Optical tracking

tracking using
using charge
charge-coupled
-coupled devices

Richard
Richard H.H. Stanton Abstract. Techniques
Abstract. Techniques and and instruments
instrumentsdeveloped
developed for
for extracting
extracting precise
precise posi-
posi-
James W.W. Alexander tional information from
tional information from CCD
CCD images
images of ofpoint-
point-source
source andand extended
extended optical
optical
Edwin W.W. Dennison described. With the
targets are described. the use
use of
of thinned,
thinned,backside
backside-illuminated devices,
-illuminated devices,
Thomas
Thomas A. A.Glavich,
Glavich, MEMBERSPIE
MEMBER SPIE performance
performance levelslevels close
close to
to those
those expected
expected from
from straightforward geometric
straightforward geometric
Larry F.
F. Hovland considerations are obtained.
considerations obtained. ForFor ideal
ideal point sources
sources (ie.,
(ie., stars outside
outside ofof the
the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory atmosphere), centerfinding
earth's atmosphere), centerfinding accuracy of of 11/100
/100pixel
pixel and
and measurement
measurement
California Institute of
of Technology jitter of less
jitter of less than 1/250
17250pixel
pixelhave
havebeen
been measured.
measured. Detailed
Detailed tests
tests showed
showed thatthat
4800 Oak
Oak Grove Drive the main factor limiting
limiting tracker
tracker accuracy
accuracy is small variation in the optical image
Pasadena, California
Pasadena, California 91109
91109 shape
shape rather
rather than
than CCD
CCDnoise
noiseororresponse
responsenonuniformity.
nonuniformity. Methods
Methods of of searching
searching
the entire field for for the
the desired
desired targets
targets areare described,
described, along
along with
with windowing
techniques
techniques for tracking. Also discussed discussed are three specific
specific examples
examples of flight
flight
instruments previouslydeveloped
instruments previously developed or or now
now being
being developed
developed at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory.

Subject terms: charge-

Subject terms: charge-coupled-device
coupled- devicetrackers;
trackers;star
star trackers;
trackers; target trackers; image
target trackers; image
centerfinding; Astro-1.
centerfinding; Astro -1.
Optical Engineering 26(9), 930
930-938 (September 1987).
-938 (September 1987).

CONTENTS both the

the Giotto
Giotto and
and VEGA4
VEGA 4 missions
missions to
to Halley's
Halley's Comet
Comet
1.1. Introduction illustrates that the age of CCD tracking has
illustrates has arrived.
arrived.
2. Key
2. Key CCD
CCDcharacteristics
characteristics Perhaps
Perhaps the most most dramatic
dramatic demonstrations
demonstrations of of subpixel
subpixel
3.
3. ASTROS 1I tracker capability have occurred in star tracking tracking applications.
applications. CenterCenter--
3.1.
3.1. Key requirements accuracy of
finding accuracy of 1/
1 /100
100 pixel
pixel and
and measurement
measurement jitter jitter of
of less
3.2.
3.2. Architecture than 1/
than 1/250
250 pixel
pixel have
have beenbeen achieved
achieved by by the
the ASTROS
ASTROS I
3.3.
3.3. Algorithms tracker in
tracker in the staring
staring mode.5
mode. 5 This tracker,
tracker, which
which was built for
3.4. Measured
3.4. Measured performance the Astro
Astro-1-1 ultraviolet
ultraviolet telescope payload originally originally scheduled
4. ASTROS II
4. ASTROS for launch in MarchMarch 1986, 1986, is nownow scheduled
scheduled to be be flown
flown in
4.1. Design drivers
4.1. Design 1989.
1989.These
Thesevalues
valuestranslate
translate into
into roughly one part in in 50,000
50,000
4.2.
4.2. Architecture
4.3.
for accuracy and one part part inin 150,000
150,000 for jitter
jitter over the field
field ofof
4.3. Algorithms
4.4. Test results
4.4. Test results view,
view, an an improvement
improvement of of between
between one one andand twotwo orders
orders of
5. High rate
5. High rate tracker
tracker (HRT)
(HRT) magnitude relative to image image dissectors.
dissectors. Sufficient
Sufficient sensitivity
sensitivity
5.1. CCD readout
5.1. CCD readout modes
modes demonstrated for finding at least
also has been demonstrated least oneone star
star in
in
5.2. HRT signal
5.2. HRT signal chains
chains every 2° 2° X3°
X3° field, regardless of of where
where in in the
the celestial
celestial sphere
5.3.
5.3. Computer pointing. At the
the tracker is pointing. the other
other endend of of the
the spectrum,
spectrum,
6. Conclusion
6. Conclusion tracking targets
techniques for tracking targetsatatrates
ratesof of5050 frames/
frames/ ss or faster
1. Acknowledgments
7. Acknowledgments tracker applications
for high rate tracker applications currently
currently are arebeing
being devel-
devel-
8. References
8. References oped. These
oped. These techniques
techniques permit permit fast -moving targets
fast-moving targets to be be
acquired and tracked
tracked even eventhough
thoughmoving
movingatat160 160pixels
pixels/s or
/ s or
1.
1. INTRODUCTION faster. With the use of windowing and pixel- pixel-combining
combining tech- tech-
The application of CCDs to optical trackingtracking problems
problems isis not a readout rates
niques, readout rates competitive
competitivewith withxx-y addressed devices
-y addressed devices
new concept. When low noise solid solid-state arrays were
-state imaging arrays were such as charge-
charge-injection
injection devices
devices can can be achieved. Thus, the
be achieved.
first produced in the early 1970s,
1970s, it was recognized l1that
that their
their superior noise and uniformity characteristics
characteristics of of the
the CCD
CCD are are
fixed
fixed pixel
pixel structure, size, insensitivity
structure, high sensitivity, small size, insensitivity available
available to to a wide
wide range
range of optical tracking applications.
to magnetic
magnetic fields,
fields, etc.,
etc., made
made them
them strong
strong candidates
candidates for a paper we
In this paper we describe
describe threethree specific
specific examples
examples of of CCD
CCD
variety
variety ofof tracking
tracking applications.
applications. Early
Early breadboard
breadboard instru-
instru- optical designed for
optical trackers designed for space
space-based
-based operation.
operation. This This
ments built
ments built at
at the Jet Propulsion
Propulsion Laboratory
Laboratory (JPL)2
(JPL) 2 andand overview
overviewisisintended
intendedtoto illustrate
illustrate thethe range
range of CCD CCD tracker
elsewhere 3 demonstrated
elsewhere3 demonstratedthat that subpixel
subpixel accuracy
accuracy could
could be applications currently in in use
use or under
under development
development at JPL JPL as as
achieved
achieved easily
easilybyby centroiding
centroiding aa multipixel image. Refine-
multipixel image. Refine- a subset of the range of possibilities now available. First, First, key
key
ments
ments ofof this
this technique
techniqueand,and, most
most important, improvements
important, improvements elements of the the ASTROS
ASTROS I tracker tracker areare described,
described, with with empha-
themselves have
in CCDs themselves have led
led to tracking performance
performance levels
levels sis
sis onon factors that ultimately
ultimately limitlimit image
image centerfinding
centerfinding accu- accu-
have exceeded
that have exceeded most of the early expectations. The suc- Second, aa general
racy. Second, general-purpose memory-intensive
-purpose memory- intensive tracker6
tracker 6
cessful
cessful application
application of of tracking
tracking algorithms
algorithms to to CCD
CCD data on (ASTROS II)
(ASTROS II) is
is described
described that that enables
enables the the use
use of aa widewide
variety of algorithms, includingincluding multipass
multipass image image recognition
recognition
Paper CD
Invited Paper CD-114 received Dec.
-114 received Dec. 29, 1986;
1986; revised
revised manuscript received
received This design,
software. This design, which
which emphasizes
emphasizes low low power
power and and mass,
mass,
Feb.
Feb. 20,
20, 1987;
1987;accepted
acceptedfor
for publication 15, 1987;
publication May 15, 1987; received
received by
by Managing
Managing
Editor June 24,
24, 1987.
1987. is expected
expected toto find
find wide
wideapplication
application in futurefuture unmanned solar
© 1987 Society of Photo-Optical
e 1987 Photo -Optical Instrumentation Engineers.
Engineers. system exploration.
system exploration. The ASTROS II II tracker,
tracker, currently
currently being
being

930 / OPTICAL
/ OPTICALENGINEERING
ENGINEERING // September
September 1987 // Vol.
Vol. 26
26 No.
No. 9

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 OPTICAL TRACKING USING
USING CHARGE -COUPLED DEVICES
CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES

TABLE
TABLE I.I. Important
Important RCASID
RCA SID 501
501 CCD characteristics for
for tracking.
tracking.

Parameter Measured performance HOPKINS

HOPK INS ASTROS II STAR
ASTROS TRACKER
STAR TRACKER
ULTRAVIOLET
Architecture Backside illuminated
Backside illuminated TELESCOPE -
TELESCOPE , / ULTRAVIOLET
ULTRAVIOLET
IMAGING TELESCOPE
IMAGING TELESCOPE
Frame transfer
Frame transfer
3 -phase clocks
3-phase clocks CRUCIFORM
Format 512 X320
512X320 WISCONSIN
WISCONSIN
Pixel size 30 pm
;um square
square ULTRAVIOLET
PHOTOPOLARIMETRY
PHOTOPOLAR IMETRY
Fill factor 100% EXPERIMENT
EX PERI MENT
Charge- transfer efficiency
Charge-transfer >0.99995
>0 99995
Quantum efficiency
Quantum >60% (400
(400 to
to 800 nm)
nm)
Full well >300,000 e-
>300,000 e~
Response variations
Response variations COMMON RADIATOR
COMMON
FOR
FOR ELECTRONICS
Over
Over 10X10 window <0.5%
Center -to -edge
Center-to-edge -5%
'--5% F I ELDCAMERA
W I DE FIELD
WIDE CAMERA OPTICAL
PS OPTICAL
IIPS
PACKAGE
SENSOR PACKAGE
SENSOR
Read
Read noise 40 to
40 to 80
80 e~/pixel
e-/pixel
Dark current 20 to 200 e (s pixel) -1 1( (-50°C)
20to200e~-(s-pixeir -50 °C) Fig.
Fig. 1. Astro -1 shuttle
Astro-1 shuttlepayload.
pay load. The opticalsensor
Theoptical provides
package provides
sensorpackage
Dark lines none star references for the
references for the instrument pointing system. ASTROS I error
system. ASTROS
Bright lines
lines none signals are used
signals are usedfor
for the
the high
high bandwidth
bandwidth image motion compensation
motion compensation
Minimum transfer time system designed to
system designed to compensate
compensate for for IPS pointing instability.
IPS pointing
line 3.6 ps
Ms
pixel 165 ns
165ns
Minimum pixelpixel read
read time ps (limited by
1.1 MS flight A/D)
by flight A/D)

3. ASTROS
ASTROS I TRACKER
TRACKER
developed for
developed for the
the Mariner
Mariner Mark IIII (MMII)
(MMII)spacecraft,7 is
spacecraft,7 is 3.1.
3.1. Key
Key requirements
planned to be first launched in the early
in the Comet
1990s on the Comet
early 1990s ASTROS II tracker
The ASTROS designed to
trackerisis designed to measure point-
subarcsec point-
measure subarcsec
Rendezvous Asteroid
Rendezvous Flyby (CRAF) mission.
Asteroid Flyby ing errors of the instrument pointing system (IPS) mounted in
pointing system
Finally, aa few
Finally, few elements
elementsof ofthe
the high
high rate
rate tracker
tracker are
are de- the shuttle payload bay.
shuttle payload ThreeUV
bay.Three telescopesand
UVtelescopes wide-field
anda awide -field
scribed relative to
scribed relative to CCD
CCD readout and timing.timing. Once demon-
Once demon- comet camera are
comet camera are attached to the the IPS (Fig. 1).
IPS (Fig. They can
1). They can bebe
strated, this
strated, this technology
technology should
should find
find application
application wherever
wherever pointed at
pointed any star
at any field within
starfield approximately520
within approximately 520mradmrad(30 (30°)
°) of
substantial image
substantial image drift
drift rates
rates are anticipated
anticipated (e.g.,
(e.g., beacon
beacon the normal to the shuttle bay. The ASTROS II tracker
the shuttle tracker cancan bebe
acquisition and tracking,
acquisition and tracking, spinner
spinner attitude
attitude determination,
determination, commanded to
commanded automaticallyfind
toautomatically findupuptotothree starsininitsits38
threestars X61
38 X61
etc.). mrad (2.2°
(2.2° X3.5
X3.5°) °) field measure pointing
view and measure
field of view devia-
pointing devia-
precisionof
with aa precision
tions with
tions of1.51.5 Arad arcsec). This
(0.3 arcsec).
jurad (0.3 signalisis
errorsignal
This error
2. KEY
2. KEY CCD CHARACTERISTICS used
used to compensate
compensate for for any
any drift in the the high gyros that
high rate gyros
Table II lists
Table lists key
key parameters
parameters of of the currently in use
the CCD currently use at control the image motion compensation mirrors8 mirrors 8 in two of the
JPL for optical trackers. We
JPL We have found that that backside illumi- telescopes. Therefore, stability andsmall
stability and -scale linearity are the
small-scale
nation is
is important both for avoiding the distorting influence most important characteristics of
performance characteristics
important performance of the ASTROS II
the ASTROS
of the CCD gate structure and in the case of star tracking, for tracker.
minimizing the
minimizing the effect
effect of on image
class on
of star spectral class shape.
image shape. case the primary sensors (image dissectors)
In case dissectors) on the IPS
on the
The latter characteristic
characteristic isis a direct benefit of having only a thin fail to find suitable guide stars, the tracker can be
tracker can be used as an
silicon membrane in in which
which to absorb
absorb photons.
photons.SmallSmall-area
-area source of
alternative source
alternative pointingerror
ofpointing alsocan
signals.ItItalso
errorsignals. canbe used
be used
silicon membrane
response nonuniformity can
response nonuniformity can limit
limit centroiding
centroiding accuracy
accuracy if if to identify star
star fields if the primary
fields if sequencefails
acquisitionsequence
primary acquisition fails
pixel calibrationsare
-by -pixelcalibrations
pixel-by-pixel arenot applied. However, the uni-
notapplied. to locate the desired field. These alternative operating operating modes modes
formity of these devicesin
these devices both dark
inboth current and responsivity
dark current demonstrate the versatility of the the ASTROS I tracker.
is that other error sources dominate. The
sufficient that
is sufficient excellent
The excellent
read noise
read noise and efficiency of these CCDs, while sig-
and quantum efficiency sig- 3.2. Architecture
3.2. Architecture
nificant for tracking faint stars, are of secondary importance The ASTROS II tracker
tracker consists
consists of
of two
two major
major components
components
for most extended target tracking applications. When When a target (Fig. 2): the sensor assembly (SA) (S A) and the assem-
electronics assem-
the electronics
becomes
becomes very verybright,
bright,asas cancan be
be the case
case during
during aa close
close bly (EA). The SA S A is mounted
mounted on one of
on one UV telescopes in a
the UV
of the
approach to an asteroid
asteroid or or comet
comet nucleus, the line
nucleus, the transfer
line transfer position that accurately
position that the telescope motion. The EA
follows the
accuratelyfollows
time is
time is the key parameter for minimizing image
for minimizing smearing.
image smearing. is mounted
is mounted inside the cruciform
inside the structure attached
cruciform structure the IPS.
attached to the IPS.
When fast moving
When fast are being
targets are
moving targets line transfer,
tracked, the line
being tracked, The SA optics consist of an optical corrector plate and two
an optical
pixel transfer,
pixel transfer, and pixel read/ convert rates all
read/convert become
may become
all may mirrors in a Schmidt Cassegrain configuration, with an aper- aper-
important. ture of 100 mm and an effective focal length of 250
100 mm mm. The
250 mm. The
The RCA
The RCA SID SID 501
501 was
was used
usedfor
for both
both ASTROS
ASTROS II and and II optical elements
optical elements are supported on
are supported structure that is
an Invar structure
on an is
trackers. Since
trackers. Since this
this CCD
CCD is is no longer available,
available, a stock
stock of of thermally controlled to increase stability. The CCD is is mounted
mounted
flight -qualitySID
flight-quality SID501s
501swaswassetsetaside ASTROS II spares
for ASTROS
asidefor on a platform supported
supported by fiberglass bands for
by fiberglass stability and
for stability
and for use
use on the first
on the missions. Other candidates are
first MMII missions. thermal isolation.
evaluated for
being evaluated future applications,
for future applications, including CCDs from The stability
The stability of the optical
optical system
system and CCD mounting
CCD mounting
Reticon, Tektronix, and Texas Instruments
Reticon, Tektronix, However,
(TI). However,
Instruments (TI). Clearly, tracker
structure are critical to tracker performance. Clearly, tracker
since the long
since availability of any device is by no means
-term availability
long-term means drifts
drifts during
during an an observation
observation willwill cause
cause unwanted
unwanted imageimage
assured, tracker
assured, tracker designs
designs should
should be be sufficiently
sufficiently flexible
flexible to smearing in the
smearing the science measurement. But
science measurement. Buteven long-term
evenlong -term
accommodate CCD changes with minimum redesign. redesign. drifts in optical alignment tracker accuracy by alter-
will limit tracker
alignment will

OPTICAL ENGINEERING
OPTICAL ENGINEERING / September1987
/ September 1987/ /Vol.
Vol.26
26No.
No.99// 931
931

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 STANTON,
STANTON, ALEXANDER,
ALEXANDER, DENNISON,
DENNISON, GLAVICH,
GLAVICH, HOVLAND

- 4096
4096 DN
A/D SATURATION
MD SATURATION

-15
15 -1100 DN
-14
14

-13
^COMMAND ABLE
COMMANDABLE
12 /^' THRESHOLDS
T1Hi|
THRESHOLDS (16 LEVELS)
(16 LEVELS)
SENSOR ASSEMBLY

8
I
7
ELECTRONICS
ELECTRONICS ASSEMBLY - 70'DN
-70 D N/'TH RE SH O LD INCREMENT
/THRESHOLD I N C RE ME NT
6

Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. ASTROS I star tracker. 5

4 BACKGROUND LEVEL
CCD BACKGROUND LEVEL
/ (NO
(iNO INTEGRATION)
INTEGRATION)
3

ing the
the spatial
spatial distribution
distribution of of light in the star image. Since this 2
180 DN
distribution
distribution isis used to precisely infer the image location within
a pixel,
pixel, changes
changes in in image
image shape
shape with
withtemperature,
temperature, time, vibra-
0 DN
tion environment, star color, color, etc.,
etc., must
must be be minimized.
minimized. Fig. 3. Schematic
Fig. 3. Schematic of the threshold
threshold levels
levels available
available during
during the star
star
The CCD is is mounted
mounted in in aa chamber
chamber that that can be evacuated
evacuated to to acquisition process.
process. By commanding varying integrations
integrations and
and thresh-
thresh-
permit
permit full
full performance
performance testingtesting inin the
the laboratory
laboratory and that is is old levels,
old levels, the microprocessor
microprocessor can
can acquire
acquire stars
stars over
over aa brightness
brightness
vented
vented directly
directly intointo space
space during flight. Flexible silver straps range
range ofof 12
12 stellar
stellarmagnitudes
magnitudes( (-50,000:1).
50,000:1}.
conduct
conduct heat from the CCD to the cold end of a thermoelec-
tric
tric cooler,
cooler, andandaasmall
smallheater
heatermaintains
maintainsthe theCCD CCDatat 47°-47°CC±t THREE
THREELINES ABOVE
LINES IMMEDIATELY ABOVE
WINDOW CLOCKED
CLOCKED AT
AT SLOW
SLOW RATE
RATE
0.5°C,
0.5° C, both
both to to provide mechanical stability and to to minimize
minimize (12 /us/pixel)
(12 Hs /pixel)
the
the generation
generation of of thermal
thermal darkdark current.
current. Other
Other components
components of of r- LINES NOT CONTAIN ING
LINES NOT ING WINDOW
the
the SSAA are
areaathermal
thermal radiator,
radiator, heaters, CCD electrode drivers, CCD LINES
CCD DATA DUMPED AT
DATA DUMPED 12 /W/LINE
AT 12 NsILINE

a video signal
signal processor,
processor, and a noise- isglating interface to the
noise-isolating .." Ad, ANSY
EA. A
EA. A 12 bit AA/ DD converter
12 bit converter generates
generates the serialserial data stream
that is transmitted
transmitted to the EA. EA.
The EA is controlled
controlled by a TI TI SBP
SBP 99899989 microprocessor
microprocessor
with 12 Kbytesof
12 Kbytes ofROM
ROM and and 88 Kbytes
Kbytesof ofRAM.
RAM. In In addition
addition to
I/ O and
and thermal
thermal control
control functions, the EA E A contains dedicated
pixel DATA
pixel DATA FROM
FROM
logic
logic toto control
control the the CCD
CCD readout in in response
response to processor
processor GUARD BANDS
BANDS
-TRACK
TRACK WINDOW
40
WINDOW(8x5)
(8 x5)
40 pis/pixel
µs/pixel
command.
command. The The cornerstones
cornerstones of the acquisition and tracking tracking DISCARDED

operational
operational modes modes are are the threshold and window window functions L LINES
LINES CONTAINING WINDOW
WINDOW
DATA CLOCKED
DATA CLOCKED AT
AT 12
12 jus/pixel
µs/pixel
described here. The map function function thatthat also
also isis described
described herehere is
is
currently used only for test purposes purposes and and will
will not
not be
be exercised Fig. 4. While tracking stars,
Fig. 4. stars, only three
three 5 X5 pixel
5X5 pixel windows
windows ofofCCD
CCD
data are
are converted
converted and
and stored.
stored. To
To stabilize the video output, the fast
fast
in flight. scanning
scanning isis halted
halted three
three pixels
pixels before
before the
the window
window isis encountered in
encountered in
Threshold. In
Threshold. In this
this mode the firmware
firmware chooses one of 16 16 both directions
directions (guard
(guard bands).
bands).
threshold levels,
levels, asas shown
shown in in Fig.
Fig. 3,
3, and
and an integration
integration time.
time.
After the integration time expires, the entire array array isis clocked
clocked
out
out at 12 12 µs/ pixel. Whenever
/is/pixel. Whenever aa pixel pixel is is encountered
encountered that
exceeds
exceeds the the selected
selectedthreshold,
threshold, thethe CCD
CCD clocks
clocksare aremomentar-
momentar- out in aa "flush
"flush state"
state" (simultaneous
(simultaneous clocking of horizontal
horizontal and
and
ily stopped and
ily stopped and thethe position (column and line number) of the vertical
vertical clocks)
clocks) at a 12
12 As/ line rate
/is/line rate until
until the
the "guard
"guard band"
pixel isis stored
pixel stored by by the firmware.
firmware. The clocking clocking of the array array outside the window is is encountered.
encountered. The guard band areas are
resumes
resumes until until another
another threshold
threshold pixelpixel appears
appears or or until
until the used to reduce noise and are clocked
clocked outout at
at 12
12 µs/
pis/ pixel.
pixel. Only
entire array is clocked,
clocked out. Repeated use use ofof this function with with data from
from thethe A/
A/DD conversion
conversion of ofthe
the25 25 window
window pixels
pixels are
are
varying exposure
varying exposure times times permits
permits acquisition
acquisition of the brightestbrightest used
used for tracking; pixel
pixel data from the guard bands bands are are dis-
dis-
field
field stars without
without any a priori knowledge of their positions or This function,
carded. This function, which
which permits
permitsrapid
rapidaccess
access toto the
thepixel
pixel
magnitudes.
magnitudes. Since Since atat least
least twotwo exposures
exposures are are required
required to data containing
containing images
images (while
(while the remainder of of the
the frame
frame isis
acquire a star, the the effects
effects of random
random events
events such as radiation
radiation ignored), is used to gather data for
is used for the
the tracking
tracking algorithm.
algorithm.
hits or moving dust particles are minimized.
hits Map.
Map. In In this
this mode,
mode, the
the entire
entire CCD
CCD arrayarray isis read
read out
out at
at
Window. The measurement
Window. measurement arrays,arrays, or or"windows,
'"windows," " used
used for
for 40 µs/ pixel, with A/
/is/pixel, A/DD conversion of of every
every pixel.
pixel.
tracking stars
tracking starsare
are55X5 X5 pixels
pixels (although
(althoughan an.88XX 55 pixel window
is read out, which
which, includes guard,
guard bands). The firmware selects 3.3. Algorithms
Algorithms
up to three windows by loading the window pixel coordinates Every aspect of the ASTROS
Every aspect ASTROS II operation
operation isis controlled
controlled by
by
into the timing generator circuits. circuits. After
After the commanded
commanded inte- inte- firmware
firmware loaded inin fusible -link PROMs.
fusible-link PRO Ms. (This
(This inflexibility
inflexibility
gration time
time has expired, the CCD CCD array
array is is clocked
clocked out as as was dropped in
was in ASTROS
ASTROS IIIItotoprovide
provideinin-flight
-flight reprogram-
re program-
shown in Fig. 4. As this figure illustrates, the the CCDCCD isis clocked
clocked ming
ming capability.) The star centerfinding
capability.) The centerfinding algorithm
algorithm andand the

932 / OPTICAL
/ OPTICALENGINEERING
ENGINEERING // September 1987 // Vol.
September 1987 Vol. 26
26 No.
No. 9
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 USING CHARGE
OPTICAL TRACKING USING CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES
-COUPLED DEVICES

procedure developed
developed to to reduce
reduce systematic
systematic errors are impor- 0.05
ONE pixel

tant contributors to to the

the final
final accuracy
accuracy achieved.
achieved.
A number of of algorithms9,1O
algorithms 9 ' 10 were
were considered
considered for possible
implementation, including zeroth
implementation, including zeroth moment
moment (mean), (mean), first o
0.0

moment (linear centroid), and and aa least-

least-squares
squares fit fit to
to the
theline
line--
spread function. It became clear early early in
in the
the program
program that no - 0 05
COL = 35 95
matter which
matter which approach
approach was was adopted, extensive
extensive calibration
calibration
would be be needed
needed to to account for the variation
variation in in image
image shape
shape 0.05
over the field
field ofof view.
view.TheTheapproach chosen11
approach chosen ] l (linear
(linear centroid)
centroid)
was
was justified
justified byby simplicity,
simplicity, accuracy,
accuracy, and and the ease of imple- imple-
mentation in in assembly code. This choice was was later vindicated
when the final
final test
test results
results showed
showed that tracking
tracking accuracy
accuracy was was
limited not
limited not byby the
the algorithm
algorithm or CCD CCD characteristics
characteristics but by by -0.05
COL = 160
160 225
225
how well
how well the
the optical
optical image
image intensity
intensity distribution could be be fig. 5. Typical
Fig. Typical deviations
deviations of of the uncorrected centroid from linearity for
maintained. several column coordinates on
several column on aa single
single line
line across
across the
the CCD.
CCD. These
These
The algorithm
The algorithm startsstarts with
withtwo twoone -dimensional first
one-dimensional first-- error functions, sampled at
functions, sampled at 16
16 discrete
discretepoints
pointsacross
across the
the pixel,
pixel, become
become
moment
moment computations
computations that yield yield x and y centroid estimates,estimates, the correction term f(x)
f (x) in
in Eq.
Eq. (5).
(5).
which are
are then
then corrected
corrected for the image shape shape by by functions
functions ff(x)
(x)
and g(y).
and For each
g(y). For each star tracked,
tracked, a 5X5 5X5 pixel pixel window
window of of
intensity values
intensity valuesS(I,J),
S(I,J), centered
centered approximately
approximately on on the
the star
star that they typically
typically have magnitudes
magnitudes of of less
less than
than 1/1/20
20 pixel.
pixel.
image, isis digitized
image, digitizedand and stored.
stored. A A background
background value value B, B, the Measurements
Measurements suchsuch as those
those shown
shown in in Fig.
Fig. 5 were obtained by
average of
average of the
the 10
10 lowest pixel values
lowest pixel values on on the edge edge of of the
the simulated star
precisely moving a simulated staracross
acrossaapixel
pixelto
to23
23 different
different
window,
window, isis subtracted
subtracted from each pixel pixel value:
value: x positions
positions for each
each of of 55 yy positions
positions and and calculating
calculating thethe
centroid using
centroid using Eqs.
Eqs. (2) and (3). From these data, data, the
the xx correc-
correc-
D(I,J) = max[S(I,J)-
max[S(I,J) - B4O]
B,0] . . (1)
tion terms were produced, and the
were produced, the assumption
assumption of of indepen-
indepen-
The uncorrected centroids (x
The uncorrected (x,y)
, y) are
are calculated
calculated by
by the usual
dence
dence of of the
the xx and
and y ycorrections
corrections was was verified.
verified. TheThe
corresponding measurementswere
corresponding measurements were repeated
repeatedto toproduce
produceyy cor-
cor-
formulae:
rections. This procedure was was repeated
repeated atat approximately
approximately400 400
locations on the CCD to to verify
verify consistency and to character-
W -= X
2) X
2) D(I,J)
D(I,J) , (2) ize the
ize the manner
manner in which
which ff and
and ggvaried.
varied. From
From these data, x and
j
J i 1
yy correction
correction terms
terms were
were produced
produced at at 45
45 grid
grid points
points on the the
CCD. Corrections for positions other than the the standard grid
grid
x=
1

XIX DOA , (3) points are determined

points determined by convex
convex combinations
combinations of the four
J 1
nearest grid points.

3.4. Measured
Measured performance
performance
yy = J D(I,J), (4)
J 1
In the absence of
absence of temporal
temporal variations of image shape, shape, residual
residual
errors after the application of of correction
correction termsterms typically
typically are
where x andand yy are
are measured
measured from the the center
centerof ofthe
the 55X5
X 5 array.
array. on the order of 1/1 / 200
200pixel
pixelrms.
rms. These
Theseerrors,
errors, presumably
presumably due due
Since the actual
Since the actual distribution
distribution of light
light within
within thethe star
star image
image to small variations in pixel geometry and response, response, attest to
differs
differs from
from the
the ideal,
ideal, aa linear motion of of a star
star across
across aa single
single the level
level of precision
precision achieved
achieved in in the CCDCCD manufacturing
manufacturing
pixel in
in general
generalwillwillproduce
produceaanonlinear
nonlinearcentroid
centroid output
output from
from process.
process. However,
However, after after the instrument
instrument was was subjected
subjected to
Eqs. (3)
(3) and
and (4),
(4), such
suchas
asillustrated
illustrated in Fig. 5.
5. These nonlineari- vibration and thermal vacuumvacuum environments,
environments, rms rms deviations
ties,
ties, in principle,
principle, can be be eliminated
eliminated by bysubtracting
subtractingone one-- of 1/ 100 pixel
1/100 pixel or larger werewere measured;
measured; these these presumably
presumably
dimensional
dimensional correction
correction functions
functions ff and
and gg in
in the form were due to small
small changes
changes inin the
the star
star image
image intensity
intensity distribu-
distribu-
tion. The systematic errors resulting
systematic errors resulting from from thethe fact
fact that
that the
x' = x-
x f(x)
f (x) ,, calibration functions no no longer
longer completely
completely match the the image
image
(5) shape can be seen clearly
clearly as
as periodic errors in Fig. Fig. 6.
6.
y' == Yy --g(Y)
Y g(y) - Despite this
Despite this limitation
limitation to centroiding
centroiding accuracy,
accuracy, all all key
key
performance requirements for ASTROS ASTROS II were were met.
met. Table II
(The
(The window
window location
location isis shifted
shifted to
to follow
follow the star centroid to summarizes
summarizes this this performance,
performance, including
including mass mass and power power
guarantee that xx and yy each lie within 0.55 pixel of the center characteristics.
characteristics. TheThe extremely
extremely low lowjitter
jitter measured
measured ((-1/1/250 250
of the
the window.)
window.)The Theseparability
separability of ofthe
thecomputation
computation into two pixel) is seen
pixel) is seen clearly
clearly in in Fig.
Fig. 7.7. The
The effect
effect of star color on
one-dimensional
one -dimensionalcalculations
calculations[e.g.,
[e.g.,f(x),
f(x), not
not f(x,y)]
f(x,y)] depends
depends tracker response
tracker response isis shown
shown inin Fig.
Fig. 8.8. The
The increase
increase in in sensitivity
sensitivity
on containing
on essentiallyall
containing essentially all of
of the
the star image
image within
within the
the for red stars was moderated
moderated by by use
use ofof aa cutoff
cutoff filter
filter at
at 765
765 nm.
computational window
window and and on selecting
selecting the
the threshold
threshold setting
setting
to eliminate
to nearly all
eliminate nearly all background
background signal
signal due
due to
to the CCD
CCD 4.
4. ASTROS
ASTROS II
electronicsand
electronics andstray
straylight
lightbut
but not
not signal
signal due
due toto aa star. In
In
practice
practice those
those conditions
conditions could
could be
be met
met for almost the entire 4.1.
4.1. Design
Design drivers
drivers
field
field of
of view.
view.Functions
Functions ffandand gg were
wereobtained
obtained byby performing The requirements for
for ASTROS
ASTROSIIwere were determined
determined byby the
the need
extensive calibration.
extensive calibration. This
This calibration
calibration showed
showed that
that f(x) and to provide high stability star
star position
positionreferences
references for
for the
the image
g(y) vary slowly
slowly over
over the
the field
field as
as the
the image
image shape varies
varies and motion compensation system.
system. Since
Since geometric
geometric characteris-
characteris-

OPTICALENGINEERING
OPTICAL ENGINEERING / September
/ September 1987
1987 / Vol.2626No.
/ Vol. No. 9 / 933
9/

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 STANTON, ALEXANDER,
STANTON, ALEXANDER, DENNISON,
DENNISON, GLAVICH,
GLAVICH, HOVLAND

1.0 MEASURED
MEASURED STELLAR MAGNITUDE (4
STELLAR EXPOSURE)
SEC EXPOSURE)
(4 SEC
COLUMN 327 ERROR 88 99
0.5 H-l PIXEL
ERROR
cr=
o-= 0.12 arcsec
i.o
1.0
10

0.0

0.5-
0.5 0. 4

-i.°
1.0321
327 329 331
331 333
333 335
335 337 339 341
341
COODINATE
LINE COODINATE U. 6 - 3
1.0 PREDICTED PERFORMANCE
MEASURED
MEASURED
COLUMN 329 ERROR
ERROR
0.5
v= 0.17arcsec
a= 0.17 arcsec 0.4h
I 0.0
ro
-0.5
-0.5 -
0.2 MEASURED PERFORMANCE
-1.0
-1.0329 I I I i

329 331
331 333
333 335
335 337
337 339
339 341
341
COORDINATE
LINE COORDINATE
0.0 0
(a) 1 )
1
1

31 15
15 77 33 1
1
1.0 MEASURED
0.5
328
LINE 328
- i 1 PIXEL
k-1 PIXEL
ERROR
ERROR
cr= 0.18 arcsec
v= 0.18 Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Noise
RELATIVE
RELATIVE STAR

Noise equivalent
BRIGHTNESS (TRACKER
STAR BRIGHTNESS
equivalent angle
angle versus
OUTPUT)
(TRACKER OUTPUT)
versus star brightness.
brightness.
0.0

-0.5
300
1.0
1.062
66
66 68 70 72
72 74 7 NORMALIZED FOR FOR V V == 8
COORDNATE
COLUMN COORDNATE CORRECTED FOR ATMOSPHERE
CORRECTED FOR ATMOSPHERE
DN ~ 120e
DN 120e-
1.0 MEASURED OPTICS: 25
OPT1CS: 25 Cr, T/3.5
cm 1/3.5
324
LINE 324 ERROR PASSBAND: nm
400 -- 765 nm
FASSBAND: 400
ERROR
0.5
0.5 - 0.15 arcsec
cr= 0.15
0=
0.0-
0.0 250

-0.5-
-0.5 -
-1.0
156
56 158
158 160 162
162 164
164 166
166 168
168
COLUMN COORDINATE
COLUMN
(b) RED
200
Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Measured deviation from
Measured deviation from linearity (postcorrection) as as aa simu-
simu- -0.2 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0
0.8 1.2 1.4
1 .4 1.6
1 .6
lated star image is is swept over several
swept over consecutive pixels parallel to
several consecutive to the
the STAR COLOR (B
STAR COLOR -V)
(B-V)
(a) line and
(a) line column directions.
(b)column
and(b) directions. The rippled observed isis believed
rippled observed believed to be
to be Fig. 8. Response
Fig. Responseof ofthe
theASTROS
ASTROSI I to tostars
starsof
ofvarious
variouscolors.
colors.The
Thered
red
due to small changes in image shape. Longer period errors are
period errors probably
are probably response ofof the
the CCD
CCD was
was cut off at 765
cut off 765 nm minimizeimage
to minimize
nm to shape
imageshape
due to CCD
due CCD irregularities. variations with
variations with star color.

TABLE II.
TABLE II. ASTROS
ASTROS II performance. and normally excellent geometry for heat radiation, requires
Parameter Specification Test data Units much less
much heater power dissipation
less heater dissipation andand nono thermoelectric
thermoelectric
cooling.
Stellar sensitivity
Stellar -0.8 to
to +8.2
+8.2 <-1.0 to > +9.2 stellar magnitudes
<-1.0to>+9.2
Field
Field of view 38X62 38X61 mrad To meet
To meet the requirements
requirements for the variety
variety of future solar
Pixel size 121 120 grad
/urad system missions
system missionsplanned,
planned, ASTROS
ASTROS IIII mustmust be capable
capable of
Small-scale
Small -scale performing the
performing the following functions: (1)
following functions: (1) track several
several stars
linearity 1.4 1.2 grad
/zrad simultaneously for
simultaneously for attitude reference,
reference, (2)
(2) follow
follow moving,
moving,
Noise equivalent
Noise
angle 1.5 (V < 7.0)
1.5(V<7.0) (V < 8.0)
0.7 (V< 8.0} Arad
/urad
time-varying, during aa close flyby or rendez-
extended targets during
time -varying, extended
Stability 0.5/30 0.5/30 Arad/min
jLtrad/min vous, and (3) and target
data and
(3) develop image data -to -star measure-
target-to-star
Power ments
ments for navigation.
navigation. Table
Table IIIIIIsummarizes
summarizes preliminary
preliminary
Electronics requirements identified for
requirements identified for each
each ofof these
these three
three functions.
functions.
TEC
and TEC 54 55 Ww Although the
Although the design
design evolved
evolved to meet meet these
these requirements
requirements
Heaters 202 200 Ww draws heavily
draws heavily onon the illustrates a
experience, it illustrates
the ASTROS II experience,
Mass
(excluding substantially different approach to CCD tracker
to CCD design.
trackerdesign.
baffle) 33.4 33.5 kg
kg
4.2. Architecture
4.2. Architecture
The physical
The configuration consists
physical configuration consists of
of aa sensor
sensor head
head and
and
electronics package separated by a distance of approximately
electronics
were the
power, were
tics, not mass or power,
tics, design drivers,
the design drivers, liberal use
liberal use 11 m.
m. The
The system
system isis totally
totally redundant,
redundant, from
from the lenslens to the
was made of Invar, heaters, and power-hungry
and aa power- thermoelec-
hungry thermoelec- electrical high reliability.
interfaces, to ensure high
electrical interfaces, Because both
reliability. Because
tric cooler
cooler to ensure
ensure that the the rapidly
rapidly changing
changing orbital
orbital envi-
envi- the
the science requirements and
science requirements geometry vary with
and the target geometry with
performance.
would not compromise tracker performance.
ronment would mission, the ASTROS I1 II operation flexible. Part
operation must remain flexible.
For ASTROS II II the changed substantially.
rules changed
the rules key
The key
substantially. The of the flexibility is achieved by using a frame buffer for storing
mass, low
drivers became low mass, and increased functional
power, and
low power, the entire
the entire CCD imageimage in RAM.
RAM. This
This technique
technique not not only
only
flexibility. Since
flexibility. instrument pointing requirements
Since instrument were much
requirements were permits multipass processing of complicated images but also also
relaxed, geometric accuracy, stability, and frame rate became maximizes the
maximizes software control
the software characteristics.
control over tracker characteristics.
secondary considerations. Finally,
secondary Finally, the
thedeep -space environ-
deep-space environ- Major functional changes,
changes, such as adding the the capability
capability to
with its
ment, with
ment, its long time changes
temperature changes
time constants for temperature track a newly
newly discovered surface feature,
discovered surface feature, can be made long

934 / OPTICAL
/ OPTICALENGINEERING
ENGINEERING // September
September 1987 / Vol.
1987 / Vol. 26
26 No.
No. 9

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 CHARGE-COUPLED
USING CHARGE
OPTICAL TRACKING USING DEVICES
-COUPLED DEVICES

TABLE III. ASTROS

TABLE III. ASTROS IIII requirement
requirement summary. UNUSED
UNUSED PORTION OF
PORTION OF

s
EXPOSURE AREA x
MAGE EXPOSURE
'IIMAGE
Optical

y
:S\ TARGET ^
Parameter Star tracking Target tracking
Target navigation IMAGE U

>
EXPOSURE 1
TARGET STARS ASTEROID, STARS AND
STARS AREA
STARS
(up to 5 /field)
(upto5/field) SATELLITE, TARGET (256 320 pixel
(256 xx 320 pixels)

COMET
NUCLEUS
FAST
FAST IMAGE
Angular size
size Point source Point to 100 Point to CHARGE TRANSFER--
CHARGE TRANSFER
*——*.
mrad diam
mrad 10 mrad diam ^
tracking if
(limb tracking
>100
>100 mrad)
mrad) OPAQUE
OPAQUE

Brightness -3 <V < +5 mag.

-3<V<+5 mag. 0.5<N<100 -3<V<10
-3<V<10
MASK
OVER
<r \ , i^
h- STORED
- STORED
OVER
CHARGE
CHARGE IMAGE:
range AV .2.5 mag.
AV<2.5mag. W (m2 sr) -11
wW-srp mag.
mag. stars IMAGE
STORAGE
STORAGE
256 pixels
256 xx 256
256
in any field
in ARFA
AREA "
TRANSFERRED
TO
TO IMAGE
Angular drift <2
<2 mrad
mrad/s/s <10 mrad/s
mrad/s Depends on BUFFER MEMORY
BUFFER
rate integration time 1
ii
OUTPUTDATA
OUTPUT DATA STAR
STAR TARGET FULL FRAME FLOATING t t t ^^ PIXEL CHARGE
PIXEL CHARGE
TRANSFER
CENTROIDS/ CENTROID/ VIDEO DATA
VIDEO DATA GATE
GATE
REGISTER
REGISTER
BRIGHTNESS SIZE AMPLIFIER
BUFFER
IMAGE BUFFER
Frame time
Frame 2 to 0.25 5to1
5 to 1 0.01 to 100
0.01 VIDEO SIGNAL
VIDEO - MEMORY
MEMORY
ss/frame*
/frame* s /frame*
s/frame* s /frame
s/frame PROCESSOR
12-bit)
(64K x 12
(64K -bit)

Resolution <4
<4 Mrad /bit
^rad/bit <4
<4 Arad/bit
jurad/bit 12 bit intensity
encoding over Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Schematic of the
the ASTROS
ASTROS II II CCD
CCD readout
readout geometry
geometry using
using
256 X256
256X256 frame -transfershuttering.
frame-transfer shuttering. The
Thecentral
central 256X256
256X256 pixel
pixel area
area is
is dig-
pixels itized and
itized and stored
stored in
in memory
memory for processing
processing by means
means of track
track
algorithms.
Accuracyt (1 a)
Accuracy^" (1 a) 40 µrad*
/zrad* 1100 rad
00 ,urad§ NA
(ground -based
(ground-based
processing) PORT
VACUUM PORT

Bits /frame
Bits/frame <400 <400 1.05X106
Data
Data format 116
6 bit fixed 116
6 bit fixed 16
1 6 bit fixed
fixed REDUNDANT
point point point CHANNEL

LIGHT CONSTRAINTS
STRAY LIGHT
STRAY RADIATOR
RADIATOR
ATTACH
Background <10 -5
<1(T5 <10%
< 10% of
of target
target <2X10-7
<2X1CT7 POINT
radiance W(m2sr) -11
W-(m2 -srr peak sr)-11
W(m2 -srr
W-(m2
Sun angle 780 mrad
mrad 520 mrad 780 mrad
mrad
from boresight
boresight
Bright body
body
angle 520 mrad
mrad NA 520 mrad
mrad
PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS COLD
FINGER
Mass 11 kg
11
LENS
Power 15 W
15 W-single
single channel
channel FIBERGLASS
CCD
CONE
Size Electronics assembly:
Electronics assembly: 28
28X13
X13 X46
X46 cm
Sensor head:
_________Sensor
___
head: 18
18 cm
cm diamX20
diamX20 cmcm length
length THERMAL ISOLATION
THERMAL PREAMPLIFIER
PREAMPLIFIER
STRUT (FIBERGLASS)
STRUT BOARDS
*Goal.
tAfter
* After postlaunch
postlaunch boresight calibration. Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. ASTROS
ASTROS II sensor
sensor head,
head, illustrating the
the redundant
redundant CCDs
CCDs
§Depends
§ Depends onontarget
target characteristics.
characteristics. and optics
and optics mounted
mounted in
in an
an aluminum/fiberglass
aluminum /fiberglass vacuum housing.
housing.

after
after launch by uploading
launch by uploading new
new software
software to
to operate
operate on
on the identical to the idle state except that in this state the exposure
stored image. timer is operating and the the charge- transfer electrodes are held
charge-transfer
Other changes were incorporated
changes were the mass
satisfy the
incorporated to satisfy and
mass and at fixed voltages to collect charge. During the transfer
image charge.
collect image
power constraints. These include (1) using high speed CMOS state, the image charge is rapidly (in 1.54 transferred from
ms)transferred
1.54 ms) from
logic to replace
logic to replace the high power TTL, (2) improving the effi-
the effi- exposure area
the exposure area to the storage area.
ciency
ciency of the CCD electrode
electrode drive
drive circuits, developing aa
(3) developing
circuits, (3) photometricdata
After the photometric fromthe
datafrom 256XX256
the256 256 pixel central
lightweightsensor
lightweight sensorhead
headand and CCD
CCD support, and (4) using a
(4) using image are
area of the image stored in the
are stored memory, the process-
digital memory,
the digital
passive radiator
passive cooling the
radiator for cooling CCD rather than the thermo-
the CCD ing computer
ing computer calculates the image
calculates the centroid or some
image centroid some other
electric cooler used
electric cooler on ASTROS
used on ASTROS I. characteristic and
characteristic and transmits
transmits this
this to the
the spacecraft
spacecraft control
control
The RCA SID 501 501 array is divided into two two sections:
sections: an system. For non-real-time
For non operation,pixel
-real -time operation, -by -pixel data can
pixel-by-pixel
image exposure
image exposureareaareaandand aa storage
storage area
area to hold
hold the image
the image transmitted to the earth.
be transmitted
be
readout (Fig.
during readout 9). An exposure
(Fig. 9). consists of
sequence consists
exposure sequence the
of the ASTROS IIII sensor
The ASTROS (Fig. 10)
head(Fig.
sensorhead is designed to provide
10) is
following states: idle,
following states: flush,expose,
idle, flush, and data (read-
transfer, and
expose,transfer, aa rigid
rigid support
support forfor the
the redundant
redundant CCDs
CCDs and and lenses.
lenses. The
The
out). The
out). The idle
idle state isis aa minimum -power condition during
minimum-power during vacuum -tightwalls
vacuum-tight ofthe
wallsof chamber permit
thechamber calibration and test-
permit calibration
which there
which no CCD
there isisno electrode or
CCD electrode processor activity.
video processor
or video activity. ing tracker without the use of an external environmental
the tracker
ing of the
During the flush state, both the line and pixel charge-transfer
pixel charge- transfer chamber. The mass of the current sensor head design (including (including
electrodes are
electrodes active to remove all charge from
are continuously active finger but
cold finger
cold the radiator) is
excluding the
but excluding approximately 2.4
is approximately 2.4 kg
the CCD and prepare it for the exposure. The expose state is is (5.2 Ib).
(5.2 lb).

OPTICAL ENGINEERING
OPTICAL ENGINEERING / September
/ September 1987
1987 / Vol. No.9 9/ / 935
/ Vol.2626No.

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 STANTON, ALEXANDER,
STANTON, ALEXANDER, DENNISON, GLAVICH, HOVLAND
DENNISON, GLAVICH,

The chamber walls fiberglass

are made of aluminum and fiberglass
walls are
that has
has been
been impregnated
impregnated with with Epon
Epon 828828 epoxy
epoxy resin.
resin. The
fiberglass
fiberglass conical section of the chamber wall provides ther-
conical section
mal isolation for the cold finger and some mechanical isola-
some mechanical BEST FIT
BEST

thermal radiator
tion for the thermal radiator and maintainsthe
and maintains theintegrity of the
integrity of TERMINATOR
TERM INATOR
sensor chamber. The The fiberglass -to- aluminum joints are sealed
fiberglass-to-aluminum
with EC 2216
with 2216 structural- adhesive epoxy.
structural-adhesive epoxy. The
The cold
cold finger
finger
enters the
enters the chamber
chamber through the apex of of the
the fiberglass cone,
fiberglass cone, CENTROID OF BRIGHTNESS
platform is
and the CCD support platform is thermally connected to the x
cold finger
cold finger byby silver
silver multistrand
multistrand thermal
thermal straps.
straps. The
The CCD I CENTER OF ELLIPSE

platform isis supported by fiberglass struts, and the sensors are

referencedtoto the
referenced the chamber
chamber center
center line
line by
by thin Invar
Invar plates.
plates.
Similar Invar plates will be used to reference
Similar reference the lenses
lenses that LIT LIMB

mounted on the chamber faceplate. The inner surface of

are mounted
are
the chamber
the chamber andand all
all of
of the
the internal
internal parts are gold coated to
minimize thermal
minimize thermal radiation.
radiation.

4.3.
4.3. Algorithms
The algorithms used
The algorithms used forfor star tracking with ASTROS II are are Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Example
Example of of the limb
limb centerfinding
center-finding process
process forfor aa regular,
regular,
target-track-
many target- elliptical target.
elliptical target. The
The solid
solid edge
edge isis the
the lit
litlimb
limband
and the
thedashed
dashed edge
edge is
tested on ASTROS I, but many
those tested
similar to those track- the terminator. LimbLimb point
pointcrossings
crossings((+) +) are
are measured
measured by a a radial
radial
ing
ing algorithms
algorithms are still still being
being developed.
developed. A A technique
technique for for algorithm and and then used
used for fitting
fittingan anadjustable
adjustable ellipse.
ellipse. The
The radial
radial
tracking the centercenter of of anan extended -target image
extended-target image using
using con- algorithm assures
algorithm assuresthat
that target
target rotations
rotations with respect
respect to the the CCD
CCD
strained
strained ellipsoidal
ellipsoidal fitting
fitting algorithms
algorithms was was developed
developed and and coordinate frame have have little effect
effect on on the
the measured
measured center.
applied to the problem of
applied simultaneously tracking the target
of simultaneously
and background
and background stars. stars. Although
Although originally
originally developed
developed for for
processing using
-passprocessing
single-pass
single limited memory (e.g., 16
using limited 16 Kbytes), orientation
orientation of ellipse can be calculated. The centerfinding
the ellipse
of the
the approach obviously can be expanded to utilize utilize the more process uses
process uses two
two passes to improve the estimate of the limb
passes to
capable processor
capable processor in in ASTROS II. interpolation
interpolation and
and toto drop the effect
drop the limb that
of stars near the limb
effect of that
The algorithm starts by searching the stored CCD image to may have been
may have been included
included inin the first pass.
pass. The
The center
center ofof the
the
detect stars and lit -limb point
lit-limb crossings. During
point crossings. During this process a corresponding ellipsoid is then calculated.
small band of pixel data about each limb point and
selected about
data is selected Typical accuracies on
Typical accuracies on the order of 1% 1% of target diameter
star.
star. The
The direction
direction of of the sun sun in in tracker
tracker coordinates
coordinates isis achieved (Fig.
were achieved
were (Fig. 11) images from 10
11) for regularly shaped images 10
assumed to
assumed to be
be known (which (which is is almost invariably the case). 1/22 the field of view in diameter with
pixels to 1/ processing
with aa processing
Since surface features
Since surface features and albedo affect affect the the reflected
reflected lightlight time
time of a few
few seconds.
seconds. Irregular
Irregular targets
targets (such
(such as
as aa comet
comet
from the target, the
the target, the terminator
terminator data are discarded (the termi- nucleus) may require
nucleus) may require the ability to to identify
identify features
features and
and toto
nator can be be distinguished
distinguished from from the lit lit limb
limb using
using the the sun
sun track those features through
those features changingperspectives.
throughchanging These
perspectives. These
direction knowledge). capabilities will be
capabilities will be developed
developed and and tested
tested for
for the
the CRAF
CRAF
Let F(x
Let F(x,y), y) give
givethe the intensity
intensity fromfrom thethe stored
stored pixel
pixel data, project.
where xx isis the
where the column
column position
position and and y is the line line position.
position. A
normalizedintensity
normalized functionG(x,y)
intensityfunction G(x , y) _ [F(x , y) -N]/(M
= [F(x,y) N]/ (M - N) 4.4. results
Test results
4.4. Test
is calculated,
is calculated, wherewhere M Mandand N Narearethe maximum and
themaximum and minimum
minimum Although
Although most most algorithm work is
algorithm work is yet toto bebe completed,
completed, a
values of
values of FF in neighborhood of x and
smallneighborhood
inaasmall and y. (x,, y) were
If GG(x
y. If number
number of characterization
characterization tests tests were
were performed
performed with
with the
the
continuous function rather
a continuous rather than collection of
thanaa collection of pixel values, breadboard
breadboard tracker
trackersystem. The key
system. The key goal was to demonstrate
goal was
the lit
the lit limb
limb would
would be be the
the set
set of contour points points xx,, yy suchsuch that
that the technology for reducing the mass to no more more than 1111 kg
G(x,y) ==T, T,where
where TT isis aa commanded
commanded threshold threshold level level (typi-
(typi- consumptiontotoless
power consumption
and the power than15
lessthan 15 W (average) while
W (average)
cally 0.6). In practice, the
cally 0.6). lit-limb
the lit -limb crossing points(xi
crossing points , yi) are
(x^Vj) maintaining the quality and
image quality
the image processing capability
and processing con-
capability con-
calculated by (a) selecting regularly spaced points along along the the sistent with meeting the performance requirementsrequirements in Table
estimating the
(b) estimating
limb, (b) normal to the limb,
the normal limb, and (c)interpolat-
and (c) interpolat- III. Image quality measurements made with the ASTROS II
ing wherethe
ing where function G
thefunction G(x along the
equaltoto TT along
y)isisequal
(x,, y) the normal.
normal. breadboard confirmed essentially
breadboard confirmed CCD-limited
essentially CCD- limited performance
Thus, the
Thus, the limb
limb points
points are are nominally
nominally calculated
calculated along along the amount of A/ D binning.6
except for a small amount Power consump-
binning., Power
direction with
direction steepestchange
the steepest
with the intensity.The
changeofofintensity. The(xi (xj,
, yi) are
Vj) are tion ofof below
below 11 11 WW was
was achieved
achieved for for all
all operating
operating modes
modes
then corrected
then corrected for for optical
optical distortion. From From the the calculated
calculated except when the CCD was being cleared prior to integration,
limb points,
limb points, aa fitfit for the best ellipseellipse and center is made made by when a peak of of 16 W was observed. When
16 W When powerpower converter
minimizing efficiencies (assumed to be 80% to 85%
be 80% there isis
included, there
85% are included,
still an
still an average
average power margin of perhaps 2 W
power margin W in the current
current
design.
[A(xi -
2 [A(Xj - x0)2 + B(yi
x,,)2 + - yo)2
B(yi - y0)2 ++ C(yi
Cfy -- y0)
y0) (xi - x0)
(Xj - XQ) --112
I]2 (6)
i
The aluminum/
aluminum/ fiberglass sensor head and the reduction in
count associated
piece part count with the
associated with electronicdesign
theelectronic simplifi-
design simplifi-
over the center (xo y0)and
(XQ ,,y0) parameters A,
andparameters B,and
A, B, subject to
C, subject
and C, to cation have resulted in substantial
substantial mass savings. Although the
mass savings.
any constraints
any constraints that
that are specified (such as
specified (such as the
the ratio of the
the current mass
mass estimate
estimate isis still
still over
over the
the allocation
allocation (14 versus
(14 versus
major and
major and minor
minor axes
axes or the orientation of the axes)
axes) and
and to
to 11 kg),
11 kg), most
most of
of the
the mass
mass now in the redundant elec-
resides in
now resides elec-
the constraints. From
tolerance on the From A,A, B,
B, and C, the axes and tronic assembly Further work
assembly (9 kg). Further workininpackaging, possibly
packaging,possibly

936 / OPTICAL
/ OPTICALENGINEERING September 1987
ENGINEERING // September 1987 // Vol.
Vol. 26
26 No.
No. 9
9

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 OPTICAL TRACKING USING
USING CHARGE
CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES
-COUPLED DEVICES

using modules, etc., is

memory modules,
using memory is expected
expected to provide
provide the
the SAMPlf
SAMPLE A

required
required reduction
reduction of 33 kg.
kg. A detailed verification
verification of these
savings
savings will
willbe
beprovided
provided by
by the
the engineering
engineering model to be built PREAMP
in the
the next
next phase
phase of this
this program.
CLAMP
I
AID
CONVERTER

5. HIGH RATE TRACKER

5. T
12-bit
12 -bit
The high
high rate
rate tracker (HRT) concept was was developed
developed to meet pixel DATA
DATA
l.lMS/pixel
1.1 As /pixel
two new
new requirements
requirements not not considered
considered for
for either
either ASTROSI
ASTROS I or T SAMPLE BB

II. First is
is the
the need
needtotoacquire
acquiretargets
targets moving
moving at at aa high
highangular
angular Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. The
The signal
signal chain
chain for
for the high
high rate
rate tracker
tracker uses
uses parallel
parallel
rate, up to 160160 pixels/
pixels/ s.s. Second,
Second, once the target is acquired, itit sample-and-hold
sample- and -holdcircuits
circuitstotoachieve
achievea a9X10
9X105 pixels /s rate
5 pixels/s rate with
with aa
1.1
1.1 AS A/D converter.
/us A/D
must be tracked with a frame rate rate of
of up
up to
to 60
60 frames/
frames/ s.s. Both
Both
of these capabilities are
these capabilities are needed
needed for a variety
variety of of missions
missions inin
which targets
which targets can
can drift
drift rapidly through
through thethe field
field and
and in
in which
which
high frame
frame rates
rates are
are required to provide data data for
for wide -band-
wide-band- 5.2. HRT
5.2. HRT signal
signal chains
width
width control systems.
systems. The The characteristics of of the
the RCA
RCA 501501 HRT signal
The HRT signal chain
chain will
will draw
draw heavily
heavily on on the
thedesigns
designs being
being
CCD willwill be
be used
used to illustrate this
this type
type of
of system.
system. developed for high speed science imaging cameras. The signal signal
chain in in these
these cameras
cameras operates
operatesatat9 9X10 X 1055 pixels
pixels/s / s and hashas
5.1.
5.1. CCD
CCD readout modes demonstrated 50 50 electron noise floors. The The signal
signal chain is is a
double -correlatedsampler
double-correlated samplersimilarsimilartoto those
those usedused for for the
the
The HRT sensor
The sensor willwill operate in in the
the frame -transfer mode,
frame-transfer mode, Hubble Space
Hubble Space Telescope
Telescope Wide -Field Planetary
Wide-Field Planetary Camera Camera
similar toto that
that used
used for
for ASTROS
ASTROS II. In this mode, the CCD is is (WFPC) and the the Galileo
Galileo imaging
imaging subsystem.
subsystem. The The key key differ-
divided
divided into
into anan active
activearea areaand and aa readout
readout area covered with with anan ence isis that
ence that the
the WFPC signal chain uses
signal chain uses 2020 jus
is toto process
process a
opaque
opaque aluminized
aluminized mask. mask. The The minimum transfer time time from
from pixel while
pixel while the
the HRT signalsignal chain must do the the same
same job in in
the active
active area
area toto the
the readout
readout area is is approximately
approximately 500 500 µs.
jus. To 1.1
1.1 ^s.
µs. All
All double-correlated
double -correlated samplers
samplers have subpixel timing
sustain a 60 60 Hz
Hz frame
frame raterate (16.7
(16.7 msmscycle
cycletime)
time)thetheintegration
integration events that
events that occur
occur at at times
times shorter than the the pixel
pixel time.
time. The
time could
time could rangerange fromfrom microseconds
microseconds up up toto 16
16 ms.
ms. ThisThis shortest time interval
shortest time intervalused
usedisis1/I /16
16 ofof aa pixel
pixel time,
time, or or70 70 ns.
ns. The
assumes
assumes thatthat image
image integration
integration and and readout can occur simul- advent of highhigh speed
speed CMOS
CMOS has made the implementation of
taneously
taneously in in the
the imaging
imagingand and storage
storage portions
portions of the CCD, subpixel
subpixel timing
timing logic
logic power
power efficient
efficient and and much more attrac-
respectively. tive
tive for flight applications.
applications. The The key key difference
difference between
between the
There
There areare three
three different
different readout modes: full frame, acquisi- HRT signal chain and the WFPC signal signal chain is the addition
tion, and window. In all three modes there is a prepare cycle cycle that
that of the second sample-
sample-and-hold
and -hold circuit
circuit (Fig. 12).12).
removes
removes all all of
of the
the dark
dark current electrons from the the active
active area.
area. The subpixel centroiding algorithms require
centroiding algorithms require12 12 bit
bit accuracy,
The full-frame
full -framemode modeintegrates
integrates an an image
imageand and then
then transfers
transfers but the fastest 12 12 bit converters
converters that are candidates
candidates for flight flight
it to the readout area, where all the pixels pixels areare read out. This systems
systems have
have 11 /zs
As conversion
conversion times.
times. The parallel sample sample-and--and-
mode takes 97 97 ms.
ms. The
The full-frame
full -framemode mode isis used
used when
when calibra-
calibra- hold implementation
implementation was wasselected
selectedtotoallow
allowthetheclamp
clamp-to-sample
-to- sample
tion is
tion is desired
desired and and is not not intended
intended for for active
active control
control time relationship
time relationship to be adjusted
to be adjusted for for optimum
optimum noise noise perfor-
perfor-
applications. mance without affecting the net pixel pixel read
read time.
time.
The acquisition mode sums 16 16 lines into the serial register The use of high speed CMOS, while while lowering
lowering power con-
before
before the
the serial
serial register
register is is read out. This This effectively
effectively reduces sumption, can cause noise problems. The The very
very fast rise time of of
the CCD to 16 16 lines
lines byby 320320 pixels.
pixels. When
When an an image
image enters
enters the speed CMOS can generate
high speed generate high high frequency
frequency noise.
noise. These
These
field
field of view,
view,one one ofof these
these 16 16lines
linesshows
showsaa peak.
peak. This
This locates
locates noise problems can be alleviated by careful layout, layout, including
including
the
the image
image wellwellenough
enough to to allow
allow placement
placement of aa 20X20 pixel the extensive
extensive useuseofofground
groundplanes
planesand and synchronous
synchronous operation.
window
window around
around itit onon the
the next
next frame.
frame. The 16 16 line
linereadout
readout takes
takes The preamplifier for for aa99X10
X 1055 pixels
pixels/s / s signal
signal chain
chain must
must
6.0
6.0 ms,
ms, which
whichmeansmeansthat that acquisition
acquisition frames can occur at the have high performance
have performance specifications.
specifications. These These specifications
specifications
60 Hz
60 Hz rate, with with acquisition
acquisition theoretically
theoretically possible
possible in one one include 30 30 electrons
electrons equivalent noise, slew rates greater than than
frame.
frame. InIn practice
practice itit isisexpected
expected that that two
two or more consecutive
consecutive 1000
1000 V//XS,
V/ As,andandsettling
settling times
times of of 25
25 ns.
ns. Fortunately, several several
frames will
frames willbe be required
required to to make
make a rough rough measurement
measurement of hybrid operational amplifiers
hybrid amplifiers can meet meet these
these requirements,
requirements,
image
image motion
motion and and ensure
ensure against false false acquisitions.
acquisitions. but the power consumption is is higher
higher thanthan inin the
the lower
lower per-
per-
window mode
The window mode isis expected
expected to to operate very very much as in in formance preamplifiers.
ASTROS I (Fig. 4) except that that variable -size windows up to
variable-size
40X40
40 X40 pixels
pixels will
will be
beallowed.
allowed. The The current
current design is is scaled for
maximum of
a maximum oftwo
two 2020 X X20 20 windows or or one
one 40
40 X X40
40 window at 53.
5.3. Computer
Computer
the 60
60 Hz
Hz rate. To process
To the data
process the data from
from the HRT
HRT inin real
real time,
time, aa single
single
Assumingthat
Assuming that the
the line
line transfer
transfer timetime isis 22 µs,
/zs, the
the pixel
pixel processor (68000
processor (68000 or or 32016 class) generally
32016 class) generally will
will not
not be ade-
transfer time is 430 430 ns,
ns, and
and the pixel data readouttime
data readout timeisis1.11.1 As
jus quate. For this
quate. this reason,
reason, aabaseline
baseline was
was defined
defined using
using three
three
(12
(12 bit
bitconversion),
conversion), the the total
total readout time is
readout time is 6.8 ms.
ms. The
The major
major 32016
32016 processors.
processors. The first performs
performs executive,
executive, sequencing,
sequencing,
part of this time
time isis used
used by by the
the pixel
pixel transfers
transfers before
before and after and control functions
functions while
while the
the other
other two
two have
have specialized
specialized
the data readout. If the pixel transfer time were to be reduced reduced roles processing
roles processing pixel
pixel data.
data. In applications
applications withwith two
two focal
focal
to the value
value recommended
recommended for the commercial version of this planes
planes (e.g.,
(e.g., acquisition and track
track fields),
fields), the
the executive
executive pro-
CCD
CCD (165(165 ns),
ns), the
the total
total readout time would be 4.2 ms. This
ms. This cessor
cessor decides
decideswhich
whichCCDCCDto to interrogate
interrogate and
and the location
location of
analysis indicates the high high frame
frame rates are possible with exist- track windows,
track etc. After frame integration, the
windows, etc. the slave
slave pro-
pro-
ing A/ D D converters
converters and and somesome increase
increase in in power
powerconsumption.
consumption. cessors operate
cessors operate onon the
the acquired
acquired window
window data data to generate
generate

OPTICAL ENGINEERING
OPTICAL ENGINEERING / September
/ September 1987
1987 / Vol.2626No.
/ Vol. No.99
/ / 937

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 STANTON, ALEXANDER,
STANTON, ALEXANDER, DENNISON, GLAVICH, HOVLAND
DENNISON, GLAVICH,

image centroids,
image centroids, size, brightness, and background intensity
size, brightness, intensity 11. E.
E. Shalom, J. W.
W. Alexander,
Alexander, and R. H. Stanton,
R. H. "Acquisition and
Stanton,"Acquisition track
and track
data. This information isis used
This information by the
used by executive processor
the executive to
processor to algorithms for the
algorithms for the ASTROS star tracker,"
tracker," in
in Annual
Annual Rocky
Rocky Mountain
Mountain
Guidance and Control
Guidance Control Conf., paper AAS85
Conf., paper Am. Astron.
-050, Am.
AAS85-050, Soc., San
Astron. Soc., San
generate both pointing
generate both pointing error measurements
measurements for the control control (1985).
Diego (1985).
Diego 3
system and predictions of image locations, etc.,
system and etc., for next
the next
for the
frame.
frame. In the event
event of
of computer
computer failure,
failure, the
the system
system can be be
dual- or
as a dual-
reconfigured to act as -processor system at a
single-processor
or single
lower update rate.
lower
Richard
Richard H.
H. Stanton
Stantonhashasserved
served as
as experiment
6. CONCLUSION
6. CONCLUSION manager
manager for
for the
the ASTROS
ASTROS star tracker
tracker program
program
at JPL and as supervisor ofof the
the Celestial
Celestial Sen-
Sen-
CCD trackers have now demonstrated a wide range of capa-
have now capa- sor Group.
Group. Currently deputy
deputy manager
manager of of the
the
for space
bilities for
bilities applications ranging
spaceapplications from tracking
ranging from stars and
tracking stars and Guidance and
Guidance and Control
Control Section,
Section, he
he has
has led
led aa
extended targets
extended to acquisition and tracking of
targets to mov-
rapidly mov-
of rapidly number
number ofof development
development programs
programs including
including
includ-
systems, includ-
these systems,
of these sun, star,
sun, star, and
and extended -target trackers
extended-target trackers forfor
ing bodies.
ing inherent advantages of
The inherent
bodies. The space and
space and contributed
contributed to the
the early
early develop-
develop-
ing high
ing high quantum
quantum efficiency, simultaneous integration of all
efficiency, simultaneous ment
ment of optical
optical navigation
navigation capability
capability for the
the
pixels,
pixels, accuracy of one part 50,000 over
in 50,000
part in the field
over the view,
ofview,
field of Voyager
Voyager spacecraft. Dr. Stanton received
spacecraft. Dr. received his
etc., make
etc., make the replacement
replacement of of image- trackers for
dissector trackers
image-dissector BS degree from
BS degree from the California
California Institute
Institute ofof
most
most applications seem inevitable.
applications seem inevitable. Further development
development of MS and
Technology and his MS and Ph.D.
Ph.D.degrees
degreesininphysics
physicsfrom
fromthe
theUniversity
University
of Illinois.
the high
high rate
rate tracker
tracker and
and correlation and feature tracking are
now being pursued.
Jim
Jim Alexander
Alexanderreceived
received his
his MA
IV1A in
in mathemat-
mathemat-
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ics from UCLA in 1972.
1 972. He
He has
has been
been aa member
member
of the technical
of technical staff at
at JPL
JPL since
since 1971
1971 and
and
authors thank members of the
The authors ASTROS teams
the ASTROS JPL for
at JPL
teams at since 1980 has
since has been
been extensively
extensively involved
involved in
the many months of hard work required success, including
for success,
required for developing aa computer-
developing assistedtest
computer-assisted test set
set to
-night observing sessions. It also is a pleasure
all-night
of all evaluate performance of of CCD
CCD trackers and in in
a number of developing algorithms for highhigh accuracy
accuracy star
star
developing
to acknowledge
to acknowledge the the continuing support provided
continuing support provided by by the
the extended target
and extended target tracking for use in auton-
use in auton-
Astro -1mission
Astro-1 managementatat the
missionmanagement the Marshall Space Flight
Marshall Space omous CCDCCD trackers.
Center. Research
Center. described in
Research described this paper was carried out by
in this by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Laboratory, California
California Institute
Institute of
of Tech-
Tech-
nology, under aa contract with the National
nology, under National Aeronautics
Aeronautics andand Edwin
Edwin Dennison
Dennisonisisaa member
member of of the
the Celestial
Celestial
Space Administration.
Space Sensors Group at at JPL. He He has
has worked on the
ASTROS
ASTROS trackers and and thethe laboratory
laboratory evalua-
evalua-
tion of
tion of a CCD -based high
CCD-based high precision
precision star tracker.
8. REFERENCES
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938 / OPTICAL
/ OPTICALENGINEERING
ENGINEERING // September 1987 // Vol.
September 1987 Vol. 26
26 No.
No. 9
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