Intro to Psychology Notes

I. History of Psychology

A. Pre-scientific psychology… People have probably always speculated about

human behavior…documented studies however date back some 25 centuries to
some of the “great” Greek philosophers
B. The following chart summarizes the pre-scientific psychological views

Relationship btw. Mind & body How ideas are formed

Connected Distinct Parts Inborn Ideas Blank slate(Tabula resa)

The Hebrews Socrates Socrates Aristotle

Aristotle Pluto Plato John Locke
Augustine Descartes

C. Dorothea Dix – (American) Advocate on behalf of the mentally ill. Created the
first ever mental asylums during the Civil War.
- She was a strong believer in helping people with mental
health issues not hurting them

D. Psychology as a science
C. Structuralism – Wilhelm Wundt- father of psychology
C. Established the 1st formal psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany 1879
D. Focus of structuralism: goal was to study consciousness and the
mid itself. How one views everything and decision making. Using
introspection
D. Functionalism – William James- first American psychologist
C. First distinctly American school of psychology
D. Focus of functionalism:How do your thoughts and beliefs affect
your behavior in the outside world. How do our thoughts make us
survive as a species. Ex. Anxiety,when threatened w a situation u
can either fight or flight. () used testing and introspection
E. Gestalt Psychology – Max Wertheimer
C. Focus of Gestalt:consciousness is best understood by observing
the whole experience unlike trying to break it down
D. Gestalt catch phrase… “The whole is greater than the sum of its
parts”
 F. Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud- father of psycho analysis/ focused on
abnormal psychology( depression etc )
C. First to focus on abnormal behaviors
D. Focus of psychoanalysis: Believed that mental issues come from
past issues from your unconscious mind. Very controversial
E. Used free association(Nearpod activity with sun) and dream
analysis to explore the unconscious mind
G. Behaviorism – J.B Watson and B.F. Skinner- disagreed with everyone
C. Focus of behaviorism: believed that psychology should only study
what could be observed like behavior. Believed in blank state and
our surroundings shape us

E. Psychology’s Big Debate… Nature v. Nurture

-Are human psychology based on genes or our surroundings and environment

- Example- Racism, are we born that way our taught that way

Contemporary Psychology

A. Biopsychosocial Approach- All work together to see how we think

Biological Influences: Psychological Influences:learned fears, emotional

responses, cognitive processing
Genetic predisposition, genetic mutations, natural
selection, genes responding to environment

Behavior or Mental
Processes

Social-cultural Influences:

Presence of others, cultural, societal, family expectations

B. Psychology PERSPECTIVES (approach a psychologist might take within their career)

Evolutionary – how natural selection has caused behavior. Reproductive How does evolution influence
behavior?

Psychodynamic- emphasis on unconscious mind and how it relates to our actions

Behavioral- how our behavior is shaped by our learning process. Like how do we learn to be scared of
snakes. How did you learn to be afraid of snakes?

Cognitive- How we take in and restore information and how does that influence our actions. Memory,
how do we use information to remember ?

Humanistic- emphasis on human growth and self concept. How can I make myself a better person?

Social Cultural- how our culture influences our selves How are social influences different across different
cultures?

Perspective Focus

Biological Biological- understanding how brain and body create thoughts and
emotions. Physical and anatomy

Evolutionary Evolutionary – how natural selection has caused behavior.

Reproductive How does evolution influence behavior?

Behavior Behavior Genetics- how our genes and environment influence

Genetics individual differences. Development greens and environment

Psychodynami Psychodynamic- emphasis on unconscious mind and how it relates to

c our actions

Behavioral Behavioral- how our behavior is shaped by our learning process. Like
how do we learn to be scared of snakes. How did you learn to be
afraid of snakes?

Cognitive Cognitive- How we take in and restore information and how does
that influence our actions. Memory, how do we use information to
remember ?

Humanistic Humanistic- emphasis on human growth and self concept. How can I
make myself a better person?

Social-Cultural Social Cultural- how our culture influences our selves How are social
influences different across different cultures?
C. Domains of Psychology

Basic:Expiremental Domain( research)

Biological- Analyze connection between the mind and body

Developmental- studies how behavior and mental processes change over lifespan

Cognitive-studies how we perceive,think, and solve problems

Personality- investigates our traits pattern, our personalities

Social- explores the ways people influence others like racism

Psychometric- concerned with the theory and technique

Applied: applied research

Industrial/Organizational Psychology- studies behavior in the workplace

Clinical- asses and treats people with mental illness ( depression)

Educational- experts on the problems of teaching and learning

Counseling- helps people cope with academic, vocational like career choice and
relationships

Positive- focuses on positive events and influences in life

III. American Psychological Association (APA) – scientific and professional organization of

psychologists founded in 1892 at Clark University

A. Mary Whiton Calkins – Studied under William James, first woman president of the APA

B. G. Stanley Hall – first American to earn a Ph.D in psychology, and the first president of
the APA

C. Margaret floy Washburn, first female to earn a PhD in psychology

 Ethics Notes

→ Humans ←

● Discuss the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

I. Describe the history of unethical science (summarize)- During world war 2 Germans conducted
expiremeneta on campers such as low air pressure. The cia in the 50s injected people with lsd
into unknowing patients.

II. Who says it’s ethical?... APA Code of Ethics(set of rules to expirement), IRB is the panel that
approves research this is per institution.

III. What makes it ethical?...

A. Ethical Guidelines:

1. Informed Consent = Must inform participants about every aspect of study

B. Assent: minors cannot give written concern so they get assent (speak to the kids
making sure it’s always okay)

1. Limited Deception = Must only deceive people when it is absolutEly necessary

to the study and must tell about the deception during debriefing

2. Protect from harm and discomfort = Must minimize any discomfort or risk
involved in the study and must act to prevent participants from suffering any
long term negative consequences. They also have freedom to stop at any time.

3. Confidentiality = must keep personal info about patient a secret

4. Debrief = must reveal all relevant info about research and correcting and
impressions it created

→ Animals ←

o Reasons why animals are used in research

o Because the behavior is interesting in and of itself (instincts and such)
o Because research with animals can give information that would be impossible or
unethical to collect from humans

o Who says it’s ethical?...

A. The APA

B.IACUC Ab
o What makes it ethical?...
o Animals… ABCs of laboratory animal research
1. Appropriate – nothing cruel
2. Beneficial – must benefit for humans
3. Caring- They have to care for animals

4. Caring -
Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Notes
→ Reflect on this question now, then answer it AFTER you have taken the notes → Why is psychology as
a science more than just common sense?

Things to watch for...

BIASES

o Using intuition and “common sense” in this science

o Misremembering = failing to remember an event or details. people’s influences may
change what casually happened like an eye witness
o Hindsight bias = I knew it all along phenomenon. Is when we think we know the
answers but we don’t we need to look back and think. Like taking a test and not
remembering

o Overconfidence = we tend to think we know more than we do/word scramble example

o Pseudoscience =popular beliefs that seem to be related to science but aren’t like astrology.
o Examples: astrology,ghost scientist objects

o Confirmation bias = when you look for evidence to confirm your beliefs but also ignore
evidence that may disprove your belief.

How we overcome these pitfalls…

→ Scientific attitude (this is the ideal)

o Curiosity- passion for exploring

o Skepticism- doubting and questioning
o Humility- humbleness to accept when your wrong

Critical thinking -- process of assessing claims and making judgments on the basis of well-supported
evidence

The Scientific Method- we use the scientific method to construct theories that organize and summarize
observations.
 o Theories – testable explanations for sets of facts or observations…it is NOT just a
speculation or a guess
o Hypothesis – testable prediction…usually implied by a theory

To make it easier to understand and evaluate their hypotheses, scientists often use operational
definitions

*Operational definitions - a precise definition of a variable that is measurable and

manageable.

This then allows for Replication = to further disprove or approve a study

Write an operational definition for the following items

1. Happiness 4. popularity

2. a smile is defined how many people smile a day.

5. Good music- Good music is defined by how many times someone sang a song.

Research Methods Notes

How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

I. Correlation =

A. Positive correlation =

B. Negative correlation =

C. Strong correlation =

D. Weak correlation =

E. Correlation coefficient =

1. What kind of relationships do the following correlations have?

a) -.78

b) +.05

c) -.43

F. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE __________________________….. What does this

mean?...

II. 3 Types of Research

A. Descriptive, simply describing behavior

 B. Correlation, finding relationship between two variables

C. Expirement , controlled setting manipulated variables

D.

III. Naturalistic Observation = observation of humans or animal behavior in the environment in

which typically occur

A. Valuable where other methods are likely to be disruptive or misleading

B. Process is not problem free

C. Observations can be distorted if observers expect to see certain behaviors

IV. Case Study = intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a
specific person or Situation

A. Are especially useful when something is new, complex or fairly rare

B. Easy to generalize =

C. Yet…provide valuable raw material for further research

V. Surveys = A technique for asercetraubing they self reported attitudes

A. Use surveys to gather descriptive data on just about everything relating to behavior and
mental processes

B. Validity of data depends upon: how questions are worded

VI. Quasi-experiments = studies that have the same control as expirement yet do not include the
randomness assignment of participants ,,,

A. can provide useful information about people who have and have not been exposed to
different conditions

B. Conclusions not as firm as those from true experiments, yet they allow research to be
conducted on topics & in settings that would otherwise be impossible
 Experiment Notes

Example Experiment Hypothesis:

Example Experiment Population:

Term Definition Example Experiment

Representative a smaller group that gives a “snapshot” of the

sample: total population

Random every one in the population has an equal

sample: chance of being selected to participate in the
study

Stratified the population is divided into relevant

sample: subcategories & a random sample is taken
from each subcategory

Experimental group that receives special treatment

group:

Control group: group (without special treatment or with

placebo) to compare to experimental group(s)

Random researcher randomly assigns participants to

assignment: the experimental or control group

Independent “CAUSE”- factor manipulated by the

variable: experimenter (exp.group gets IV, control
group doesn’t)

Dependent “EFFECT”- factor that may change in response

variable: to IV and is being MEASURED

Placebo: Pseudotreatment…fake treatment

Single-blind Participants do not know what group they are

procedure: in (experimental or control)

Double-blind Participants nor person gathering data know

procedure: which group is control or experimental

Confounding Other items that could effect the outcome of

variables: the experiment (other than the independent
variable alone)

Statistics Notes

I. Descriptive Statistics = numbers that describe the main characteristics of the data

A. Measures of central tendency (distribution of scores)

1. Mean –

2. Median –
 3. Mode –

B. Measures of variability (also known as spread or dispersion)

1. Range –

2. Standard deviation –

C. Normal Distribution =

1. Most large distributions, produce a normal curve in which the mean, median
and mode fall at exactly the same point

2. However, if the 3 m’s differ, the distributions are skewed (or not symmetrical).
This occurs if an extremely high or low score(s) is present in the distribution
 a) Positively skewed = one/few extremely high scores

b) Negatively skewed = one/few extremely low scores

II. Inferential Statistics = numbers that describe the main characteristics of the data

A. involves estimating what is happening in a sample population for the purpose of making
decisions about that population’s characteristics (based in probability theory)

B. Null Hypothesis – states that there is NO difference between two sets of data

1. Purpose of null hypothesis…until the research SHOWS (by proving the

original/alternative hypothesis) that there is a difference, the researcher must
assume that any difference present is due to chance

2. Let’s put our hypotheses to the tes

Truth about population

Null True Null False

Decision Researcher Reject Null

Type I Error Correct Decision
Makes (accept original)

Accept Null Correct Decision Type II Error

a) Type I Error: Reject the null (choosing the original hypothesis), yet the
null is actually true

b) Type II Error: Accept the null, yet the original hypothesis is actually
correct

o Example
a) Original hypothesis -

b) Null hypothesis –
 Truth about population

Null True Null False

Decision Researcher Reject Null

Makes (accept original)

Accept Null

Statistical significance = difference observed is probably not due to chance, the difference is instead
likely to be due to a real difference between the samples