of payment by the farmer beneficiary and mode of
compensation to the landowners.
 Executive Order No. 229 – Provided mechanism for the implementation of CARP such as
administrative procedures and mechanics for land registration, private land acquisition, and
mode of compensation to the landowners.
 Republic Act No. 6657 – Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. It is an act instituting a
comprehensive agrarian reform program to promote social justice and industrialization
providing the mechanism for its implementation and for other purposes.

Republic Act (R.A.) 6657

Accordingly, the centerpiece of the Cory Aquino administration was the launching of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program by virtue of Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229 which
was signed by President Cory Aquino on July 22, 1987. The latter provided the mechanism needed
initially to implement the CARP.

The implementation of the CARP is supported into law by the enactment of Republic Act 6657
otherwise known as the “Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law” which was signed by President Aquino
on June 10, 1988; thus all matters involving the implementation of agrarian reform are nor governed by
the said act.

Existing laws such as R.A. 3844 as amended, P.D. 27, and other laws consistent with the Act shall
have only suppletory effect.

Executive Order No. 129-A provided for the strengthening of the DAR as the lead agency
responsible for the implementation of CARP.

The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law otherwise known as RA 6657 emerged nearly after a
year of debates, pressure demonstrations and deadlocks between interest groups. President Aquino
signed it on June 10, 1988 and it became effective on June 15, 1988.
 Since then, various measures were adopted to facilitate CARP implementation such as the
formulation of implementing guidelines, institutionalization of implementing and coordinating
mechanisms, information dissemination and initial registration of lands, landow ners and farmer-
beneficiaries.

To strengthen CARP and speed up its implementation, President Aquino issued in June 1990
three key executive orders namely:

1. Executive Order No. 405 – vested in the Land Bank of the Philippines the primary
responsibility for land valuation.
2. Executive Order No. 406 – emphasized that CARP is central to the government’s efforts to
hasten countryside agro-industrial development and directed the implementing agencies to
align their respective programs and projects with the CARP; created CARP implementing
teams from the national to the municipal levels; and, identified and gave priority to 24
Strategic Operating Provinces (SOP) where the bulk of CARP workload lies, without prejudice
to the program implementation in the other provinces of the country.
3. Executive Order No. 407 – directed all government instrumentalities, including financial
institutions and corporations, to turn over to DAR all lands suitable for agriculture for
coverage under CARP.

Furthermore, the 1987 Constitution, which was ratified on February 2, 1987, contains several
provisions directly dealing with the agrarian reform.

4.2. Philippine Government and Constitutions: A Short History

THE PRE-HISPANIC BARANGAY GOVERNMENT

In the pre-historic times, much of the Philippines were ruled by a Datu or Rajah who was a king
and the sovereign of his village, the barangay. The barangay was composed of around thirty to a
hundred families. There was the institution of social classes with the nobles referred to as “maharlika’
the affluent people of the community; the free people, “timawa” who engaged in daily labors, and; the
“alipin” who were slaves categorized as “namamahay” who were accorded certain rights and privileges,
and the “saguiguilid” who are fully owned by their masters. There was the existence of laws created by
the Datu who was advised by his council of elders. In Mindanao, where the Muslim religion started to
spread, the Sultanate of Sulu was formed in the 15th century, while the Sultanate of Maguindanao, in the
16th century.

SPANISH COLONIZATION PERIOD:

The advent of colonization began with the arrival of Spain through Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.
Soon after, the Philippines was a crown colony of Spain through Mexico from 1565 to1821, as such,
Spain ruled with the help of the Council of the Indies, created in 1524, which was an overseas ministry
governing the colonies of Spain. The head of the council was the Viceroy of Mexico. Las Leyes de Indias
were the laws that Spain implemented in the colony. The Governor General was executive chief who
also had legislative powers and the Royal Audiencia served as Supreme Court. The first government
system based on land partition was the Encomienda. After Mexico declared its independence in 1821,
Las Islas Filipinas was directly ruled by Spain until 1898.

Throughout the period of colonization, the Patronato Real provided for the union of the State
and Church where the Church was placed under the power Spain making the friars became politically
powerful or what is referred to as “frailocracy”. In the local government, high political powers such as
the Alcalde mayor of the pacified province were reserved only to Spaniards.
THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION:
The Filipinos, from the beginning of colonial oppression had always find themselves in defiance
and struggle. As a result, rebellions and resistance broke out, more than a hundred in all, in the cry for
freedom. Out of these, eventhough short of victory, heroes rose in the likes of Rajah Sulayman, Diego
and Gabriela Silang, Dagohoy and Hermano Pule.
In January 1872, the failed attempt of the Cavite Mutiny against the government resulted to a
case of rebellion against three secular priests Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora. They were convicted
and were executed. The disappointment of the “Ilustrados” in Europe over the fate of Gomburza pushed
for the formation of the Propaganda Movement, an action for reforms.
The Propaganda was active for years and was most effective during the period of del Pilar and
Jaena and Rizal. The “Noli Me Tangere’, Rizal’s first novel was considered as the most powerful weapon
the Propaganda ever had against Spain. However, the disunity among the members dismayed Rizal and
he resigned his leaderhip. He returned to Manila where he secretly formed the Liga Filipina, a civic
association. Rizal’s political plans were disrupted when the government exiled him to Dapitan.
The Katipunan, otherwise known as the Kagalang-galangan, Kataas-taasang, Katipunan ng Mga
Anak ng Bayan (KKK), started as a secret organization against the Spanish power in 1892. It was an
organization initially membered by the splinter of the defunct La Liga Filipina, a civic organization
founded by Jose Rizal. The Katipunan government under its leader Supremo Andres Bonifacio declared
separation from Spain in Aug. 26, 1896 in Pugadlawin, Balintawak resulting to a nation-wide revolution.
The execution of Dr. Rizal on December 30, 1896 drew more men and women to join in and fight.
To solidify further the Katipunan, Bonifacio proceeded to Cavite, the most successful province
against Spain. To unify the Magdiwang and the Magdalo factions of Cavite, the Tejeros Assembly was
conducted. The assembly resulted to the dissolution of the Katipunan and the birth of the Revolutionary
government of the Philippines that elected Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President.
The Biak-na-Bato Republic under Aguinaldo was established in 1897 upon the government’s
retreat in Bulacan. It ratified the Biak-na-Bato Constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer.
While in Biak-na-Bato, the governments of Spain and the Republic reached a truce called as the Pact of
Biak-na-Bato. In the hope of ending the revolution, the pact provided for the exile of the Aguinaldo
administration upon the immediate initial payment of P400,000 to the revolutionaries. While the
government was in exile, the Hong Kong Junta was established with Felipe Agoncillo as President. The
pact proved to be a failure in that the revolution continued after Aguinaldo’s exile considering that only
a few firearms were surrendered while the generals who remained did not cease to fight.

While in exile at Hong Kong, Aguinaldo worked on his return to the Philippines. Realizing that
the Spanish-American Was already broke out, he was able to negotiate an unstable alliance with the
United Stated through Commodore George Dewey. On May 1, 1898, the American Asiatic Squadron
destroyed the Spanish armada in the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo returned to Cavite while the
Americans were entering Manila. The dictatorial government under Adguinaldo was established upon
the advise of his cabinet. The revolution regained strength as the Philippine army defeated the
Spaniards in the provinces from southern Tagalog, to the north, and in the Visayan islands. On June 12,
1898, the culmination of all the sacrifices of all Filipino heroes and martyrs was reached when the
Independence of the Philippines was proclaimed by Aguinaldo in his residence at Kawit, Cavite. The
national flag was waved while the Marcha Nacional Filipinas was played.

The Second Revolutionary Government was established after the day of independence. Upon
the advice of Premier Apolinario Mabini the government shifted once more to its revolutionary state in
the attempt to stabilize a true democratic state that will appeal to the recognition of the United States
who recently has established a Military Government.

On August 13, 1898, the Fall of Manila was achieved when the Spaniards under Gov. General
Fermin Jaudenes preferred to surrender to the Americans rather than the Filipinos. The U.S. Military
Government was founded on August 14 upon orders for U.S. President William McKinley. The first U.S.
Military Governor of the Philippines was Gen. Wesley Merritt who was succeeded by Gen. Elwell Otis.
The last one in the position was Gen. Arthur Mac Arthur.
THE FIRST REPUBLIC AND THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR

On September 15, 1898, the Malolos Congress was inaugurated at the Barasoain Church,
Malolos, Bulacan. Its first task was to draft a constitution needed for the formation of a republic. On
November 29, the Congress approved the Malolos Constitution which was drafted by Felipe Calderon.
With much debates regarding some provisions, Aguinaldo only finally approved it on January 21, 1899.

On the 10th of December 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Aguinaldo sent Felipe Agoncillo
as Philippine emissary, and was tasked to insist the recognition of Philippine independence by Spain and
the United States. Agoncillo was not recognized. In the treaty, Spain transferred her possession of the
Philippines to the United States via cession together with Puerto Rico and Guam for a compensation of
$20 million.

On January 4, 1899, Governor Otis made public the President McKinley Proclamation (on the US
occupation of the Philippines). Aguinaldo and the government in Malolos protested against the US
proclamation.

On January 23, 1899, the First Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated. Desiring to prove
that the country is a stable state, the first Republic, otherwise known as the “Malolos Republic” was
inaugurated. President Emilio Aguinaldo was sworn into office as the Republic President.

While continuous talks between the Filipino and American panels resulted to no agree ment, an
incident at San Juan Bridge started the Philippine-American War on February 4, 1899. The war resulted
to a series of defeats to the Republic as more American troops arrived. In its retreat to Palanan, Isabela,
Preisdent Aguinaldo was captured resulting to the fall of the Republic.

AMERICAN OCCUPATION

On July 4, 1901, right after Aguinaldo's capture, the U.S. Civil Government was inaugurated with
William Howard Taft as Civil Governor. However, the military rule, due to
the continuing resistance, still prevailed over Southern Luzon until 1902, Northern and Central Luzon
until 1905 (after the execution of Macario Sakay), and Southern Mindanao until 1914 (due to Muslim
resistance). The first stage in the development of the Civil Government was done through the passage of
the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 which was officially called as the Philippine Bill of 1902, passed on
July 1,1902. The act provided for the formation of the all-Filipino elected Philippine Assembly which
served as the lower house of the bicameral legislature wherein the Philippine Commission served as the
Upper House. The first leaders of the Philippine Assembly were Sergio Osmena, who served as House
Speaker, and Manuel Luis Quezon who served as Majority Floor Leader.

Under the administration of Gov. Francis Burton Harrison, the Filipinization of the Philippine
government was achieved with the Philippine Commission to become dominantly Filipinos and 89% of
government offices be occupied by Filipinos. Finally, the Philippine Autonomy Law or popularly known
as the Jones Law of 1916 was passed by the U.S. Congress. The Jones Law finally allows the Philippines
to already work for its independence, thus, leading to the Independence Missions.

The end of the Harrison administration made Leonard Wood to become the next governor. His
anti-Filipino policies made him unpopular to government politicians that led to a mass resignation of his
Cabinet members or what was called the “Cabinet Crisis of 1923.

The Os-Rox Mission, or the 9th Independence Mission of 1931, headed by Senate President Pro-
Tempore Sergio Osmena and House Speaker Manuel Roxas, triumphantly achieved the independence
law Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. However, this was rejected by Senate President Manuel Quezon who
worked on his own independence law in the U.S. and returned with his own Tydings -McDuffie Law
which has the same provisions as the previous one.

THE COMMONWEALTH OF THE PHILIPPINES

 On July 10, 1934 the Philippine Legislature elected the representatives to the Constitutional
Convention, the delegates' task was to draft the Constitution of the Philippines. The Presidential election
of 1935 made Manuel L. Quezon as first Commonwealth President with Sergio Osmena as Vice
President. Under the 1935 Constitution national defense was the priority of the government.

Under the Commonwealth new government offices were created, new cities were created,
women were allowed to vote and the Filipino, based on Tagalog, became the national language.

WORLD WAR 2

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941 the Japanese started their attack
of the Philippines the next day. On January 2, 1942, Manila was occupied. Executive Commission during
the Japanese occupation in 1942. On Jan. 3, the Japanese High Command proclaimed the founding of
the Japanese Military Administration, which established the Philippine Executive Commission with Jorge
Vargas as chairman.

After the departure of President Quezon, Gen. MacArthur also left Corregidor. After months of
resistance and valor, Bataan fell to the Japanese resulting to the “Death March” from Mariveles, Bataan
to San Femando Pampanga. About 70,000 American and Filipino soldiers died before and after the Fall
of Bataan. After heavy battles and air raids, Corregidor surrendered on May 1942 to Commander in
Chief Masaharu Homma of the Japanese High Command. The resistance, nevertheless vontinued on
with the Guerilla resistance with leaders such as Manuel Roxas and Ramon Magsaysay.

On May 5, 1943, Premier Hideki Tojo publicly promised independence to the Filipino people. As
a result, the Philippine Preparatory Commission was organized to draft a Constitution. The Philippine
Constitution was finished on September 4 and was ratified by the Constitutional Assembly. The election
of the delegates to the National Assembly was held on September 20. On the 25th, the Assembly
elected the Speaker and the President of the future republic. Benigno Aquino was elected Speaker while
Jose P. Laurel became the President of the Second Republic. Jorge Vargas ended his term as chairman of
the Philippine Executive Commission.

On August 1, 1944, President Quezon died while in exile. Osmena was then sworn to office in
Washington D.C. as President of the Commonwealth. On October 20, about 174,000 American troops
landed at Leyte with USAFFE Commander Gen. Mac Arthur and President Sergio Osmena. The “Battle of
Leyte Gulf”, the largest naval battle in world history gave the Japanese their conclusive defeat against
the Allied forces. On January 5, 1945, MacArthur landed in Lingayen. Manila, with all its destruction and
casualties, was won in February. The Commonwealth government was restored in Manila. On July 5,
1945, Mac Arthur finally announced the liberation of the Philippines.

To force Japan to her unconditional surrender, the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed by
the Americans with their new weapon, the atomic bomb. On August 15, 1945, the Japanese finally
surrendered to the Allied forces in a formal signing aboard the USS Missouri. On August 17, 1945, Jose P.
laurel, in Nara, Japan, dissolved the Second Republic of the Philippines.

THE THIRD REPUBLIC

On June 9, 1945, the Philippine Congress convened for the first time after the war. Brig. Gen.
Manuel Roxas was elected Senate president. In the election of April 1946, Manuel Roxas of the newly
founded Liberal Party won against Nacionalista’s Sergio Osmena. Roxas became the third, and would be
the last, President of the Commonwealth. On July 4, 1946, the independence of the Philippines and the
inauguration of the Third Philippine Republic were highlighted by the lowering of the American flag by
American Ambassador Paul McNutt and the raising of the Philippine flag by President Manuel Roxas.
The Presidents of the Third Republic with their accomplishments:

 Manuel Roxas (LP) 1946-48: VP was Elpidio Quirino. For the rehabilitation of the country after
the war was able to achieve the U.S. grant of $25 million loan and UNRRA $10 million; U.S.-
Philippines Military Bases Agreement; the Bell Trade Act (free trade relations with the U.S.; the
Parity Amendment gave U.S. citizens equal rights with Filipinos to develop natural resources in
the country and operate public utilities. Died of heart attack in April of 1948.
  Elpidio Quirino (LP) 1948-49-53: VP was Fernando Lopez; the Bell Mission Report was
conducted; creation of economic institutions like the ACCFA and PACSA; infrastructures such as
the Maria Cristina and the Ambuklao Dam Project; in social welfare, the Boys’ Town of the
Philippines; an excellent ambassador of goodwill and friendship; was able to improve foreign
affairs; tainted with accusations of graft and corruption like the damaging scam on the U.S. War
Surplus Property amounting to $ 50 million with $ 20 million in question and allegation that
Liberal Party used it for its election campaign; administration failed in its Hukbalahap peace
program due to insincerity.

 Ramon Magsaysay (NP) 1953-57: VP was Carlos P. Garcia; the “Man of the Masses”; success in
the Hukbalahap amnesty program; opened Malacanang for the people; the formation of SEATO;
the Laurel-Langley Agreement; the Philippines-Japan Reparations Agreement; founding of the
Social Security System; the Land Tenure Reform Act to address agrarian problems. Died of plane
crash on March 17, 1957.

 Carlos P. Garcia (NP) 1957-61: VP was Diosdado Macapagal (LP) the “Filipino First” Policy; the
Austerity Program; the Bohlen-Serrano Agreement.

 Diosdado Macapagal (LP) 1961-65: VP was Emmanuel Pelaez; the Decontrol Program; the
Agricultural Land Reform Law; the official Philippine Claim to Sabah; joined the confederation
MAPHILINDO; transfer of Independence Day from July 4 to Aguinaldo’s June 12; use of Filipino
language in official documents;

 Ferdinand Marcos (NP) 1965-69 and reelection 1969-73: VP was Fernando Lopez; stabilization of
government finances by means of more effective collection of taxes, imposing new tax laws, and
getting loans from foreign banks and governments; Greater production of rice by promoting the
IR-8 hybrid "miracle rice" and other fast-growing rice seeds, and the construction of more
irrigation systems; infrastructures of bridges and roads like the North Diversion Road; most
number of schoolhouses by a President; the improvement of the Philippine National Railways;
intensive operations against smuggling, crime syndicates, and the communist New People's
Army (NPA); Holding of the Manila Summit Conference in 1966;

Second term was marred by overspending in the 1969 elections the led to higher inflation and
the "floating peso” devaluated; the prevalence of dirty politics, rampage of graft and corruption
in government, the widening gap between the rich and the poor, the impotency of the 1935
Constitution to cope with the new socio- economic problems and the rising tides of crimes,
communism and subversion resulted to student power and demonstrations.

MARCOS REGIME

Since the Philippines achieved independence in July 1946, there emerged a persistent
movement to change the Constitution of 1935. In the light of the new situation, the Constitution of 1935
was obsolete for it was no longer in harmony with the condition of the times. Its defects apparently
were as follows: (1) it was a product of American colonialism and was an imitation of the US
Constitution, (2) it gave too much powers to the president to become a dictator, (3) imbalance of
powers among the legislative, executive and judicial branches, (4) its Parity Amendment was a memento
of American imperialism, (5) the COMELEC has no adequate powers to prevent election anomalies, (7)
the GAO (General Auditing Office) was powerless against corruption, and (8) it had no provision on local
autonomy.

In 1969, the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) was founded under the leadership of Jose
Ma. Sison. In the same year CPP founded the New People’s Army (NPA) with “Kumander Dante”
Bernabe Buscayno as leader.

To draft a new constitution, the Constitutional Convention was created with elected members,
and was inaugurated on June 1, 1971. On August 21, 1971, the Plaza Miranda Massacre happened
during a Liberal Party campaign rally claiming eight lives. This led to the suspension of the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus by Marcos on September 21 that year. By January of 1972, the writ was
restored. On September 23, 1972, after an “alleged” assassination attempt against Secretary of Defense
Juan Ponce Enrile, President Marcos appeared on television to announce his proclamation of Martial
Law. The proclamation has been signed since September 21.

The Martial Law resulted to the arrest and detention of many in the political opposition, the
media and the academe on the accusation that they were either sympathetic to the rebels, supporting
the rebel movement or members of the communist movement. Senators Benigno Aquino, Jr. and Jose
Diokno were among those who were arrested. Marcos also imposed curfew in the entire Philippines; the
prohibition of rallies and demonstrations; and the prohibition of carrying firearms unless authorized. He
instructed the take over and control of newspapers, magazines, radio and television facilities and all
media of communications; to take over the management, control and operation of MERALCO, PLDT, the
National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA), the Philippine National Railways (PNR), the
Philippine Airlines and other airline firms, and other public utilities.

After the proclamatiom, the Constitutional Convention (Con-Con) reassembled and resumed
work, except for the anti-Marcos delegates who have been detained in the military stockades. They
finished the new constitution on November 29 1972. Marcos postponed indefinitely the plebiscite. And,
instead, organized the Citizen Assemblies to represent the people. the General Assembly of Citizen
Assemblies rejected the proposal that the constitution be ratified through a nationwide plebiscite. On
the other hand the Citizen Assemblies voted for the ratification of the 1973 Constitution through the
Citizen Assemblies; the suspension of the convening of the Interim National Assembly; the continuation
of martial law, and suspension of elections for a period of at least seven years. On January 17, 1973 the
President announced that the Constitution of 1973 had been ratified by the Citizen Assemblies. The
ratification resulted to the abolition of the Congress, the institution of a parliamentary form of
government, and the prerogative when to call for the interim national assembly (the parliament). From
1972 to 1978 the President would exercise absolute legislative power.

On Sept. 26, 1972 Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 2 which declared the country under
land reform program. Later, Marcos also issued P.D. No. 27 on Oct. 21, restricting land reform scope to
tenanted rice and corn lands and set the retention limit at 7 hectares. The Moro National Liberation
Front (MNLF), the BangsaMoro united armed forces that sought for the independence of the
BangsaMoro people under the chairmanship of Nur Misuari, soon clashed with the government forces in
an armed conflict resulting to casualties on both sides along with civilians and destruction to properties.
In 1975 Marcos initited a truce with the MNLF through the involvement of Islamic states. On December
23, 1976, the MNLF forced the Manila government under Marcos to sign a peace agreement under the
auspices of the Libyan government of Col. Muamar Qadafi. This peace agreement is known as the Tripoli
Agreement.

On October 16-17, 1976 the majority of barangay voters (Citizen Assemblies) approved that martial law
should be continued. They also ratified the amendments proposed by Marcos which were: the creation
of the Interim Batasang Pambansa instead of a national assembly, whose members would include the
President; the President would also become the Prime Minister and would conti nue to exercise
legislative powers until martial law is lifted; the President may legislate outside the IBP when necessary
in case of grave emergency, or threat or danger to national security, or whenever the IBP cannot act
adequately that he may issue decrees, orders or instructions, which shall part of the law of the land. The
1976 amendments only continued Marcos’ dictatorship. Even with the creation of the Batasan
Pambansa, Marcos did not relinquish his legistive powers. The amendments only made the IBP a
“rubber stamp” with Marcos being the Prime Minister aside from being President.

On January 17, 1981, Marcos lifted martial law. The Opposition called the lifting as a mere "face lifting"
as a precondition to the Philippine visit of Pope John Paul II. Numerous establishments were built during
Martial Law, such as the Philippine Heart Center, the National Kidney Institute and the Lung Center of
the Philippines. Along with these are the numerous infrastructure projects like the San Juanico Bridge,
the BLISS housing projects and the Light Railway Transit in Metro Manila.

On June 16, 1981, right after the lifting of martial law, the first presidential election in twelve years was
held. As expected, Marcos ran and won a massive victory of 88% over the other “almost unknown”
candidates Alejo Santos of a Nacionalista Party faction and Cebu Assemblyman Bartolome Cabangbang
of the Federal Party. Major opposition parties UNIDO ans LABAN boycotted the elections.

In March of 1980 former Senator Ninoy Aquino suffered a heart attack, the result of more than
seven years in prison. At the Philippine Heart Center he refused to be operated by doctors employed by
Marcos. He preferred to go to the U.S. or return to Fort Bonifacio. Imelda Marcos intervened and
offered him to go to the U.S. on conditions that he will stay and will not speak there against Marcos.

Aquino was operated in Dallas, Texas, recovered and traveled already only after a month.
Marcos extended his exile for medical reasons. Eventually, Aquino renounced his two covenants with
Imelda. Aquino spent three years in self-exile, setting up a house with Cory and their kids in Newton,
Boston, Massachusetts. He worked on two books, gave lectures and traveled extensively in the U.S.
delivering speeches.

Marcos, on his part, accused Aquino of masterminding some bombings in Metro Manila from
1981-82. Aquino denied advocating a bloody revolution, but warned that radicalized oppositionists may
resort to this soon. Early in 1983, Aquino became apprehensive of the worsening political and economic
situation of his country combined with the rumored illness of Marcos. He wanted to speak to Marcos
and present to him his rationale for the country's return to democracy.

On August 2l, 1983 former Senator “Ninoy” Aquino returned to the Philippines. A few steps after
leaving the plane multiple gunshots were heard. Aquino was shot dead in the head at the tarmac of the
Manila International Airport while in the custody of the Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM) guards.
Conflicting reports on the assassination and that of his alleged killer, Rolando Galman, were assigned to
an investigation by the presidential fact-finding board.

The country was enraged with the murder of Ninoy. His funeral turned to be the longest and
largest in Philippine history as it was attended by some two million people. The death of Ninoy resulted
to continuous massive rallies and demonstrations in Manila.

Marcos, immediately created a fact finding commission to investigate on the “Aquino-Galman

Double Murder” case. The first under Chief Justice Enrique Fernando was disbanded immediately. A
five-man independent board of inquiry, the Agrava Fact-Finding Board headed by Justice Corazon Agrava
was then created. The investigation came up with the findings that the Aquino assassination was
planned and executed by the military, not by the communists as claimed by Marcos, and that it was not
Galman who shot and killed Aquino. The Agrava report implicated seven military men headed by Brig.
Gen. Luther Custodio, chief of the AVSECOM. The four other members, however, implicated twenty -five
military men headed Gen. Fabian Ver (AFP Chief of Staff), major Gen. Prospero Olivas (PC/Metropolitan
Command) and Gen Custodio. The reports were submitted to the Sandiganbayan for a trial which
decided for the acquittal of all 26 accused. The people protested the decision with rallies and
demonstrations flooding the streets of Metro Manila.

By 1985, the political and economic instability in the country faced fears that the violent
overthrew of the Marcos dictatorship was forthcoming. Massive rallies and demonstrations in Metro
Manila were much more frequent than at any other time. Allegedly, the White House had advised the
Marcos government to exert effort to gain once more the confidence of the people. Foreign news
agencies began to emphasize the issue of “loss of confidence” on Marcos.

In order to prove to the international community that he still has people’s confidence, Marcos ,
called for a snap special presidential election on February 7, 1986. The formidable-richly funded pro-
government KBL party proclaimed President Marcos and Assemblyman Arturo Tolentino as their official
candidates for president and vice-president, respectively. Tolentino was a former Marcos critic who was
courted by the “sickly” Marcos to run with him.

On the other hand, the oppositionist United Nationalist Democratic party (UNIDO) leader
Salvador “Doy” H. Laurel settled for the Vice Presidency to give way to Ninoy’s widow Corazon “Cory” C.
Aquino to run for president.
 In the campaign, President Marcos used all efforts in the use of "guns, goons and gold" to
intimidate voters to support the Marcos - Tolentino ticket. Behind the scenes, the government party
implemented a massive strategy to fake and cheat the results of the elections in favor of the KBL
candidates.

After the election, conflicting results showed Marcos-Tolentino winning in the partial official
count of the Commission of Elections (COMELEC) while, on the other hand, Aquino and Laurel were
leading in the unofficial count of the National Movement for Free Ele ctions (NAMFREL), headed by Jose
Concepcion, Jr. and was serving as the official citizen’s arm for that election. The confusion was further
aggravated when, in the midst of the canvassing, 30 COMELEC computer operators walked out of the
PICC hall with the complaint that their figures were being tampered and were inconsistent with what
was being showed. The COMELEC count ended with the official tally of Marcos-Tolentino winning the
election. In the Batasan Pambansa, Speaker Nicanor Yniguez declared the two as the duly elected
President and Vice-President.

Massive protests followed. Due to the reports of alleged fraud, the Catholic Bishops Conference
of the Philippines (CBCP) issued a statement condemning the elections. The U.S. Senate passed a
resolution stating the same. Mrs. Aquino called the people to a “civil disobedience” protest to pressure
Marcos to step down. On February 16, 1986, Mrs. Aquino, along with the opposition, rallied the people
at the Luneta Grandstand for the “Tagumpay ng Bayan”. The occasion was attended by more than three
million people.

THE PEOPLE POWER REVOLUTION

. The "People Power Revolution" began, allegedly, as an attempted coup by the Reform the AFP
Movement (RAM), a group of young military men organized by Col. Gregorio “Gringo” Honasan. On Feb.
22, Saturday, Lt.. Michael Asperin and 18 other soldiers were apprehended by Marine guards at the
Bonifacio Naval Station for their unauthorized presence and suspicion of espionage. Defense Minister
Enrile was informed and, with Vice Chief of Staff Gen. Fidel Ramos, gave a press conference at the
Ministry of National Defense at Camp Aguinaldo to announce their withdrawal of support to the
President. Ramos called upon various military units and the police to support their cause.

The Radio Veritas - a Catholic radio station covered the conference. Marcos also conducted his
own news conference calling on Enrile and Ramos to surrender. Via Radio Veritas, Archbishop of Manila
Jaime Cardinal Sin exhorted Filipinos to come to the aid of the rebel leaders by going to EDSA between
Camps Crame and Aguinaldo and give support, food and other supplies. However dangerous,
considering the possibility of a military encounter a multitude of people marched to EDSA.

From February 23-25 people, coming from all walks of life, continued to pour in EDSA as hours
passed, armed only with prayers, rosaries, and the statue of Our Lady of Fatima. Government troops
under Brig. Gen. Artemio Tadiar that attempted to attack the rebel soldiers, were stopped by thousands
of people forming human barricades. Tadiar threatened the crowds but were not moved, forcing them
to stand by from a distance. Soon, the government troops that came defected instead of attacking. At
the height of the people power, an estimated three million filled EDSA from Ortigas to Cubao. In the late
afternoon of the 24th, rebel helicopters attacked Villamor Air Base, destroying presidential vehicles.
Another helicopter fired a rocket at Malacanang and caused minor damage. Later, many officers have
defected while majority of the AFP had already changed sides.

On the morning of the 25th, Cory Aquino was inaugurated as President of the Philippines at Club
Filipino in Greenhills with Laurel as Vice-President. Attending the ceremonies were Ramos, who was
promoted to Chief of Staff, Enrile, who was reinstated, and many politicians. In her simple inaugural
message President Aquino expressed her gratitude to the people and the military for their fight for
freedom. She appealed to all Filipinos to "work for national reconciliation which was why Ninoy came
back, and to unite in the rebuilding of the country. In conclusion she pleaded that Filipinos to continue
praying for God’s help. An hour later, Marcos conducted the inauguration at Malacañang. On the Palace
balcony, Marcos took his oath as President on broadcast by channels 9 and 13, and the private channel
7. No invited foreign dignitaries attended. Marcos was making a speech when the broadcast was cut by
rebel troops.

At this time, thousands had amassed at the barricades along Mendiola near the Palace. They
were prevented from storming the Palace by loyal soldiers securing the area. The angry demonstrators
were pacified by priests who pleaded them not to be violent.

Marcos, later, was adviced by White House that exile is a must. Marcos was disappointed. Later,
Marcos talked to Enrile requesting a safe passage. Finally, at 6:00 p.m., the Marcos family was
transported by four American helicopters to Clark Air Base on to Guam, and finally to Hawaii.

When the news of Marcos' flight broke out, the people rejoiced in the streets. At Mendiola, the
demonstrators finally stormed Malacañang, long denied to Filipinos for almost two decades. Looting by
some protesters occurred, but the majority only wandered the extravagance. People around the world
rejoiced and congratulated Filipinos they knew.

CORY AQUINO ADMINISTRATION

The first thing Cory Aquino did was to restore democracy. Immediately, she ordered the release of
political prisoners and restored the writ of habeas corpus in regions IX and XII in Mindanao. She also
opened Malacanang to the public once again. Thousands of people who visited the palace were shocked
at how the Marcoses lived in luxury for 20 years while the people were suffering. They also saw
examples of the extravagant lifestyle of Imelda Marcos, her 3,000 pairs of custom-made shoes, more
than 1,000 gowns, hundreds of perfume bottles and her over sized bed,

Before the drafting of a new constitution and its ratification by the people, President Aquino issued
Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986, promulgating the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of the
Philippines, otherwise known as the "Freedom Constitution". This constitution w as designed and
adopted as an instrument for the transition.

To restore political stability, President Aquino called for the drafting of a new constitution that
would replace both the 1973 amended constitution and the 1986 provisional constitution. On June 2,
1986, she appointed an independent Constitutional Commission (Con-Com) and gave them three
months to frame the new constitution. On October 15, 1986, one month behind schedule, the
commissioners approved the entire draft of the new charter by a vote of 45 to 2. Con-Com president,
former Supreme Court Justice Cecilia Munoz Palma led the yes votes. The new constitution was
submitted to the President who, in response, called for a new registration of voters and a plebiscite to
ratify the charter. On February 2, 1987, the people went to the polls and ratified the new constitution in
a national plebiscite. It was the most peaceful and honest poll in years.

Among the salient features of the 1987 Constitution are the following:

1. A declaration of state policies which pursues freedom from nuclear weapons, upholds the
sanctity of family life and protects the unborn, ensures equality for women, provides for a
Filipino controlled economy, promotes agrarian reform, prohibits political dynasties, and
takes measures against graft and corruption;
2. A new Bill of Rights which bans the death penalty, and the use of torture, intimidation or
secret detention of state prisoners.
3. The creation of a permanent Commission on Human Rights to safeguard the rights of the
people.
4. The establishment of a presidential system of government, with checks and balances
between the three branches of the government.
5. The limitation of the President's term to six years without reelection, with a ban against
appointment of relatives to public office.
6. The President's right to proclaim martial law or suspend the writ of habeas corpus is limited
to 60 days which the Congress, afterwards, may revoke or extend.
7. The establishment of a people elected bicameral congress whose legislative powers are
given with built-in specific safeguards.
 8. Provision for laws, constitutional amendments, and impeachment cases that may be
initiated directly by the people.
9. Provision for the autonomy of local governments and the creation of autonomous regions
for the Cordilleras and the Muslim Mindanao.
10. Provision for free education up to high school level.
11. The government's right to incur new loans is subject to freedom of information and
limitations by Congress and monetary board.
On May 11, 1987, new senators and congressmen were elected to the new congress. It was one
of the most peaceful and honest elections in Philippine history. Sen. Jovito Salonga was elected Senate
President while Rep. Ramon Mitra as Speaker of the House of Representatives.

President Aquino inherited the problems besetting the former administration which was
worsened by economic mismanagement and the uncontrollable greed of the Marcoses, their relatives
and cronies. Worst, the country was burdened with a foreign debt of more than $26 billion. For
economic recovery, intensive efforts were exerted to attract more foreign investments..

In 1986, Mrs. Aquino was invited to deliver a speech in the U.S. Congress. The speech dealt on
the struggle of the Filipino people against dictatorship and for the restoration of democracy. The
members of the U.S. Congress gave her a standing ovation. Aquno was likewise selected as Time
Magazine's Woman of the Year in 1986.

As provided for in the 1987 Constitution, the government launched, in July 1987, the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) by virtue of R.A. 6657. Unlike the P.D. 27 of Marcos
which only covered private agricultural lands devoted to rice and corn, the CARP covers all private or
public agricultural lands regardless of crops grown. The government has also exerted efforts to recover
the so-called ill-gotten wealth of the Marcos family and their cronies through the Presidential
Commission on Good Government (PCGG).

During her term, Aquino repeatedly faced coup attempts. In July 1986, Marcos loyalists
attempted to establish a rival government at the Manila Hotel with Arturo Tolentino as temporary
president. In August 1987, the attempted military coup “God Save the Queen” posed a more serious
threat. Gen. Fidel Ramos foiled the attempt and arrested its leader Col. Gregorio Honasan of the RAM. In
December 1989 coup proved to be the most serious as the government and rebels forces encountered
in several portions of Metro Manila with an attempt to attack Malacanang. Honasan, its leader, was
again arrested. He would be granted amnesty during the Ramos administration.

The Aquino administration also faced a number of natural disasters such as the eruption of
Mt.Pinatubo in 1991 which devastated the economy of the Philippines. The disaster coincided with the
termination of the U.S.-Philippines Military Bases Agreement in the Philippines. The Central Luzon
earthquake in 1990 resulted to 1, 700 casualties and a burden of infrastructure problems for the
administration. The power problem also plagued the term of Aquino resulting in repeated brown-outs
nationwide.

The next presidential administrations of the 5th Republic of the Philippines under the 1987
Constitution are Fidel V. Ramos (1992-98), Joseph E. Estrada (1998-2001), Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
(2001-2004-2010); Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010-2016) and the incumbent Rodrigo R. Duterte (2016-
)

4.3. Taxation: The Fundamentals of Taxation and Some Features of the TRAIN Law

Fundamentals of Taxation
The beginning of the idea of taxation cannot be dated in the continuum of our history. It came
as a matter of survival for the government. The development of tax law as a comprehensive and general
system is a recent phenomenon resulting from the evolution of taxes and increasing state-economy
relationship. A tax law is a body of rules passed by the legislature by virtue of which the government
acquires a claim or property as a matter of legal duty or obligation by operation of law.

Taxation may be defined then, as the power of the sovereign to impose burden or charges upon
persons, property or property rights for the use and support of government in order to enabl e it to
discharge its function.

Nature of Taxation Power

The power of taxation is both inherent and legislative in character because it has been reserved
by the State for it to exercise. It is an essential and inherent attribute of sovereignty, belonging as a
matter if right to every independent government. The government possesses it without being conferred
by the people. The power is inherent because the sustenance of government requires contribution from
them.
The power of taxation is legislative in character because only the legislature can make tax laws.
It is an exercise of the high act of the sovereignty to be performed only by the legislature upon
consideration of the policy, necessity and public welfare. Having the power to tax, it must also possess
the sole power to prescribe the means by which the tax shall be collected, and designate the officers
through whom it shall be enforced.

Purpose of Taxation

The primary purpose of taxation is to raise revenues for public needs so that the people may be
enabled to live in a civilized society. It also serves a variety of purpose. It may be increased in order to
stabilize prices and stimulate greater production; taxes on imports may be increased to favor domestic
production; or decrease to encourage foreign trade; it can also mobilize capital to be poured into capital
deficient fields of business.

Thus, taxation is an instrument of fiscal policy, and fiscal policy influences the direction and
structure of money supply, prices and of the national economy.

Basis of Taxation
The power of taxation originated from the theory that the ex istence of a government is a
necessity. No government, whether democratic or despotic, can exist without resources to finance its
operations. A true tax is an exaction for revenue that is for the support of the government.
Inherent Limitations of the Power of Taxation

1. Limitation of public purpose – A tax is for public purpose where it is for the support of
government, or any of the recognized object of the government, or where it will directly
promote the welfare of the community in equal measure.
2. Limitation of territorial jurisdiction – The general rule is that sovereignty of a state extends
only as far as its territorial jurisdiction. It follows that its taxing power does not extend
beyond its territorial limits, but within its limit, it may tax persons, property, income or
business.
3. Limitation of double taxation – Double taxation may be understood as direct duplicate
taxation which means taxing twice by the same public authority for the same purpose
during the taxing period some of the property in the territory in which the tax is paid
without taking all of them a second time.
4. Limitation of non-delegation of taxing power – The constitution provides that sovereignty
resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. Under a
republican form of government, the people created a legislative department for the exercise
of their legislative power manner in which those rules shall be given effect. The power
cannot be delegated to the President and to local government. However, it may be
delegated to the municipal corporations which are the instrumentalities of the state for the
better administration of the government in matters of local concerns.
 5. Limitation of exemption of government agency or instrumentality – The general rule is that
agencies and instrumentalities of the government is exempted from taxation. So, properties
owned by the Philippine government, any province, city, municipality, or municipal districts
are exempted from taxation. However, government entities performing profit-making
activities are not exempted from taxation.

Basic Principles of Taxation

1. Fiscal adequacy – emphasizes the source of revenue as a whole must be sufficient to meet
the expanding governmental expenses regardless of business conditions, export taxes, trade
balances, and problems of economic adjustments.
2. Equality or theoretical justice – refers to the use of revenues which must be believed based
on the taxpayer’s ability to pay.
3. Administrative feasibility – means that the tax system must be clear to the taxpayers, can be
enforced and is convenient and not burdensome or discouraging to a business activity.

Inherent Powers of the Government

1. Police Power – authority of the government to regulate the activities of an individual even in
the absence of law for the benefit and protection of public welfare.
2. Taxation – authority of the government to improve taxes, charges and fees from its
taxpayers under its sovereignty and/or territorial jurisdiction, to support its necessary
expenses.
3. Eminent Domain – authority of the government to expropriate private property for public
use upon payment of a just compensation.

A tax may be defined then, as a forced and involuntary burden assessed in accordance with
some reasonable rule of appointment by the authority of a sovereign government upon the persons or
properties within its jurisdiction, to provide public revenues for the support of the government.

It proceeds upon the theory that the existence of the government is a necessity, that it cannot
continue to operate without the means to pay for its expenses, and for those means has the right to
compel all citizens and properties within its limit to contribute.

Essential Characteristics of Taxes

1. It is an enforced contribution
2. It is exacted pursuant to legislative authority
3. It is contribution in money
4. It is levied upon person, property and property rights
5. It is for the purpose of raising revenue
6. It must be for public purpose
7. It must be proportionate in character

Classification of Taxes

1. According to Purpose
a. Fiscal Taxes – designed to raise revenues for governmental needs.
Ex. Percentage tax on locally manufactured commodities

b. Regulatory Taxes – designed to achieve some social and economic goals irrespective of
whether revenue is actually raised or not.
Ex. protective tariff or custom duties
 2. According to Object
a. Personal, Captivation or Poll Tax – imposed on individuals within the jurisdiction of the
taxing power, without regard to the amount of their property or occupation in which
they are engaged.
Ex. residence tax

b. Property Taxes – computed upon the valuation of property and assessed at the owner’s
domicile, although privileges may be included in the valuations
Ex. real state tax

c. Excise Tax – imposed directly by the legislature and the sum is measured by the amount
of business done or the extent to which the privilege has been enjoyed or exercised.

3. According to Subject
a. Direct Tax – when the person on whom the tax is imposed absorbs the tax or bears it.
Ex. income tax

b. Indirect Tax – charge paid by a person other than the one on whom it is legally imposed.
Ex. value-added tax

4. According to determination of amount

a. Specific Tax – of fixed amount by the hear or member, or by some standards of weight
and measurement, and requires no assessment other than a listing or classification of
the subjects to be taxed
Ex. excise taxes on wines and liquors

b. Ad Valorem Tax – of fixed proportion, of the value of the property with respect to which
the taxes are assessed, and require the intervention of assessors to appraise the value
of such property before the amount due from each taxpayer can be determined.
Ex. real state tax, excise tax on cigars and cigarettes

5. According to authority imposing the tax

a. National Taxes – levied and collected by the national government
Ex. income tax

b. Municipal Tax – levied and collected by the municipal government

Ex. real state tax

6. According to rate
a. Proportional Tax – based on a fixed percentage regardless of the amount of income,
property or other bases to be taxed, a single rate being applied to different objects with
different values.
b. Progressive Tax – the tax rate increases as the tax base increases.
Ex. income tax

c. Regressive Tax – the effective rate decreases as the base increases.

Ex. value-added tax

Forms of Escape from Taxation

1. Shifting – transfer of the burden of a tax by the original payer on the one on whom the tax
was assesses or imposed to another or someone else.
2. Capitalization – special form of backward shifting. It occurs when the good is durable good,
the whole series of future taxes is to be shifted backward at the time of purchase, and the
future taxes must be capitalized and deducted in a lump sum from the price offered.
3. Transformation – this is effected through the process of production. When the producer
pays the taxes himself and recovers the additional expenses by improving his production
thereby turning out units of his production at lower cost.
4. Evasion – illegal effort to avoid payment of tax
5. Avoidance – use of legally permissible means to reduce tax liability
 6. Exemption – grant of immunity to a particular person or corporation from a tax upon
properties or exercise which they are obligated to pay.

Local Taxation
Since the power of taxation is an incidence of sovereignty that is absolutely necessary to
maintain government and therefore inherent in the state, local government units (LGUs) such as
provinces, municipalities, cities and barangays can exercise the power not only if conferred on them.
The constitutional provisions as to taxation of LGUs are ordinarily not self -executing because they
require conferring the power to tax. The local power of taxation is subject to such conditions and
restrictions as may be prescribed, and only such purposes as may be expressed.
Local tax may be valid only for the public purpose and yet invalid for private purposes. Except
when allowed by law, local funds shall be devoted exclusively to local purposes.

The policy of taxation in the Philippines is provided primarily by the Constitution of the Philippines and
three Republic Acts.

 Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the Constitution states that "the rule of taxation shall be
uniform and equitable" and that "Congress shall evolve a progressive system of taxation."
 National laws: National Internal Revenue Code—enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the Tax
Reform Act of 1997, and subsequently amended by Republic Act No. 10963 or the Tax Reform for
Acceleration and Inclusion Act of 2017;[3] and,
 Local laws—major sources of revenue for the local government units (LGUs) are the taxes collected
by virtue of Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local Government Code of 1991,[4] and those sourced from
the proceeds collected by virtue of a local ordinance.
Taxes imposed at the national level are collected by the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), while those
imposed at the local government level, which are the provincial, city, municipal and barangay, are
collected by the local treasurer's office .

The following are some of the Salient Features of RA 10963 otherwise known as the TAX REFORM
ACCELERATION AND INCLUSION (TRAIN) Law. Example given here is the income tax.

Background

On Decembe r 19, 2017, the Presi dent signe d into l aw Package I of the Tax Reform for
Acce leration and Inclusion (“TRAIN”) bill otherwise known as Republic Act No. 10963.

The law contains ame ndments to seve ral provisions of the National Internal Revenue
Code of 1997. It shall take effect on January 1, 2018, followi ng its complete publi cation in the
Offi cial Gazette or in at le ast one newspaper of gene ral ci rculation. The l aw was published in
the Official Gazette on December 27, 2017.

1. Tax Sche dul e

Effe ctive January 1, 2018 until De cember 31, 2022

RANGE OF TAXABLE TAX DUE =

INCOME A + (B X C)

OVER NOT OVER BASIC ADDITIONAL OF OVER

(a) (b) (C)

- 250,000.00 - -

250,000.00 400,000.00 - 20% 250,000.00

RANGE OF TAXABLE TAX DUE =
INCOME A + (B X C)

400,000.00 800,000.00 30,000.00 25% 400,000.00

800,000.00 2,000,000.00 130,000.00 30% 800,000.00

2,000,000.00 8,000.000.00 490,000.00 32% 2,000,000.00

8,000,000.00 2,410,000.00 35% 8,000,000.00

2. Mi ni mum Wage Earne r

 statutory minimum wage rates are EXEMPTED from i ncome tax.

 Also exempted are the holiday pay, ove rtime pay, ni ght shift differenti al pay and hazard
pay e arned by MWEs

3. 13th Month Pay and Othe r Be ne fi ts

 Maxi mum of P90,000

4. Pe rsonal and Addi ti onal Exe mptions

 NONE – al ready i ncluded in the P250,000 e xempt from i come tax

 re peals Se c. 33(A) of the Magna Carta for Pe rsons with Disability, Sec.22(B) of the Foster
Care Act of 2012

5. VAT Threshold

 Thre e Mi llion Pesos (P3,000,000)

 Any person whose sales or re ceipts are exempt unde r Se ction 109(B) of the Code from the
payment of VAT and who is not a VAT-registered person shall pay a tax equivalent to 3%
of hi s gross quarterly sales or re ceipts.
Unit 5: EVALUATION AND PROMOTION OF LOCAL AND ORAL
HISTORY, MUSEUMS, HISTORICAL SHRINES AND CULTURAL
PRESENTATIONS

V. Critical evaluation and promotion of local and oral history, museums, historical shrines, cultural
performances, indigenous practices, religious rites and rituals

Learning Outcome: Manifest interest in local history and show concern in promoting and
preserving the country’s historical and cultural heritage.

Methodology: Lecture/Discussion; Research in Local libraries and Local Studies Centers;

Tour in local museums, historical sites, art galleries, archeological sites and other
places where one could see cultural and heritage displays; Conduct Oral interview

Resources:
1. Historical Data Papers
2. Ereccion de Pueblos (Creation of Towns)
3. Museums, Local Studies Centers
4. Art Galleries, Painting collections
5. Historical landmarks and UNESCO sites
6. Performances where one could see traditional arts and culture Fiestas and similar local
celebrations

Assessment: Each student is assigned to make Reflection paper, a Reaction paper or critique
of the shrines, historical sites, or museums that they visited; or make a
Letter to the editor; or create a Transcript of oral interview

To reflect on an experience in the visit to a historical site, local or national museums

and national shrines, the following shall be set as guidelines.

1. an actual feel of the place (to see is to believe);

2. better understanding of specific historical events;
3. the ability to create historical reenactments;
4. the ability for historical imagination;
5. the ability to confirm historical narratives (to find answers to questions)
Added to a reflection, the student shall suggest enhancements needed to improve
the sites, museums or shrines visited. He shall also recommend other educational sites to
visit, and why.

Final Examination: Objective 120 items OMR (Units 4 and 5)

SELECTING SITES FOR AN EDUCATIONAL TOUR

 There are numerous museums, historical sites, art galleries, archeological sites and other places
where one could find history and cultural heritage which are recognized by the National
Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP). It is most convenient if, as part of the activities of this
course, that the tour or visit to a museum, site or gallery be conduction in areas that are near the
school. Considering the proximity is a pragmatic approach to the activity since it will not require to
much expenses and will minimize the difficulty in reaching the location on the part of the students. It
is also a way in maximizing the student’s ability to appreciate more the site and tour it for a longer
period of time, and with ease.

However, it also must be of another consideration if the chosen place would be significantly
historical and cultural so as to create a greater benefit on the education of the students. The value of
the site is unbargainable. While proximity may offer ease and time, the richness of a chosen site
creates the meaningful experience on the part of the student.

Another matter to be taken into consideration is that the choices of the sites should offer
various areas of learning for the student. In an educational tour, a student must be exposed to a
variety of interests as an appeal towards a greater appreciation of history and culture. It is therefore
most beneficial if a historical site will also be combined with an art gallery, a museum, a park or an
archeological site.

Lastly, it would more educational, comprehensive, and encompassing if the sites selected would
represent different time periods. Doing this would impose a continued curiosity on the part of the
historical tourist since different time periods offer changes in historical events and an evoluti on to
culture. Human development is greatly appreciated in presentation that considers the aspect of
chronology.

CULTURAL & HISTORICAL LANDMARKS

Name City/Municipality Province Region

Aguinaldo Shrine Kawit Cavite CALABARZON
Bagacay Point Lighthouse Liloan Cebu Central Visayas
Bahay Nakpil-Bautista Quiapo, Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Basco Lighthouse Basco Batanes Cagayan Valley
Binondo Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Bonifacio Monument Caloocan Metro Manila National Capital Region
Cagsawa Ruins Daraga Albay Bicol Region
Cape Bojeador Lighthouse Burgos Ilocos Norte Ilocos Region
Cape Bolinao Lighthouse Bolinao Pangasinan Ilocos Region
Cape Engaño Lighthouse Santa Ana Cagayan Cagayan Valley
Cape Melville Lighthouse Balabac Island Palawan MIMAROPA
Capul Island Lighthouse Capul Northern Samar Eastern Visayas
Casino Español de Manila Ermita, Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Corregidor Island Cavite City Cavite CALABARZON
Don Roman Santos Building Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
EDSA Shrine Quezon City Metro Manila National Capital Region
Fort of San Antonio Abad Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Fort Santiago Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Heritage City of Vigan Vigan Ilocos Sur Ilocos Region
Intramuros Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Lapu-Lapu Shrine Lapu-Lapu Cebu Central Visayas
Luneta Hotel Ermita, Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Magellan's Cross Cebu City Cebu Central Visayas
Magellan Shrine Lapu-Lapu Cebu Central Visayas
Malacañang Palace Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Maniguin Island Lighthouse Culasi Antique Western Visayas
Manila Army and Navy Club Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Manila Central Post Office Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Manila City Hall Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Manila Hotel Ermita, Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Manila Metropolitan Theater Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
National Historical
Commission of the Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Philippines
Nielson Field Makati Metro Manila National Capital Region
Paco Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Philippine General Hospital Ermita, Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region
Rizal Shrine Calamba Laguna CALABARZON
The Ruins Talisay Negros Occidental Negros Island Region
Tutuban railway station Manila Metro Manila National Capital Region

MUSEUMS IN METRO MANILA (NCR)

Museum Name Location
Archdiocesan Museum of Manila 121 Arzobispo Street, Intramuros, Manila
Armed Forces of the Philippines Museum Bulwagang Heneral Arturo T. Enrile, Camp Aguinaldo, Quezon City
Ateneo Art Gallery Katipunan Avenue, Loyola Heights, Quezon City
Ayala Museum Makati Avenue corner De La Rosa Street, San Lorenzo, Makati
Bahay Nakpil-Bautista Quiapo, Manila
Kaisa Heritage Center, 32 Anda corner Cabildo
Bahay Tsinoy
Streets, Intramuros, Manila
Bantayog ng mga Bayani Museum Quezon Avenue near EDSA, Pinyahan, Quezon City
Bayanihan Folk Arts Museum Philippine Women's University, Taft Avenue, Malate, Manila
Casa Manila General Luna Street, Intramuros, Manila
CCP Museo ng Kalinangang Pilipino CCP Complex, Roxas Boulevard, Barangay 1, Pasay
The Museum at De La Salle University 2401 Taft Avenue, Malate, Manila
Escolta Museum Calvo Building, Escolta Street, Binondo, Manila
Eulogio "Amang" Rodriguez Museum EARIST, Lacson Avenue, Santa Mesa, Manila
The Galeón Bay City, Pasay
GSIS Museo ng Sining Macapagal Boulevard, Financial Center, Barangay 1, Pasay
Iglesia ni Cristo Museum Punta, Santa Ana, Manila
Iglesia ni Cristo Museum and Gallery INC Central Office, Commonwealth Avenue, New Era, Q.C.
Jorge B. Vargas Museum and Filipiniana Research
UP Diliman, Roxas Avenue, U.P. Campus, Quezon City
Center
Jose P. Laurel Memorial Foundation Museum Roxas Boulevard corner Pedro Gil Street, Malate, Manila
Lopez Museum Exchange Road corner Meralco Avenue, San Antonio, Pasig
Mabini Shrine Polytechnic University of the Philippines Campus, Sta Mesa, Mla.
Macuha Art Gallery Las Piñas
Manuel Quezon Memorial Shrine Museum Quezon Memorial Circle, Elliptical Road, Pinyahan, Quezon City
Metropolitan Museum of Manila BSP Complex, Roxas Boulevard, Malate, Manila
The Mind Museum Third Avenue, Bonifacio Global City, Taguig
The Money Museum BSP Complex, Roxas Boulevard, Malate, Manila
Museo ng Katipunan Pinaglabanan Shrine, Corazon de Jesus, San Juan
Museo ng Makati Jose P. Rizal Avenue, Poblacion, Makati
Museo Pambata Roxas Boulevard corner South Drive, Ermita, Manila
Museo Valenzuela
Museum of Contemporary Art and Design (MCAD)
Museum of Philippine Political History
National Museum of Anthropology
National Museum of Fine Arts
National Museum of Natural History
QCX
Pasig City Museum
Philippine Air Force Aerospace Museum
Philippine Army Museum and Library
Philippine Science Centrum
The Presidential Museum and Library
Rizal Shrine Museum
San Agustin Church Museum
The Shoe Museum
UST Museum of Arts and Sciences
UP Museum of a History of Ideas
Veterans Federation of the Philippines Museum
Yuchengco Museum
Fatima Avenue, Marulas, Valenzuela
GF School of Design and Arts Bldg, De La Salle-College of St. Benilde
National Historical InstituteBuilding, Kalaw Avenue, Ermita, Manila
Rizal Park, Ermita, Manila
Rizal Park, Ermita, Manila
Rizal Park, Ermita, Manila
Quezon Memorial Circle, Elliptical Road, Pinyahan, Quezon City
Plaza Rizal, San Jose, Pasig
Andrews Avenue, Villamor Air Base, Pasay
Philippine Army Complex, Lawton Avenue, Fort Bonifacio, Taguig
E-Com Building, Riverbanks Center, Barangka, Marikina
Malacañang Complex, Jose Laurel Street, San Miguel, Manila
Fort Santiago, Intramuros, Manila
General Luna corner Real Streets, Intramuros, Manila
Jose P. Rizal Street, San Roque, Marikina
España Boulevard, Sampaloc, Manila
Pedro Gil Street corner Taft Avenue, Manila
Veterans Center, Western Bicutan, Taguig
RCBC Plaza, Ayala Avenue corner Gil Puyat Ave, Bel-Air Village, Makati