Positive Feedback and Schmitt Trigger Circuit

It is interesting to consider the inverting amplifier configuration with the input

terminals of the OP─AMP interchanged, as illustrated in Figure 6.34(a). This circuit
is called a Schmitt trigger and has positive feedback, as we will demonstrate next.
We assume that the current into the input terminal of the OP─AMP is zero.
Then, writing a node equation at the noninverting input, we obtain
vi  vin vi  vin
 0
R R
Solving this equation for vi and substituting v0 = AOLvi, we get
1 1
vi  (vin  v0 )  (vin  AOL vi ) (6.21)
2 2
Notice that the amplified output voltage v0 = AOLvi makes a positive contribution to
the OP─AMP input voltage vi, showing that the circuit has positive feedback.
Suppose that initially we have vin = 0 and v0 = 0. Then in an ideal circuit, vi
would be zero. However, in real circuits, certain imperfections (such as input bias
currents or offset voltage, which we discuss in detail in the next chapter) cause vi to
assume a small value. Suppose that this vi is positive; then a positive output voltage
results. As shown in Equation (6.21), half of the output voltage is returned to the
OP─AMP input by the feedback network. Thus, the input voltage vi becomes larger,
causing an even larger output voltage.
A real OP─AMP cannot produce infinite output voltage; instead, the output
voltage magnitude cannot exceed a particular value. Let us assume that the
OP─AMP shown in Figure 6.34(a) has extreme output voltages 5 V. Thus, the
circuit does not function as an amplifierthe output voltage becomes stuck either at
+5 V or at 5 V, depending on the initial polarity of vi.
Suppose that v0 = +5 V. Then, as long as we have vin>5 V, the input voltage vi
is greater than zero and v0 remains +5 V. This is apparent from Equation (6.21).
However, if vin becomes less than 5 V, vi becomes negative and the output voltage
v0 quickly switches to 5 V. Then v0 will remain at 5 V until vin exceeds +5 V. A
plot of v0 versus vin is illustrated in Figure 6.34(b). The figure also illustrates a
sinusoidal input voltage and the resulting output voltage, which is a square wave.
Even though the Schmitt trigger circuit is not an amplifier, it is useful as a
waveshaping circuit.
 R

R
+
+
vi +

vin + v0
 

(a)

v0 v0
+5
+5

t1 t2 t3
t
vin

(b) 5
5

vin
t1

t2

t3

t
Figure 6.34 Schmitt trigger circuit and waveforms.

As we discussed earlier, one application for a comparator is to compare an input

signal vin with a reference voltage Vref, as illustrated in Figure 6.35. Several
problems can occur when a comparator is used in this manner. If the input signal is
noisy, the output can make many undesirable transitions each time the signal
crosses through the reference level. This is illustrated by the waveforms shown in
Figure 6.36.
 +
+
 v0
vin + +
Figure 6.35 The input voltage  Vref 
vin is compared to the reference 
voltage.

Even if the input signal is not noisy, oscillation of the output can occur as the
input moves through the reference level. The reason is that the comparator has very
high gain in the active region, and therefore, a small amount of unintentional
feedback can result in oscillation. Unintentional feedback can occur through the
power supply, because of stray capacitance between input and output, or due to the
resistance of a circuit-board ground conductor shared by the input and output
circuits. Finally, even if noise and oscillation problems are avoided, the output
gradually changes from one logic level to the other as the input moves through the
active region. However, abrupt changes in logic levels are often required.
Because of these problems, comparators are usually used with positive
feedback. A sample circuit is displayed in Figure 6.37(a). Notice that the resistors
R1 and R2 form a positive feedback path that returns part of the output voltage to
the noninverting input.
vin(t)

Vref

v0(t)

Figure 6.36
Noise added to the input
signal can cause
undesired transitions in
the output signal. t
 Next, we consider the transfer characteristic of the Schmitt trigger. Suppose that
the output levels of the comparator are +10 V and 10 V. Then, if the input voltage
is negative and of sufficient magnitude, the comparator output is high. Because of
the feedback path, the noninverting is at a voltage of 10V (1  9)k  1k  1 V
. Thus, the input voltage must increase to +1 V before the output switches.
On the other hand, if the output is low (10 V), the noninverting input is at 1
V. Hence, with the output low, the input must become less than 1 V before the
output goes high.
For vin between 1 V and +1 V, the output can be either high or low, depending
on the past history of the input voltage. A plot of the output voltage versus the input
voltage is shown in Figure 6.37(b).
Because the switching threshold is different for an increasing input than for a
decreasing input, we say that the circuit has hysteresis. Due to hysteresis, noise
added to the input signal does not cause undesired multiple transitions of the output
(as long as the peak─to─peak noise is less than the width of the hysteresis zone).
The input voltages at which the output voltages switch are called threshold
voltages. Notice that the threshold voltages for the circuit of Figure 6.37 are the
voltage values that appear at thenoninverting input terminal of the comparator. With
the output high, this is +1 V. On the other hand, with the output low, the voltage at
the noninverting input is 1 V.
Positive feedback leads to rapid transitions of the output. As soon as the output
begins to change, positive feedback changes the voltage across the comparator input
terminals, causing a further change in the output. Thus, once the transition is
initiated by the input signal, it is rapidly completed. Positive feedback forces the
comparator to operate in saturation. In this manner, oscillations that could occur
because of high gain in the active region are avoided.
We call the circuit of Figure 6.37(a) an inverting Schmitt trigger because the
output is low for a positive input and vice versa. A noninverting Schmitt trigger is
illustrated in Figure 6.38. The input threshold voltages of the circuits of Figures
6.37 and 6.38 are symmetrical around zero (assuming symmetrical output levels of
the comparator).
 
+
+
R2 v0
vin + R1 9 k
 
1 k

(a) Circuit diagram of inverting Schmitt trigger.

v0

+10

vin
1 +1

Figure 6.37
A Schmitt trigger is formed 10
using positive feedback
with a comparator. (b) Transfer characteristic displaying hysteresis.

R2

R1
+
+

v0
Figure 6.38 vin +
 
A Schmitt trigger is formed
using positive feedback
with a comparator.
 EXERCISE 6.6

Sketch the transfer characteristic of the circuit of Figure 6.37(a) to scale if the
comparator output levels are 0 V and 5 V.

Answer See Figure 6.39.

v0 (V)

Figure 6.39
Answer for Exercise 6.6. vin (V)
0.5
EXERCISE 6.7

Given that the output levels of the comparator are 10 V, that R2 = 2 k, and that
R1 = 1 k, sketch the transfer characteristic to scale for the circuit of Figure 6.38.

AnswerSee Figure 6.40.

v0 (V)

+10

vin (V)
5 +5

Figure 6.40 10

Answer for Exercise 6.7.
 EXERCISE 6.8

Repeat Exercise 6.7 if the comparator output levels are 0 and 5 V.

Answer See Figure 6.41. v0 (V)

Figure 6.41 vin (V)

Answer for Exercise 6.8. 2.5

Application of Schmitt Trigger Circuit

We consider the difference amplifier shown in Figure 6.42 in which feedback has
been introduced by virtue of the coupling from the output back to the noninverting
terminal of the amplifier. The feedback is positive, i.e., regenerative, since the effect
of the feedback is to increase the gain with feedback Af  Vo/Vs of the amplifier.
Let the gain of the amplifier itself (without the feedback) to a difference signal Vi
be –A  Vo/Vi, and let the feedback factor = Vf/Vo = R1/(R1 + R2) be the gain of
the feedback path. Then we have

Vo = −AVi = −A[Vs −Vo]

so that the gain with feedback is

Af  Vo/Vs = −A/(1−A) = −A/(1−T) (6.22)

Amplifier with
gain Vo/Vi = −A
+ 
Vi
 +
+
Vo
+ +
Vs Vf R1 R2 

Figure 6.42 
A basic Schmitt trigger.
Where the product A = T is called the loop gain. When T = 0, Af = −A, and as T
increases, the magnitude of Af increases, becoming infinite at T = 1. Further increase
in T reverses the sign of Af.
Vo
T=0
VH
Slope = −A

VL

−Vs ( H− L) 0 ( H − L) +Vs
−
2 (a) 2

Vo
VH T = 0.8

Slope = −5A
VL

−Vs ( H − L) 0 ( H − L) +Vs
−
10 (b) 10
Figure 6.43 Transfer characteristic of the amplifier shown in Figure 6.42: (a) when
T = 0 and (b) when T = 0.8.
Let us now assume that when T = 0, the amplifier has an inputoutput
characteristic as in Figure 6.43(a). The amplifier limits at high and low voltage
levels VH and VL. The excursion of the input Vs (= Vi in this case) required to swing
the amplifier from limit to limit is symmetrical with respect to Vs = 0 extending
over the range (VH – VL)/2A. If T is increased to T = 0.8, Equation (6.22) becomes
Af = −5A and corresponding the inputoutput plot appears as in Figure 6.43(b).
When T becomes larger than T = 1, the gain Af becomes positive and the transfer
characteristic displays the form shown in Figure 6.44. When a comparator is
operated in this manner, i.e., T> 1, the comparator is called a Schmitt trigger. When
Vs is Vs1 or Vs2, the operating point of the Schmitt trigger is at a or at b, respectively.
When Vs = Vs3, three equilibrium points c, d, and e are possible. The point d is an
unstable equilibrium point. The Schmitt trigger may, in principle, reside
indefinitely at d. However, if a slight disturbance or perturbation were to occur, the
operating point would depart from d and eventually end up at c or e, depending on
the direction of the perturbation. For the present, let it suffice to note that the gain
Equation (6.22) represents a steadystate relationship between Vo and Vs. It does
not take account of the time response of the amplifier to a change in input due to
capacitance, etc. With Vs = Vs3, two stable operating points are possible, c and e. At
which of these points the Schmitt trigger finds itself depends, as we shall see, on
past history.
Vo

b VH c
f
d

VL e g a

−Vs Vs2 Vs5 0 Vs3 Vs4 Vs1 +Vs

Figure 6.44 Transfer characteristic of the amplifier shown in Figure 6.42 when
T> 1. Here Af =A/(A − 1) > 0.

Suppose then, that starting at b with Vs = Vs2, we increase Vs. Then the operating
point will stay at the level Vo = VH. When Vs passesVs = Vs4, corresponding to
operating point f, there is no longer an operating point at Vo = VH and the operating
point must drop to g, where Vo = VL. Similarly, with initially at Vs = Vs1, if Vs is
decreased, there will be a jump from VL to VH as Vs passes Vs5. We shall now show
that in two important respects the Schmitt circuit characteristic (Figure 6.44) differs
from the comparator characteristic (Figure 6.43).
First we observe that in Figure 6.44 the transitions from VH to VL and from VL
to VH are made at different input voltages, i.e., at Vs4 and Vs5. The Schmitt trigger
thus exhibits hysteresis. The hysteresis lag H = Vs4 – Vs5 can be expressed by

= ( H − L) (6.23)

In a comparator application where hysteresis is not acceptable, the Schmitt trigger

is simply not usable. In principle the hysteresis can be eliminated by setting T
exactly equal to unity. In practice it is not possible to obtain a loop gain T which
will maintain itself at unity over an extended period. As a consequence,
comparators are operated with T comfortably set below unity while the Schmitt
trigger is operated with T above unity.
 Next it is to be noted that when a transition occurs in the output waveform Vo
of a Schmitt trigger, the speed of the transition is determined by the response speed
of the comparator amplifier itself. The time required to achieve the output transition
is not determined, as in comparators, where T< 1, by the time required for the input
signal to make an excursion through the input range of the amplifier. It is for this
reason that the Schmitt trigger finds application as a comparator where the rise and
fall times of the input signal are slow and a very fast output rise and fall time is
required. For example, there are devices which we shall want to have responded to
input rising or falling waveforms which must be transmitted through small
capacitors. In such a case the input waveforms will be severely attenuated if the
speed of rise or fall is slow. In such cases the Schmitt circuit can be used very
effectively to replace a slowly changing waveform by a fast waveform.
Vs (t)

(a) 0 t

Vo (t)
VH

VL
(b) 0 t

Vo (t)
VH

VL
(c) 0 t

Figure 6.45(a) Input waveform Vs(t), (b) Output waveform of an ideal Schmitt trigger
when T = 1.2, and (c) Output waveform of a comparator when T = 0.8.
 Figure 6.45 shows the response of a Schmitt trigger and a comparator to a
slowly changing input. In each case the loop gain was adjusted so that | f | = 5 .
Note, the output jump of the Schmitt trigger always occurs after the input waveform
Vs crosses the origin. With regard to the transition time, we see that the transition
time of the comparator is onefifth of the transition time of the input Vssince Af =
5. However, the transition time of the Schmitt trigger is independent of the rise and
fall times of Vs. Of course, there are delay, rise, and fall times associated with the
comparator itself, which have not been shown in Figure 6.45.