Industrial Training Project Report

on
'Coal-Fired Thermal Power Generation'

Under the Guidance of:

Shri R.K. jha Sir
SM (BMD) at
Boiler Maintenance Department

Submitted by:
KANTI BIJLEE UTPADAN NIGAM LIMITED
Ravishankar poddar
Roll No.:183013
Reg No.: 18102103021
(KBUNL)
Department of Mechanical Engineering (A WHOLLY OWNED SUBSIDIARY OF NTPC LTD.)
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology,
Bihta, Patna, Bihar
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my appreciation to all those with whom I worked interacted and
whose thoughts and insists helped me in increasing my knowledge and
understanding of working in an organization.

I feel great pleasure in presenting my obligation to Prof. Md. Irshad Alam who
allowed me to undergo training at KBUNL, Kanti. I acknowledge with a deep sense of
gratitude to Prof. Arvind Kumar Madheshiya for providing his esteem guidance
and vast knowledge to help me complete my training.

With profound respect and gratitude, I take the opportunity to convey my thanks to
complete the industrial training in KBUNL.

I do extend my heartfelt thanks to the HR Department (KBUNL) for providing me

with this opportunity to be a part of this esteemed organization.

I am extremely grateful to Shri A.K. Dubey, AGM (MM) and my project guide
Shri R.K. Jha , Senior Manager (BMD) for their co-
operation and guidance that has helped me a lot during the course of training.
I have learnt a lot working
under them and I will always be indebted to them for this value addition in me.
I am also thankful to all the technical staff members who helped me a lot and gave
their precious suggestions and encouraging me all time during the course of my
training.

I also acknowledge with a deep sense of reverence, my gratitude towards my

parents, who has always supported me morally as well as economically.

Any omission in this brief acknowledgement does not mean a lack of gratitude.

Thanking You

Ravishankar poddar

1
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ravishankar Poddar, student 4th Year
7thsemester of B.Tech (Mechanical Engineering) of
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Bihta, Patna has
successfully completed the industrial training at Kanti
Bijlee Utpadan Nigam Ltd. (KBUNL), Kanti, Muzaffarpur,
Bihar from 2nd December 2021 to 29th December 2021.
He has completed his whole training as per the training
report submitted by him.

Under the Guidance of:

Shri R.K. Jha
Senior Manager
Boiler Maintenance Department

2
 ABSTRACT
Any thermal power plant is converting the chemical energy of fossil fuel (coal) into
electrical energy. The process involved in this conversion is based upon the Modified
Rankin Cycle. The major components that are used to accomplish the modified
Rankin cycle are

Boiler feed pump

The steam generator water walls (evaporator)

Steam generator superheaters

Steam turbine

Reheater Condenser

Regenerative feed heaters

All components of a power generating cycle are vital and critical in operation. In
Modified Rankin Cycle, the two most important aspects that are added are reheating
& regenerative heating. By reheating we used to send the steam coming from the
exhaust of the turbines back to the reheater of the boiler so that its enthalpy
increases and more work can be done by this steam the other purpose is to make
steam dry so that no harm will be done to the blades of the turbine.

In KBUNL, Kanti, we have three turbines in Tandem coupling namely one H.P
Turbine, one I.P Turbine & one L.P Turbine coupled with the generator to which is
synchronized with the grid to produce electricity at 50Hz. In all my modesty, I wish to
record here that a sincere attempt has been made for the presentation of this
project report. I also trust that this study will not only prove to be of academic
interest but also will be able to provide an insight into the area of technology
management.

The report mainly focuses on Coal-Fired Thermal Power Generation.

So this report tells about the picture of what I did during my four weeks of
industrial training.

3
 INDEX
S. No. Topic Page No.
01 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 01
02 CERTIFICATE 02
03 ABSTRACT 03
04 NTPC OVERVIEW 04
05 KBUNL OVERVIEW 07
06 Thermal Power Plant 10
07 Process of Generation of Electricity 14
08 Components of a coal-fired power plant 15
09 Introduction to Boiler 16
10 Milling System 37
11 LIGHT UP PROCESS 39
12 Ash Handling System 40
13 Electrostatic precipitator 42
14 Cooling Tower 43
15 Coal Handling System 45
16 Types of Fan 50
17 TYPES OF PUMP 51
18 TYPES OF CYCLE 52
19 Types of Heater 55
20 TYPES OF TURBINE 56
21 Different Control Loops in Power Plant 57
22 THERMAL POWER GENERATION EFFICIENCY 60
23 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plant 62
24 ELECTRICITY COST 63
25 CONCLUSION 64
26 REFERENCES 65
 NTPC OVERVIEW
NTPC is India’s largest energy conglomerate with roots planted way back in 1975 to
accelerate power development in India. Since then it has established itself as the
dominant power major with a presence in the entire value chain of the power
generation business. From fossil fuels it has forayed into generating electricity via
hydro, nuclear and renewable energy sources. This foray will play a major role in
lowering its carbon footprint by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. To strengthen
its core business, the corporation has diversified into the fields of consultancy, power
trading, training of power professionals, rural electrification, ash utilisation and coal
mining as well.
NTPC became a Maharatna company in May 2010. As of January 2020, there are 10
Maharatnas CPSEs in India. NTPC is ranked No. 2 Independent Power Producer(IPP)
in Platts Top 250 Global Energy Company Rankings.

Growth of NTPC installed capacity and generation

The table beloW ShoWS the detailed operational performance of coal and GaS baSed StationS over the yearS.

4
The total installed capacity of the company is 66,900 MW (including JVs) own stations
include 24 coal-based, 7 gas-based, 1 Hydro 1 Wind 13 Solar and 1 Small hydro plant.
Under JV, NTPC has 9 coal-based, 4 gas-based and 13 renewable energy projects. The
capacity will have a diversified fuel mix and by 2032, non-fossil fuel-based generation
capacity shall make up nearly 30% of NTPC’s portfolio.

NTPC, Kudgi

5
NTPC has been operating its plants at high-efficiency levels. As on 31.03.2020, the company
had 16.78% of the total national capacity and, it contributes 20.96% of total power
generation due to its focus on high efficiency.
In October 2004, NTPC launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) consisting of 5.25% as a
fresh issue and 5.25% as an offer for sale by the Government of India. NTPC thus became a
listed company in November 2004 with the Government holding 89.5% of the equity share
capital.
In February 2010, the Shareholding of the Government of India was reduced from 89.5% to
84.5% through a further public offer. The government of India has further divested 9.5%
shares through the OFS route in February 2013. With this, GOI's holding in NTPC has
reduced from 84.5% to 75%. The rest is held by Institutional Investors, Banks and the Public.
Presently, GOI holding in NTPC is 51.10%.

NTPC is not only the foremost power generator; it is also among the great places to work.
The company is guided by the “People before Plant Load Factor” mantra which is the
template for all its human resource-related policies. In 2019, NTPC is recognized as
“Laureate” for consistently ranking among “Top 50 Best Companies to Work for in India” for
the last 11 years in the Great Place to Work and Economic Times survey. Besides, NTPC
was also recognized as the best among PSUs and in Manufacturing.

6
 KBUNL OVERVIEW
KANTI BIJLEE UTPADAN NIGAM LIMITED (KBUNL) is a wholly-owned subsidiary of NTPC
Ltd. KBUNL owns and operate Muzaffarpur thermal power station located at Kanti block
of Muzaffarpur district of BIHAR.

First started in 1985, Kanti Power Plant had an initial installed capacity of 110×2 MW. An
additional capacity of 195×2 MW was erected in 2015-16. Kanti thermal Power Plant
came into existence with the efforts of then MP of Muzaffarpur, George Fernandes. The
construction of the plant began during George's first tenure as MP of Muzaffarpur in
1978.

KBUNL,
Kanti

In November 2014, the Kanti plant was renamed as George Fernandes Thermal Power Plant
to acknowledge his contribution. To take over Muzaffarpur Thermal Power Station
(2*110MW), a subsidiary company named Vaishali Power Generating Company Limited with
NTPC on 06/09/2006,-contributing 51% of equity; and the balance equity was
contributed by Bihar State Electricity Board. The company was rechristened as ‘Kanti
Bijlee Utpadan Nigam Limited’ on April 10, 2008. Present equity holding is 100% by NTPC
and now it's not a joint venture but is a wholly-owned subsidiary company of NTPC. The
company renovated and modernized the existing unit. The total cost of its renovation and
modernization has been over Rs. 500 crores.

7
In March 2013, the renovation work of two old units was completed. MTPS started
commercial production from November 1, 2013 by supplying 94 MW. This is first
generation in 11 years since 2002. On 17 April 2018, Bihar state cabinet, headed by chief
minister Nitish Kumar, gave its nod to handing over of Kanti Thermal Power Station to
National Thermal Power Corporation. On 15 May 2018, Bihar Government signed a
memorandum of understanding (MoU) to hand over the thermal plant to National Thermal
Power Corporation for a 33- years lease.

Installed capacity of KBUNL is 610 MW.

Stage-1 : 220MW{2*110MW}&Stage-2 : 390MW {2*195MW}
Commercial Operation Declaration of units was done on Unit#1 (01.11.2013), Unit#2
(15.11.2014), Unit#3 (18.03.2017) & Unit#4 (01.07.2017).

Project Location
The project is located at Kanti block of Muzaffarpur district of Bihar, covering a land area of
834 acres (Plant- 464, Township- 80, Ash Dyke- 290 acres). The district headquarter,
Muzaffarpur is about 15km, and the nearest airport, Patna is 100 KM.

CAPACITY
StageUnit Number InStalled Date of Statu Note
Capacity (MW) CommiSSionin S S
g
Stage - 1 1 110 Non Operational
This unit went down in
March 1985, September 2021.
recommissioned
November 2013

Stage - 1 2 110 March 1986, Non Operational This unit went down in
recommissioned September 2021.
November 2014

Stage - 2 3 195 5 May 2015 Operational The original planned capacity of the unit was
250 MW but was reduced to
195 MW Scheduled after Airport Authority
of India raised concern over its chimney
height. BHEL commissioned the first
195MW unit at Muzaffarpur Thermal Power
Station in India on 5 May 2015. The
commissioning is the first of the two units at
390MW Muzaffarpur Thermal Power
Station.

Original planned capacity was

Stage - 2 4 195 13 June 2016 Operational
250 MW but reduced to 195 MW.
Total installed capacity
becomes 610 MW.

Total 610

8
Synopsis

Project Financing
The debt equity ratio is 70:30. Equity portion is financed by promoters and debt is being
financed by consortium of Banks leading by SBI.

9
 Thermal Power Plant
A power plant is a place where we produce electric power which is used for domestic and
industrial purposes by using turbines. Now thermal power plant is a place where we produce
electric power using steam produced from water. The thermal power plant works on Rankine cycle
consists of Boiler, Nozzle, Turbine, Condensor, pump. In the boiler, the water is converted into
steam by heating the water at constant pressure. After this, the steam is sent to the nozzle, the
pressure of steam is reduced by increasing the velocity of steam. Now the high-velocity steam is
sent to the turbine. The steam strikes the turbine so that the rotor rotates by this work is
developed. A major part of the developed work is used to run the generator. By this electric power
is produced. Then steam is sent into the condenser where steam is converted into the water at
constant pressure. Then the water is sent to the pump. The water is pumped into the boiler and
the cycle repeats. The pump is run by work developed in turbine.

Block Diagram of Thermal Power Plant

Working of Thermal Power Plant :

A Thermal Power Plant works on the Rankine Cycle with some modifications. Let us know
about the Rankine Cycle first. Like other thermal cycles, the Rankine Cycle also converts
heat into mechanical work. It is a slight modification of the Carnot cycle. The cycle involves
two adiabatic processes ( compression and expansion) and two iso-baric processes. How it is
done let's see: A typical power plant has these things in common, a boiler (to generate
steam), a turbine( for expansion and power generation), a condenser (to condense the
steam expanded in the turbine) and lastly the pump. Apart from these there are other
components like the cooling tower, Air pre-heater, FD fan, ID fan, CHP (Coal Handling Plant),
de-super heater etc. Keeping these aside, just lets go into the basics of operation… From
the boiler let us start. Water is heated in the boiler by using some kind of fuel ( be it coal-
based or diesel-based, to generate heat). From the boiler, the steam is extracted and made
to pass onto the blades of the Turbine which makes the turbine to rotate at a very high

10
RPM. Now, the turbine is coupled to a generator to build up voltage. As soon as the turbine
rotates, the generator builds up voltage and hence generates electric power. After all the
steam is expanded in the turbine blades, it is fed into the condenser where it is cooled to
saturated liquid and then pumped to the boiler again and the process continues. Thus heat
energy or thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy which in turn is used to
generate power.

Thermal power plant based on a Rankine cycle:

In a simple Rankine cycle, steam is used as the working fluid, generated from saturated
liquid water (feed-water). This saturated steam flows through the turbine, where its
internal energy is converted into mechanical work to run an electricity generating system.
All the energy from steam cannot be utilized for running the generating system because
of losses due to friction, viscosity, bend-on-blade etc. Most of the heat energy is rejected
in the steam condenser. The feed water brings the condensed water back to the boiler. The
heat rejected during the condensation of steam in the condenser is given away by a sink. As a
result of the conversion of much of its thermal energy into mechanical energy, or work,
steam leaves the turbine at a pressure and temperature well below the turbine entrance
values. Basically, the low-pressure steam leaving the turbine at state 2 is first condensed
to a liquid at state 3 and then pressurized in a pump to state 4, and this high-pressure
liquid water is then ready for its next pass through the steam generator to state 1 and is
reused around the Rankine cycle again . The steam generator and condenser both
function as heat exchangers.

In a well-designed heat exchanger, both hot and cold fluids flow with little pressure loss.
Therefore, ideally, it can be considered that steam generators and condensers have
negligible pressure loss, where fluids are operating without any change in pressure. Hence,
the Rankine cycle is operating between two fixed pressure levels, i.e. the pressure in the
steam generator and pressure in the condenser. A pump provides the pressure increase,
and a turbine provides the controlled pressure drop between these levels. The Rankine cycle
as a system converts the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical energy by means of a
turbine rotation, which runs the generator to produce electrical energy.

An analysis of a thermal power plant Working on a Rankine cycle:

Introduction: Rankine and Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle is a heat engine with a vapour
power cycle. The common working fluid is water.

T–s diagram of a typical Rankine

cycle operating between
pressures of 0.06 bar and 50 bar.
Left from the bell-shaped curve is
liquid, right from it is gas, and
under it is saturated liquid–
vapour equilibrium

11
The cycle consists of four processes:

1 to 2: Isentropic expansion (Steam turbine)1 An isentropic process, in which the entropy

of working fluid remains constant.

2 to 3: Isobaric heat rejection (Condenser) An isobaric process, in which the pressure of

working fluid remains constant.

3 to 4: Isentropic compression (Pump) During the isentropic compression process,

external work is done on the working fluid by means of pumping operation.

4 to 1: Isobaric heat supply (Steam Generator or Boiler) During this process, the heat from
the high-temperature source is added to the working fluid to convert it into superheated
steam.

According to the T-s diagram the work output W1 during the isentropic expansion of steam in
the turbine, and the work input W2 during isentropic compression of working fluid in the
pump are:
W1 = m (h1 – h2)
and
W2 = m (h4 – h3)

Where m is the mass flow of the cycle and h1, h2, h3, h4 is enthalpy. Heat supplied to the
cycle (steam generator or boiler) Q1, and heat rejected from the cycle (condenser) Q2, are:
Q1 = m (h1-h4) and
Q2 = m (h2-h3)

The net work output of the cycle is:

W = W1 – W2
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is:
η = W/Q1
Q1 – Q2 – W = 0

And the thermal efficiency of the cycle will be:

η = W/Q1 = 1 – T2 / T1

Due to mechanical friction and other irreversibility’s, no cycle can achieve this efficiency. The
gross work output of the cycle, i.e. the work done by the system is:

Wg = W4-1 + W1-2

And the work ratio is defined as the ratio of the net work W to the gross work output Wg,
i.e. W/Wg.

12
The Carnot cycle has a low work ratio. Although theoretically, this cycle is the most efficient
system for power generation, it cannot be used in practice. There are several reasons such
as a low work ratio, economical aspects and practical difficulties. Some recent developments
to enhance the efficiency of the Rankine cycle have been analyzed. The thermal efficiency of
a Rankine cycle is not as high as a Carnot cycle but the cycle has less practical difficulties
and is found to 41 be more economical. Thermodynamically, it is true that no heat engine can
be more efficient than a reversible heat engine working between two fixed temperature limits.
A Carnot cycle consists of four processes. These processes are theoretical because these
cannot be achieved practically due to certain limitations. A brief discussion of these
processes is discussed below. Theoretically, the Carnot cycle is the most efficient heat
energy conversion cycle.

Modified Rankine Cycle:

It means reheat Rankine cycle or regenerative Rankine cycle. The efficiency of the modified
Rankine cycle is improved. Reheat Rankine cycle means after the steam expanded from
turbine again the steam is reheated and sent to another turbine for expansion. The
remaining cycle is similar to the normal Rankine cycle. Regenerative Rankine cycle means, a
small quantity of mass of steam is extracted from turbine and is sent to feedwater heater
which is placed in between pump and condenser in order to heat the water before entering
the boiler. The remaining cycle is same as normal rankine cycle.

Modified Rankine Cycle

13
Process of Generation of Electricity
KBUNL, Kanti is a thermal power plant.

The functioning of every thermal power plant is based on the following

processes:
1. Coal to steam
2. Steam to mechanical power
3. Power generation, transmission & distribution

STEP-1: COAL TO STEAM

Coal and water are primary inputs to a thermal power plant. The process
of conversion of water to steam by using the heat energy produced by
burning coal for producing heat takes place in the boiler and its auxiliaries.
coal burnt in a furnace located at the bottom part of the boiler. feedwater is
supplied to the boiler drum by boiler feed pumps, where water is heated
and converted into saturated steam this is further superheated in the
superheaters.

STEP-2: STEAM TO MECHANICAL POWER

This is the most important process of a power plant. The superheated
steam produced in the boiler at high pressure and temperature is feed to
the turbine. The steam expands in the turbine giving up heat energy,
which is transformed into mechanical energy on the turbine shaft. Thus,
mechanical power is obtained from the turbine shaft.

STEP-3: POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

Mechanical power produced at the shaft of the turbine is used to rotate the
rotor of an electrical generator that produces electric power. The electric
power produced by the generator is boosted to a higher voltage by a
generator transformer to reduce the transmission losses. This power at i.e.
400 kV is transmitted and distributed by EVH transmission lines.

14
Components of a coal-fired power plant

A coal-fired thermal power station. Key Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to
a very fine powder by large metal spheres in the pulverised fuel mill (16). There it is mixed with
preheated air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20). The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at
high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the
tube- lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum (17),
where steam is separated from any remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in
the roof of the drum into the pendant superheater (19) where its temperature and pressure
increase rapidly to around 200 bar and 570°C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red.
The steam is piped to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine process. A
steam governor valve
(10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set-point following. The steam is
exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature, is
returned to the boiler reheater (21). The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate
pressure turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure set (6). The steam, now
little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with cold water in the condensor (8),
where it condenses rapidly back into water, creating a near vacuum inside the condensor chest.
The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump (7) through a deaerator (12), and pre-
warmed, first in a feed heater (13) powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then
in the economiser (23), before being returned to the boiler drum. The water from the condensor is
sprayed inside a cooling tower (1), creating a highly visible plume, before being pumped back to the
cooling water cycle. The three turbine sets are coupled on the same shaft as the electrical
generator (5) which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV). This is stepped up
by the unit transformer (4) to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically 250-500 kV) and is
sent out onto the transmission system (3). Exhaust gas from the boiler is drawn by the induced
draft fan (26) through an electrostatic precipitator (25) and is then vented through the chimney
stack (27).

15
 Introduction to Boiler:
Boiler: A boiler is a closed vessel in which water is heated, steam is generated,
superheated or any combination thereof under pressure or vacuum by the direct
application of heat from combustible fuels or electricity. The steam produced is used
for:
(i) Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine.
(ii) Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
(iii) Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.

Usually, boilers are coal or oil-fired. A boiler should fulfil the following requirements:
(i) Safety: The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.
(ii) Accessibility: The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.
(iii) Capacity: The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the
requirements.
(iv) Efficiency: To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a
maximum amount of heat produced due to the burning of fuel in the furnace.
(v) It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low.
(vi) Its initial cost should be below.
(vii) The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.
(viii) The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading. The performance of a
boiler may be measured in terms of its evaporative capacity also called the power of a
boiler. It is defined as the amount of water evaporated or steam produced in kg per
hour. It may also be expressed in kg per kg of fuel burnt or kg/hr/m2 of heating
surface.

History of Boiler:
The steam-generating boiler’s roots go back to the late 1700s and early 1800s with the
development of the kettle-type boiler, which simply boiled water into steam. The water
was placed above a firebox and then boiled into steam. It wasn’t until around 1867, with
the development of the convection boiler, that the steam-generating industry began. It
may be debated who developed the first steam-generating boiler; however, most will
agree that George Babcock and Steven Wilcox were two of the founding fathers of the
steam-generating boiler. They were the first to patent their boiler design, which used
tubes inside a firebrick-walled structure to generate steam, in 1867, and they formed
Babcock & Wilcox Company in New York City in 1891. Their first boilers were quite small,
used lump coal, fired by hand, and operated at a very low rate of heat input. The solid
firebrick walls that formed the enclosure for the unit were necessary because they
helped the combustion process by reradiating heat back into the furnace area.

16
The Stirling Boiler Company, owned by O.C. Barber and named for the street (Stirling
Avenue) the facility was on in Barberton, Ohio, also began making boilers in 1891.
Their eighth Stirling boiler design was called the H-type boiler (“h” being the eighth
letter in the alphabet) and had a brick setting design. The Stirling boiler was much
larger than the Babcock & Wilcox boiler and used three drums to help circulate the
water and steam flow throughout the boiler.

In 1907, the Stirling Boiler Company merged with the Babcock & Wilcox Company. They
renamed their boiler the H-type Stirling, and it became one of the best-selling boilers of
its time, probably because of its ability to produce up to 50,000 pounds of steam per
hour.

However, they were not the only boiler manufacturers during the late 1800s. The
Grieve Grate Company and the American Stoker Company were also making boilers of
similar all- brick-wall design. They both used a travelling or screw-type grate at the
bottom of the boiler to transport the fuel (lump coal) across the inside of the boiler. As
the fuel travelled across the inside of the boiler, it was burned and the ash or unburned
fuel would drop into a hopper. These two companies later formed the Combustion
Engineering Company in 1912. The new Combustion Engineering Company offered
their version of the Grieve and American Stoker boilers and called it the Type E stoker
boiler.

Boiler Classifications:
Boilers are classified by their pressure capacity, their design type and by their use.

High & Low Pressure Boilers

The M.A.W.P or Maximum Allowable Working Pressure is the highest amount of

pressure that the vessel is designed to withstand. Pressure is measured in terms of
pounds per square inch or psi. Psig (gauge) indicates gauge pressure, which ignores the
atmospheric pressure. Psia (absolute) is the sum of gauge pressure plus the
atmospheric pressure at that location, which varies based on altitude. A compound
gauge measures indicates pressure and vacuum.
• Low-pressure boilers are designed to withstand a maximum of 15 psig steam or a
M.A.W.P. 160 psig water.

According to the flow of water and hot gases

(i) Water tube
(ii) Fire tube

In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion
flow over these tubes. In a fire-tube boiler, the hot products of combustion pass through
the tubes, which are surrounded, by water. Fire-tube boilers have a low initial cost and are
17
more compacts. But they are more likely to the explosion, water volume is large and due to
poor circulation, they cannot meet quickly the change in steam demand. For the same
output, the outer shell of fire-tube boilers is much larger than the shell of the water-tube
boiler. Water-tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to the
explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in
steam demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than fire-tube boilers
and due to the smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers
require lesser floor space. The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.

According to the position of the furnace

(i) Internally fired
(ii) Externally fired

In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber is enclosed within the boiler
shell whereas in the case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated
from the boiler shell.

According to the position of the principal axis

(i) Vertical
(ii) Horizontal
(iii) Inclined

According to the application

(i) Stationary
(ii) Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).

According to the circulating water

(i) Natural circulation
(ii) Forced circulation.

According to steam pressure

(i) Low pressure
(ii) Medium pressure
(iii) Higher pressure

Water-tube boilers
1. Horizontal straight tube boilers
(a) Longitudinal drum
(b) Cross-drum.

2. Bent tube boilers

(a) Two drum
(b) Three drum
(c) Low head three drum
(d) Four drums.

.
18
3. Cyclone fired boilers

Various advantages of water tube boilers are as follows:

(i)High pressure of the order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained.
(ii)Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily.
(iii)Large heating surface can be obtained by use of a large number of tubes.
(iv) Because of the high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer
becomes large resulting into a greater efficiency

Fire-tube boilers
l. External furnace:
(a)Horizontal return tubular
(b)Short firebox
(c)Compact.

2. Internal furnace:
(i)Horizontal tubular
(a)Short firebox
(b)Locomotive
(c)Compact
(d)Scotch

(ii)Vertical tubular
(a)Straight vertical shell, vertical tube
(b)Cochran (vertical shell) horizontal tube

Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows:

(i)Low cost
(ii)Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily
(iii)It is compact in size.

Fire-Tube Boiler
This boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with its crown having a spherical shape.
The furnace is also hemispherical in shape. The grate is also placed at the
bottom of the furnace and the ash-pit is located below the grate. The coal is
fed into the grate through the fire door and ash formed is collected in the ash-
pit located just below the grate and it is removed manually. The furnace and
the combustion chamber are connected through a pipe. The back of the
combustion chamber is lined with firebricks. The hot gases from the combustion
chamber flow through the nest of horizontal fire tubes (generally 6.25 cm in
external diameter and 165 to 170 in number). The passing through the fire tubes
transfers a large portion of the heat to the water by convection. The flue gases
coming out of fire tubes are finally discharged to the atmosphere through
chimney.

19
The spherical top and spherical shape of the firebox are the special features of this
boiler. These shapes require the least material for the volume. The hemispherical
crown of the boiler shell gives maximum strength to withstand the pressure of the
steam inside the boiler. The hemispherical crown of the firebox is advantageous for
resisting intense heat. This shape is also advantageous for the absorption of the
radiant heat from the furnace. Coal or oil can be used as fuel in this boiler. If oil is
used as fuel, no grate is provided but the bottom of the furnace is lined with firebricks.
Oil burners are fitted at a suitable location below the fire door. A manhole near the top
of the crown of the shell is provided for cleaning. In addition to this, a number of
hand-holes are provided around the outer shell for cleaning purposes. The smokebox is
provided with doors for cleaning the interior of the fire tubes. The airflow through the
grate is caused by means of the draught produced by the chimney. A damper is placed
inside the chimney (not shown) to control the discharge of hot gases from the chimney
and thereby the supply of air to the grate is controlled. The chimney may also be
provided with a steam nozzle (not shown; to discharge the flue gases faster through
the chimney. The steam to the nozzle is supplied from the boiler.

The outstanding features of this boiler are listed below:

1. It is very compact and requires minimum floor area.
2. Any type of fuel can be used with this boiler.
3. It is well suited for small capacity requirements.
4. It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and about 75% with oil firing.
5. The ratio of grate area to the heating surface area varies from 10: 1 to 25: 1.

20
Boiler Mountings:
These are the fittings, which are necessarily mounted on the boiler itself and
mandatorily required for the safe and proper operation of the boiler.
Various boiler mountings are
1. Water level indicator
2. Pressure gauge
3. Safety valve
4. Steam stop valve
5. Blow-off cock
6. Feed check valve

1. Water Level Indicator:

Functions
▪ It indicates the water level inside the boiler vessel. It shows the level in the boiler drum.

Construction
▪ Normally two water level indicators are fitted into the boiler. These are fitted at
the front end side of every boiler.
▪ Water level indicator consists of three cock as steam cock, water cock, drain cock
and glass tube.
▪ The steam cock connect or disconnects the glass tube with steam space.
▪ The water cock connect or disconnect the glass tube with water in the boiler.
▪ The drain cock is used to drain out the water from the glass tube at intervals to
ensure that the steam and water cock are clear in operation.
▪ The glass tube protected by means of a cover which is specially made

21
Working Principle
▪ When steam cock and water cock opened, steam rushes from the upper
passage and water rushed from lower from passage to the glass tube.
▪ This will indicate the level of water in the boiler. Two balls are placed at the junction
of the metal tube. Under the normal operating condition, the ball is kept. full line circle
in case the glass tube is broken, steam will rush from the upper passage and water
from the lower passage due to pressure difference between boiler pressure at
atmospheric pressure. the ball is carried along the passage to and of the glass tube
and then closed passages.
▪ This position of the ball is shown in fig by a dotted circle. Thus the flow of water and
steam out of the boiler is prevented.

2. Pressure gauge :
Functions
▪ It indicates the pressure of steam inside in boiler.

Construction
▪ The gauge is usually mounted on the front top side of the shell or on the drum.
▪ It is having a dial which graduated to read pressure in bar, above the atmosphere.
▪ A Bourdon tube gauge with its interior mechanism is shown in the figure.
▪ The circular bent bourdon tube of the oval-cross section is close at one end and
connected at the other end to the steam space of the boiler through a siphon (U-tube).
▪ The siphon is filled with water which prevents hot steam from entering the pressure gauge
and keeps the gauge cool.
▪ Closed end of bourdon tube is attached to a toothed quadrant with help of a link and
pin. This quadrant meshes with a small pinion on the central spindle.

22
Working Principle
▪ When pressure is applied to the inside of the oval bourdon tube, its cross-section
tends to become circular, and the free end of the bourdon tube try to become straight, so
turning the spindle by the links and gearing.
▪ This causes the needle to move and indicate pressure on graduated dial.

3. Safety valve:
The safety valve is also a very important part of the steam drum. When the steam pressure
is exceeding beyond a safe working limit then the safety valve popup and release the
exceeding pressure and the safety valve is closed at a predetermined pressure limit. It
should not lead to starvation of Super heater. Hence it is generally located outside the
steam drier unit.

4. Steam stop valve:

Functions
▪ It is used to regulate the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe or from one
steam pipe to the other.

Constructions
▪ The flange of valve body bolted to the boiler at the highest part of steam space. It
consists of a valve seat and nut. The main body of the valve is made of cast iron and the
valve seat is made from gunmetal.
▪ When the steam stop valve is placed directly over the boiler and connected to the
steam pipeline is called the junction valve. If it is placed near to prime mover then
normally called steam stop valve.
▪ The lower ends of spindle connected to valve upper and pass through gland and
yoke, and connected with hand wheel. The gland is used to prevent the leakage of steam.

23
Working Principle
▪ The spindle is rotated with help of the handwheel due to the rotation of the spindle
the valve moves up and down.
▪ When the valve sits over the valve seat, the passage of steam is completely closed.
▪ The steam passage may be partially or fully opened by moving the valve up, the help
of rotating the handwheel the clearance (passage) between the valve and valve seat
regulates the flow of steam out of boilers. in locomotive boilers, means of a regulator
which is placed inside the boiler cell and operated by a handle from the driver’s cabin
regulate the supply of the steam.

5. Blow-off cock
Function:
The function of the blow-off cock is 14
▪ To discharge mud and other sediments deposited in the bottom-most
part of the water space in the boiler, while the boiler is in operation.
▪ To drain off boiler water.

Location:
It is mounted at the lowest part of the boiler. When it is open, water under the
pressure rushes out, thus carrying sediments and mud.

Construction:
It is fitted on the boiler shell directly or through the short branch of pipe at the
lowest part of the water space. It consists of a gunmetal conical plug
having a rectangular hole, spindle with yoke a shown in fig. The plug meshes
accurately into a similar casing. The plug spindle is generally rotated by means
of spanner on the top of the yoke, two vertical slots are provided for fixing the
spanner.

24
Operation Principle
When a rectangular hole of the plug is brought in line with the casing hole by rotating
spindle, the water flows out. When the solid portion of the plug is in front of the casing
hole the water cannot flow out of the boiler.

6. Feed check valve:

Functions
▪ To allow the feed water to pass/enters into the boiler.
▪ To prevent the backflow of water from the boiler, when the feed pump pressure is
less than boiler pressure or pump is stopped by using a non-return valve.

Constructions
▪ The feed check valve is fitted into the water space of the boiler just below the normal
level of the water.
▪ It consists of a non-return valve, water inlet pipe, outlet pipe, spindle, wheel and gland as
shown in the figure.
▪ The outlet pipe of valve is connected with the delivery pipe of feed pump

Working Principle
▪ Inlet and outlet pipe of valve expose different pressure.
▪ At the inlet of the valve the feed pump pressure acts and outlet pipe of the valve
the boiler pressure acts. When the feed pump is in operation.
▪ The pressure on the feed pump side (inlet) is more than the pressure on the boiler
side (outlet).
▪ This pressure difference lifts the non return valve and allows water flow into boiler.

25
Boiler Accessories:
Boiler accessories are the components that are attached to the boiler (not mounted on it)
and are essential for the working of the boiler and for increasing its efficiency. Various boiler
accessories are :
1. Air Preheater
2. Superheater
3. Economiser
4. Feed pump

1. Air Preheater:
Air preheater is a boiler accessory and it is installed to increase the performance of the
steam-generating process of the boiler. The air preheater is kept in the path of flue gases
between the economizer and the chimney. The function of an air preheater is to increase the
temperature of air for the combustion of fuel with the help of flue gases. The use of
preheated air for the combustion of fuel helps in achieving a faster rate of combustion,
the possibility of burning inferior quality coal/fuel and an increased rate of evaporation
from the boiler.

2. Superheater:
The steam generated by the boiler is usually wet or almost dry saturated because it is in
direct contact with water. So, in order to get superheated steam, a device known as a
superheater has to be incorporated into the boiler. The function of the superheater
system is to accept dry saturated steam from the steam drum and to supply superheated
steam at the specified final temperature of 540 deg C, by means of a series of heat
transfer surfaces arranged within the boiler gas passes. A superheated is a surface type
heat exchanger generally located in the passage of hot flue gases. The dry saturated
steam from the boiler drum flows inside the superheater tubes and the hot flue gases
flow over the tubes and in this way its temperature is increased at the same pressure.
The superheater consists of three sections classified as the primary superheater,
secondary superheater and final superheater.

26
In Kanti, there are superheater coils that are divided into above different sections
where the temperature is increased from approx. 340 deg C to 540 deg C. Dry
saturated steam from the drum passes through the three sections of the super 17
heaters, increasing the temperature to approx. 540 deg C as it travels through each
section.

3. Economizer:
The function of an economizer in a steam-generating unit is to absorb heat from the flue
gases and add this as sensible heat to the feedwater before the feedwater enters the
evaporative circuit of the boiler. This additional heating surface in the path of the feed
water increases the efficiency of the steam generating cycle, saving in fuel consumption,
thus this additional surface was named as ‘economizer’. The economizer is placed in the
path of the flue gases leaving the boiler, in the boiler rear gas pass below the rear
superheater. The economizer is a continuous ‘unlined loop type’ and water flows in an
upward direction and gas flows in the downward direction. Since water flow is from bottom
to top so if any steam is formed during the heat transfer it also moves along with water
and prevents the lock up steam which will cause overheating and failure of the economizer
tube.

A recalculation line with a stop valve and non-return valve is incorporated to keep
circulation in economizer into boiler drum when there is a fire in the furnace but it
prevents the feedwater flow into the boiler drum.

4. Feed pump
A feed pump is a specific type of pump primarily used to pump feedwater into
industrial boilers for steam generation. The steam can rotate a turbine or other
machine rotors. Feed pumps raise the pressure so feedwater can enter the boiler.
Auxiliary boilers, requiring only small amounts of feedwater, may use a reciprocating
positive displacement pump, which is driven by the steam produced from the boiler
itself. Another type of feed pump often used for package boiler installations is an
electro-feeder. This is a multi-stage centrifugal pump driven by a constant speed electric
motor. The number of stages in these feed pumps is determined by the feed quantity
and discharge pressure. Corrosion occurs when the pumpage reacts with the pump's
internal surface.Therefore, the usable life of a
27
pump s dependent upon the corrosion or erosion resistance of the pump's materials.
Corrosion in feed pumps can be general in nature.

The other components of the boiler:

1. Fusible plug
2. Man hole
3. Ash pit
4. Furnace
5. Chimney
6. Fire grate
7. Dampers
8. Flue tubes or pipes
9. Riser tubes
10. Boiler drum
11. Repeaters
12. Desuperheater
13. Condenser

1. Fusible plug:
The function of the fusible plug is to put off the fire in the furnace of the boiler when the
water level falls below an unsafe level and thus avoid the explosion which may take place
due to overheating of the tubes and the shell.

Description of fusible plug:

It consists of a hollow gunmetal body screwed into the firebox crown plate. A hollow gun
metal plug is screwed into the gunmetal body by tightening the hexagonal flange in it. There
is another copper plug locked with the gunmetal plug by pouring a low melting point metal
(lead) into the groove provided for the same.

28
Working of fusible plug:
During the normal operation, the fusible plug is submerged in water which keeps the
temperature of the fusible metal below its melting point. 20 But when the water level
falls below the top of the fusible plug, it is uncovered by the water. The fusible plug,
therefore, melts by the heat of the furnace. Thus the copper plug drops down and is
held within the gunmetal body by the ribs. The opening so made allows the steam to rush
into the furnace and extinguish the fire. The damage to the firebox which could burn up is
avoided.

2. Manhole:
Manholes are the access door provided in the boiler outer casing or in the shell of a
closed pressure vessel for human and material entry into the otherwise closed (confined)
space.

3. Ash pit:
The ash pit is the space where ashes accumulate under the fire. The ashes fall through the
fire grate into a removal box.

4. Furnace:
A boiler furnace is the first pass of the boiler in which fuel is burned and from which
the combustion products pass to the superheater and the second pass of the boiler.
The combustion process is a continuous process, which takes place in the first pass of
the boiler and is controlled by fuel input through coal feeders. It is a radiant type and
the water-cooled furnace and enclosure are made up of a water wall. The furnace is
open at the bottom to allow ash/clinkers to fall freely into the furnace bottom ash hopper
(through a ‘furnace throat’), and at the top of its rear wall, above the arch, to allow hot
gases to enter the rear gas pass.

The basic requirements that a furnace must satisfy are:

1. Proper installation, operation and maintenance of fuel-burning equipment.
2. Sufficient volume for combustion requirements.
3. Adequate refractoriness and insulation.

5. Chimney:
Chimney is used for discharging flue gases into the atmosphere.

Draught is the pressure difference that causes a flow of air or gases from one point to
another point in the boiler system. Draught is required in a boiler system mainly due to
two reasons:
1. To supply sufficient air for completing the combustion.
2. To remove flue gases from the system after combustion and the heat exchange.

There are two types of draught applied to the boiler system.

1. The natural draught
2. The forced draught

29
The natural draught is always preferred since it does not need any running cost
although it has a big initial cost. Natural draught allows the natural circulation of air
through the boiler system. The natural draught mainly depends upon the height of the
chimney.

6. Fire grate:
Grate firing has been the most commonly used firing method for combusting solid fuels
in small and medium-sized furnaces (15 kW - 30 MW) since the beginning of
industrialization.

Combustion of solid fuel in a grate furnace, which can be seen in Figure 1, follows the
same phases as any combustion method:
• Removal of moisture - brown part
• Pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) and combustion of volatile matter - yellow part
• Combustion of char - red part

7. Dampers:
It is used for controlling the flow of flue gases. Generally, these are iron doors that slide
up and down in the grooves by means of chains, rods, or pulleys.

8. Flue tubes and pipes:

It is used for the first pass of the flue gases.

9. Riser tubes:
A riser is a tube through which the mixture of water and steam passes from an upper
water wall header to the steam drum.

30
10. Boiler drum:
1. Boiler Drum is a pressure vessel it is used to Separate steam and water mixture
2. Mixing feed water with water separated from the steam-water mixture and re-
circulate through the evaporating tubes.
3. Reduce dissolved solid contents of the steam ( Blowdown)
4. Storage of water

Construction and Location

◦ A boiler drum is a heavy wall pressure vessel having hemispherical ends.
◦ Heavy thickness plates are rolled/pressed and welded to construct the drum It ◦

consists of a cylindrical portion with two hemispherical end.

◦ Generally made of carbon steel plate conforming specification SA 299 or SA 515-70.
◦ Located at the Top of the Boiler hanging from the Ceiling Girder by means of U rods, bolts
& nuts.
◦ It is the first pressure parts element to be erected after completion of necessary
structural work.

31
INTERNAL PARTS OF STEAM DRUM

a) DRUM LEVEL GAUGE:

This is a glass tube, or pair of flat glass, fitted to the boiler drum to provide a visual indication
of the water level of the boiler drum. Through this device, the boiler operator can determine
both the water level and general condition of water in the boiler. This glass 24 is
manufactured from highly chemical and corrosion resistance low expansion Borosilicate
glass. This glass is well known for its clarity and mechanical strength. Gauge glass should be
regularly checked for any signs of clouding, scratching, erosion or corrosion.

b) CONTINUOUS BLOW-DOWN PIPE:

In boiler steam drum CBD (CONTINUOUS BLOW DOWN) pipe header is also uniformly
distributed throughout the steam drum length. A continuous blowdown header is placed
just below the working water level of the drum. This header is connected to the drum blow
downpipe. Blowdown is given to maintain the concentration level of boiler water. When the
concentration TDS (total dissolved solids ) of boiler water increases there are high chances
of deposition of solids on turbine blades so blowdown is given to maintain the concentration
of these solids and protect the turbine blades for further deposition.

c) CHEMICAL DOSING PIPE:

In a steam drum, a chemical dosing pump is connected to the dosing pump header inside
the steam drum which is evenly distributed with steam drum length. This dosing pump
pressure is always greater than the steam drums. TSP ( Trisodium phosphate ) chemical is
used to maintain the feed water chemistry inside the boiler steam drum. The chemical
dosing header distributed the chemical evenly throughout the boiler steam drum. Chemical
dosing piping should be made of stainless steel because due to chemical reactions it can be
choked. The hole diameter shall be 6 mm. Holes shall be pitched at 300 mm. The chemical
added to the boiler drum should not get drained out through the blowdown pipe. It should
be so located that the chemical gets mixed well with the freshwater before entering into the
downcomers. The chemical could be dosed in a feedwater pipe just before the drum. This
will ensure good mixing of the water & chemical. It would also ensure a very good
distribution.

d) SAFETY VALVE:
A safety valve is also a very important part of the steam drum. When the steam pressure
is exceeding beyond a safe working limit then the safety valve popup and release the
exceeding pressure and the safety valve is closed at a predetermined pressure limit. It
should not lead to starvation of Superheater. Hence it is generally located outside the steam
drier unit.

e) STEAM PURIFIER / STEAM DRIES / DEMISTERS:

Steam is allowed to pass through a closely spaced screen. Dry steam can pass easily through
this screen and the suspended water particles carried by steam is collected and falls back by
gravity. Many boilers have a number of screens called primary screens and

32
secondary screen. This screen is called demisters pad.

f) SATURATED STEAM OUTLET PIPE:

After the heaviest particles separate from the steam with the help of demisters pads
and steam comes out for dryer after that steam goes for saturated steam outlet pipe.
Baffle plate is used for protect the steam directly enter into the steam outlet pipe line.

g) CYCLONE BOX CHAMBER:

It’s a very important part of steam drum. It plays a vital role in purified the steam in this
chamber separation of moisture and steam is done by help of centrifugal force. Steam and
water mixture is passed through a cyclone separator chamber . The cyclone separator
chamber creates the spinning action on the steam. Due to centrifugal action, the heavier
water particles through away and collides at the cyclone wall and fall down.

h) INTERMITTENT BLOW DOWN PIPE:

IBD (Intermittent blow down) its name indicate that it is a emergency drain valve
through which the water level is brought down in case of high level. In low pressure
boilers, the intermittent blow off valve was strategically located for removal of settled
sludge’s generated by phosphates reaction with calcium and magnesium salts. And also
used for the maintaining the feed water chemistry for getting the highest purity steam

i) DOWN-COMER:
Down comers tube is connected to the bottom of the steam drum. These tubes are
usually seen from the outside of the field. These tubes take water from the boiler to the
downcomer ring header of the boiler. These tubes take the water equally throughout
the boiler length and do not cause the boiler drum level fluctuations. They maintain the
circulation ratio of boiler.

33
11. Repeater:
A repeater is a device that is incorporated in the upper arch of the boiler near the
gooseneck in the path of the outgoing flue gases. As the name indicates, it reheats the.
Outlet steam from the HP turbine and thus increasing its temperature up to the desired
value. The repeater accepts cold reheat steam from the HP turbine exhaust and supplies
hot reheat steam at the specified outlet steam temperature of 540 deg C by means of
heat transfer surfaces arranged within the boiler gas passes. The repeater consists of 2
heating coils which finally raise the temperature of the steam to the required level.
Steam from the HP turbine exhaust enters the reheater system through two parallel
mounted spray water desuperheaters liners located in the cold reheat pipework, then
passes through reheated, increasing the 27 temperature as it travels through it. The
reheated outlet temperature is controlled by raising or lowering the angle of the burner
tilt. When this reheated steam enters the IP turbine, the net efficiency of the cycle is
increased.

12. Desuperheaters:

Super Heater Desuperheater

The superheater desuperheater is fitted after the 10th coil to control the superheated
steam at the specified terminal temperature of 540 deg C. The maximum design
temperature reduction at the superheater desuperheater is from 446 deg C to 388 deg
C. The desuperheater comprises a spray nozzle shell and associated spray assembly
projecting into a section of the superheater steam line. This section of the steam line
forms the desuperheater shell. Steam assisted spray nozzle assembly provides a fine
spray of water that attemperates the steam passing through the desuperheater. Spray water
for the desuperheater is taken from the boiler feedwater pump discharge. In addition,
spray water regulating stations are provided further downstream in each line.

Reheater Desuperheater
The reheater desuperheater is only brought into use when the reheater outlet
temperature rises above the normal temperature. The reheater desuperheater comprises
of a spray nozzle shell and associated spray nozzle assembly projecting into a section of the
steam line between the HP turbine outlet and the repeater inlet headers. This section of the
steam line
34
forms the desuperheater shell. Water is fed into the shell from the discharge side of the
boiler feed pumps via a repeater desuperheater spray water regulating station When
the reheated desuperheater is called into service water is fed via the water tube and
through the desuperheater and thus decreasing the quantity of water in the boiler. The
drum is relatively small compared to the total steam output. So, the drum size is
determined by the space required to accommodate the steam separating and purifying
equipment.

13. Condenser:
The condensate/feedwater system begins with the condensation of exhaust steam from
low-pressure turbines in a condenser operating under a vacuum. A condenser is a shell
and tube heat exchanger with steam condensing on the outer surface of tubes, with
coolant supplied through the tubes. The schematic diagram of a typical condenser is
shown in figure.

The important components of the condenser are

1. tube bundle
2. tube sheet
3. inlet nozzle for steam
4. hot well
5. nozzle for condensate outlet
6. nozzle for coolant in
7. nozzle for coolant outlet
8. pass partition
9. nozzle for ejector

35
The condenser shown in the above figure is a shell and tube heat exchanger, with two
passes on the tube side and one pass on the shell side. Cooling water enters the
condenser through an inlet nozzle located near the bottom. The pass partition confines
the cross- sectional area available for coolant flow to 50 % of the total cross-sectional
area of all the tubes. This arrangement ensures that the velocity of coolant flow inside
the tubes is high enough to promote turbulence and enhance the rate of heat transfer.
The tubes are arranged in a triangular pitch and are held together at both ends using
tube sheets as shown in Fig.3. The centre-to-centre distance between two tubes is
called pitch, which is maintained between 1.25-1.5 times the outer diameter of the tube.
With the triangular pitch, more tubes can be accommodated per unit heat exchanger
volume. In other words, a higher heat transfer area per unit heat exchanger volume can be
obtained with a triangular pitch than that obtainable from a square pitch. However, the
accessibility of the outer surface of the tubes for cleaning becomes difficult. Tube sheets
also provide a physical barrier to prevent the mixing of shell-side and tube-side fluids.
Steam enters the condenser through a nozzle at the top. The nozzle for the steam inlet is
larger in diameter compared to the nozzles for coolant inlet and outlet. The density of
steam is lower than that of water. Hence larger diameter nozzle is required for steam
inlet.

36
Milling System:
Coal Bunker:
These are in-process storage silos used for storing crushed coal coming from the coal
handling plant through conveyor belts. There are six coal bunkers supplying coal to
each mill and are located at the top of mills to aid gravity loading of the coal. Each
bunker can store coal which can be used for 12 hours.

Coal Feeder:
The purpose of coal feeder is to transfer coal at a pre-determined rate, from the coal
bunker to the mill. The coal feeder comprises continuous change with sections flight bars
mounted between the chains at every 5th link. The chains run on sprockets mounted
at each end of the feeder to given an upper strand movement towards the driven
ends and lower stand movement in the opposite direction. The driveshaft is supported
on two self- aligning bearings mounted in the Plummer block on support outside
feeder casing, shaft sealing is achieved by the lip seals in the sealing housing and
mounted inboard of the bearing to about the feeder casing. The tail sprocket is
mounted in adjustable bearing blocks adjacent to the feeder casing with positioned
which allow the feeder chain to be tensioned. Both upper and lower strands run over full
width carrying plates with the lower stands located by an angle section guides mounted
on the feeder wall. The upper and lower carrying plates and the inside walls are
protected from wear by replaceable stainless steel panels, chains are kept clean by a
rubber wiper. Feeder input is achieved by roller chain drive to the conveyor via a fixed
speed electric motor driving a variable speed gearbox, torque limiter and fixed output
gearbox. The electric motor is flanged mounted to a variable speed gearbox, coupled
to the fixed output gearbox by a flexible coupling and torque limiter. The principle of
operation of coal feeder is that coal flows from the bunker into the chain feeder via
the feed hopper and is conveyed to the mill, when the feeder is in the operation, the
conveyer chain drag a fixed head of coal towards the driven ends of the feeder. At the
end of the carrying plates, the coal falls through the conveyer onto the bottom 33
plate, where it is picked up by the returning flight bars and dragged back along the
feeder to fall into the mill.

Pulveriser mill:
There are six mills located adjacent to the furnace at zero meter level. The mills pulverised
coal to desired fineness to be fed to the furnace for combustion. The main structure of
the pulverising mill is fabricated from the mild steel in three cylindrical sections, the
bottom section (the mill housing support) which support the entire unit and encloses
the mill drive gear unit, a centre section (the mill housing) that contains the rotary
grinding element and upper section (the classifier housing) comprising an
accommodate the gas loading cylinders of the mill loading gear. A platform around the
upper section provide access to an inspection door and to the top of the mill routine
maintenance and is served by detachable ladder. The grinding element comprises of
three rotary rollers.

37
The raw coal enters the mill through the inlet and fall into grinding zones, where
rotating bottom grinding and transport coal through the grinding element into the
primary airstream. The primary air enters through the inlet duct in the mill while goes
to the furnace from four outlet ducts at the top of the mill. The ground fuel particle is
picked up by the primary air stream after it is passed through the throat plates and
carried upwards towards the classifier. The large particle is initially carried upwards by
the air stream and circulate over the upper grinding ring before falling back into the
grinding zone by virtue of their weight. The coal/air mixture then passes into the
classifier where any remaining oversize particles are separated out and fall down to the
return skirt until their commutative rate is sufficient to deflect the flaps and return
them into the grinding zone. The setting of the classifier vans controls the fineness of
the ground product. Heavy materials such as pyrites and tramp iron which has passed
through the grinding zone without being pulverised are carried 34 around the throat
plate and discharge through a counter balance relief gate into the space below the
yoke.

38
LIGHT UP PROCESS:
Step 1:
A controlled quantity of crushed coal is fed to each bowl mill (pulveriser) by
its respective feeders and primary air is supplied from the primary air fans
which drive the coals as it is being pulverised and transports the pulverised
coal through a coal piping system to the coal burner.

Step 2:
The pulverised coal and air discharge from the coal burners is directed
towards the centre of the furnace to form a fireball.

Step 3:
The secondary air heating system supplies secondary air for combustion
in the furnace around the pulverized coal burners through auxiliary air
compartments, directly adjacent to the coal burner compartments.

Step 4:
Above a predictable minimum loading condition, the ignition becomes
self- sustaining. Combustion is completed as the gases spiral up in the
furnace.

39
Ash Handling System:
Ash
• Ash is the residue remaining after the coal is incinerated.

Composition of ash handling system:

• SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO , MgO

Requirement of Ash Handling System:

• In Thermal Power Plant’s coal is generally used as fuel and hence the ash is produced as
the byproduct of Combustion. Ash generated in powerplant is 35 about 30-40% of total
coal consumption and hence the system is required to handle Ash for its proper utilization
or disposal.

Ash terminology in power plants:

• Fly Ash ( Around 80% is the value of fly ash generated)
Ash generated in the ESP which got carried out with the flue gas is generally called Fly
ash. It also consists of Air preheater ash & Economiser ash (it is about 2 % of the total ash
content).
• Bottom ash (Bottom ash is 20% of the ash generated in coal-based power
stations. )
Ash generated below the furnace of the steam generator is called the bottom ash.

System Description:
The ash handling system handles the ash by bottom ash handling system, coarse ash
handling system, fly ash handling system, ash disposal system up to the ash disposal area
and water recovery system from ash pond and Bottom ash overflow. The description is
as follows:

A. Bottom Ash Handling System

Bottom ash resulting from the combustion of coal in the boiler shall fall into the
overground, refractory lined, water impounded, maintained level, double V Section
type/ W type steel- fabricated bottom ash hopper having a hold-up volume to store
bottom ash and economizer ash of maximum allowable condition with the rate
specified. The slurry formed shall be transported to the slurry sump through pipes.

B. Coarse Ash (Economizer Ash) handling System

Ash generated in Economizer hoppers shall be evacuated continuously through flushing
boxes. Continuous generated Economizer slurry shall be fed by gravity into respective
bottom ash hopper pipes with necessary slope.

40
C. Air Pre Heater ash handling system
Ash generated from APH hoppers shall be evacuated once in a shift by a vacuum conveying
system connected with the ESP hopper vacuum conveying system.

D. Fly Ash Handling System

Fly ash is considered to be collected in ESP Hoppers. Fly ash from ESP hoppers extracted by
Vacuum Pumps up to Intermediate Surge Hopper cum Bag Filter for further Dry Conveying
to fly ash silo. Under each surge, hopper ash vessels shall be connected with an Oil-free
screw compressor for conveying the fly ash from Intermediate Surge Hopper to the silo.
Total fly ash generated from each unit will be conveyed through streams operating
simultaneously and in parallel.

E. Ash Slurry Disposal System

Bottom Ash slurry, Fly ash slurry and the Coarse Ash slurry shall be pumped from the
common ash slurry sump up to the dyke area which is located at a distance from the Slurry
pump house.

41
Electrostatic Precipitator:
The ash content in the Indian coal is of the order of 30% to 40%. When coal is fired in the
boiler, ashes are liberated and about 80% of ash is carried along with the flue gases. If this
ash is allowed into the atmosphere, it is hazardous to health. So, it became necessary to
incorporate an electrostatic precipitator in the path of the flue gases going into the
atmosphere. The electrostatic precipitators are preferred to mechanical precipitators
because they are capable of precipitating particles from sub-micron to large sizes of
particles. The efficiency of the modern ESP’s is of the order of 99.9%. The electrostatic
precipitator consists of a large chamber, which comprises parallel rows of sheet type
collecting electrodes suspended from the precipitator casing with wire type discharge
electrodes arranged midway between them. At the inlet of the chamber, gas distributor
screens for uniform distribution of the gases in the chamber, are provided. The collectors
are connected to the earth at positive polarity while the discharge electrodes are
connected to a high voltage dc supply at negative polarity. When dust-laden gas flows
between the electrodes, the corona discharge causes the dust particles to become
charged, the particles then being attracted towards and, eventually, deposited on the
collector electrodes. This dust falls as the collecting electrodes are continuously rapped
through a rapping system and are collected into the pyramid type hoppers, located
beneath each collecting electrode, from where it is removed by the ash handling system.

Typical dry ESP configuration

42
Cooling Tower:
A cooling tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an evaporative cooling tower,
a small portion of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream
to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream. Evaporative Cooling towers
are relatively inexpensive and very dependable means of removing low-grade heat from
the process.
Cooling Towers are commonly used to provide lower than ambient water temperatures
and are more cost-effective and energy-efficient than most other alternatives. The
smallest cooling towers are structured for only a few gallons of water per minute while the
largest cooling towers may handle upwards of thousands of gallons per minute. The pipes
are obviously much larger to accommodate this much water in the larger towers and can
range up to 12 inches in diameter.

Working
When water is reused in the process, it is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and
will then flow down through plastic or wood shells, much like a honeycomb found in a
bee’s nest. The water will emit heat as it is downward flowing which mixes with the
above airflow, which in turn cools the water. Part of this water will also evaporate,
causing it to lose even more heat.

Components of Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower Hot Water Distribution System: An open basin above each fill bank
receives the hot water that is piped to each cell in the tower.

Cooling Tower Hot Water Basin: This basin receives the hot water that is piped into
each cell in the tower and has removable covers to restrict the influx of debris. Water
enters through a removable wave suppressor splash box.

Cooling Tower Fan: Fans are individually adjustable propeller type and driven through v-
belts and protected with a belt guard, or with driveshafts and gearboxes.

Cooling Tower Fill, Louvers, and Drift Eliminators: Each fill sheet has louvres and
drifts eliminators formed by thermoformed PVC. The fills are suspended by hot-dip
galvanized structural tubing and are elevated above the floor of the cold water basin.

Cooling Tower Cold Water Basin: In a cooling tower, water is supplied from the
discharge of the circulating water system to a distribution basin, from which the cooling
tower pump takes suction. Accessories include both a side suction connection OR a hole
and bolt circle in the basin floor suitable for gravity flow, which has debris screens and anti-
cavitation devices.

43
Cooling Tower Pump: Pumps of a variety of sizes may be used, depending upon the size
of the cooling tower and the demands of your process. The technical engineers at Cooling
Technology, Inc understand that each project is unique and will work diligently to make
sure your site’s requirements will be matched to the best cooling tower and pump.

Limitation of Cooling Tower

There are some limitations to using cooling towers. Their ability to cool is based on how
much water is lost due to evaporation. The evaporation from a cooling tower is based
on the quality of air in the surrounding area. If an area has high humidity, less water will
evaporate than in a dry climate. In the winter, cooling towers are usually able to cool
more efficiently as the air is drier. If the water is needed to be cooled to higher than
75°F, a cooling tower is recommended, dependent upon wet bulb temperature for the
region. If water is needed to be cooler, a chiller may be better suited to your cooling
needs than a cooling tower.

Location of a Cooling Tower

Due to the size impediments of cooling towers, most are stored outside with ample
room for airflow. To prevent freezing in the winter in the northern colder climates,
indoor reservoirs are highly recommended.

44
Coal Handling System
Introduction
At present, coal is the preeminent fuel of thermal power plants. Continuing up the large
unit, and large capacity, the demand for coal is very large. Coal needs to process from
loading and unloading to stockpile, this procedure can finish by a coal conveying system.
This system includes add up to tens mechanical, guarantee the importance of these
mechanisms are normal operation, it is very important for this system stable operation.
And it is a key problem of reducing costs, ensure safety in production, improve the
efficiency of work.

Operation and Maintenance of Coal Handling System

Coal handling system in thermal power plant usually means the technique procedure that
coal from loading and unloading outside the factory to boiler Coal Storage. Because of the
large number of mechanical involved, we can sort as we used it, the important part includes
unloading coal mechanical, coal yard, transport and accessory equipment, which are
collectively called a coal handling mechanical. Accessory equipment includes crushing and
sieving, coal blending and coal supply, Removal Iron, weigh, sample, dust removal
equipment.

Belt Conveyor
Belt conveyor is a commonly used equipment of continuous transport, it have high
efficiency, this system has the large conveying capacity, simpler construction, a small
amount of maintenance. On the same machine, it can move forward and backwards, it can
work with a single machine, also can work with complicated machines. When transport
needs large transportation quant, longer distance, we can use steel rope transport machine.
Picture one is structure picture of the belt conveyor includes:
1 body frame; 2 roller; 3 driver unit; 4 flood-out pattern; 5 discharge funnel; 6 actuation
drum; 7 conveyer belt; 8 load-bearing roller; 9 change roller; 10 charging hopper;
11tension roller; 12 tension device. Conveying belt support by rollers on drum frame. The
top part of the belt is load-bearing material, it is a load-bearing branch, the under part is
unload branch. The friction between belt and roller or belt and material can make the
machine run continuously.

45
When the belt conveyor is working, conveying belt is a drag member, also is a load-bearing
member, loading conditions is complicated. The roller has these actions of amending load
distribution and avert conveying belt misalignment. Roller can make driving system
action and conveying belt reversing. This head roller can fall into one; two or more,
corresponding called single roller, two rollers and more rollers. We can dispose of is
according to the fact. When transport needs large transportation quant, longer distance
or demand reduce conveying belt tension, can use two rollers two motors or more
rollers more motors. Picture two and three is two rollers two motors drive style. Picture
two is two rollers head drive style, two rollers respectively driven by two motors. Rollers
place try to keep wrap angle big, to increase the impellent power. Picture three is two
rollers head and tail drive; tail rollers can drive and change. This design can be used on
the two-way reversibility movement of two rollers drive conveying machines. It has
simpler construction, conveying belt bend times little and long-lasting, so it is
extensively used. At two rollers or more rollers respectively drive, allow for manufacturing
and maintenance, we should use the same model motor, same diameter rollers and
install fluid coupling in this system.

The startup and stop of the belt conveyor

Belt conveyor has varied work conditions, such as normally, loading start-up, operation,
stop, accident stop. Under normally, it should no-load start-up. Under stop, belt conveyor
must no-load, until next startup. When any part of this system broke down, we must
emergency stop, to avoid accident broaden. After the accident stopped, the start-up is
loading start-up. Need a big moment of force. Sometimes, the belt conveyor can not
normally because of loading, or start motor overload smoke even burn out. Although
driver unit high-speed side of belt conveyor erection limit fluid coupling, it can protection
start motor, when belt conveyor start-up not allowed belt speed long time not reach rated
value, because it can make oil temperature high of fluid coupling, when a given
temperature is reached, the low-fusing alloy will melt, As a general rule does not allow to
loading start-up.

The interlock and protection of the belt conveyor

At coal handling system in a thermal power plant have to interlock the equipment which

46
can avoid equipment bad sequence start-up interlock, every equipment work according to
sequence rule start-up. So, as to ensure the safe operation of this system. The belt conveyor
is the main equipment of this interlock system. When it start-up, every part of the start-up
comply the counter- direction of coal movement one by one, when it stops, it stops
comply opposite direction one by one. Under operation, any part of this system has a
malfunction, all equipment will stop comply the counter- direction of coal movement.
Other equipment wills normal. Meanwhile, a coal grinder does not stop except it own
accident. So as to avoid or mitigate accidents. Lastly, on main control rooms have an
emergency stop button, set this button, every part of this system will stop. Meanwhile,
coal grinder delay stop. Belt conveyors also have protection equipment such as a
burden detection switch, under-speed switch, avoid deviation switch. Motor overload
protection and so on.

Operation and maintenance of belt First point

To extend belt service, must do routine maintenance, periodically and duly scavenged
the belt, avoid belt injuries. When the machine working, because of the water and
viscosity of coal. The working surface of the belt will sticky coal and coal drop to a no-working
surface. If do not do routine maintenance, the belt will bulge, and the belt long time work
will be broken down, reduce belt life. Cleaning equipment at head and tail will clean the
coal at the working face and no-working surface. The belt do not at work track, the flank
of the belt will abrasive, the belt will be broken down because of abrasive surface
expansion. Erection polarization transfer can modify work orbital, make the equipment
works salty. In operation, litter in coal got stuck between rollers and belt, the belt long
time work will be broken down. So erection separator can clean these litter, avoid blocked
failure happened. The belt will be impacted at work, so the erection more buffer rollers will
reduce the Impact for the belt. Lastly, for Plod unloaded of the belt, the belt should
choose thick material and low belt speed. Adopt the above-mentioned measures, can
extend belt life, reduced the maintenance work, save material, ensure the equipment
running safely.

Screen broken machinery

The coal into the boiler, requirement have a fixed grain size. always at 30~50mm, so before
coal into boiler should sieving and .tattered. At large and medium-sized coal handling
systems in thermal power plants, screening machinery for roller screen, so thick roller sieve,
sieve volatility, higher the probability of screening applications. There are many types of coal
crushers, work is the use of an external mechanical force to overcome the binding force
within the material. The process of from big to small. Currently, medium-sized power plant
coal handling system used in coal crusher, structural characteristics can be divided Hammer,
Impact, and other types of hammer ring, hammer coal crusher due to its large strengths, high-
efficiency features, used more often.

Operation and maintenance of roller screen

Roller screen installed in the system, Interlock with the system running. Starting, first
start roller screen, second start belt conveyor. Stop, in reverse order, can not start with a
load. Shutdown, the screen surface material must be unloaded and then shut down
the net.
47
 Regular observation of the operation, replacement of oil, grease, replacement cycle can
be determined based on the actual operating conditions.
Between the reducer and screen machines equipped with overload protection
device. When the screen axis due to iron, wood and other debris stuck, exceeds the
allowable security torque, the safety coupling of the shear pin cut off incurs, screen
axis to stop rotation.
Motor and reducer direct connection, motor using an overheating relay.

Application and maintenance of Ring hammer coal crusher hammer

Feeding should be a uniformly distributed rotor in the effective length.
Coal allowed mixture large (> 150mm), more metal, wood and other debris, surface
water should be <15%.
When the hammer ring is worn around the corner wear limit should be replaced,
requiring hammer ring weighing, with a set of installation.
Size sieve, the broken board should maintain a certain thickness, wear thicker than
20mm, the new board must be replaced.
The amount of wear of the bodywear plate can not exceed the original thickness of 2/3.
Daily operation, we should always pay attention to whether the metal machine, which
does not impact the normal sound, check whether there is loosening of the fasteners,
and timely maintenance.
Not allowed to start with a load, be sure to the device after reach normal operating
speed, the imposition of the load put into operation.
Run-time, not allowed to open the access door, not attached to the machine or climbing
machines, to avoid danger.
Lubrication of coal crusher
Bearing lubrication is an important part of the coal crusher, the oil should be 1 / 2 to
2 / 3 is appropriate of the oil chamber, always check the location of oil and oil cleanliness,
once every three months should add oil, cleaning twice a year at least.
Regular cleaning thereon Room
Ring hammer crushed coral can remove iron mixed in coal, wood and other debris in
order to protect themselves not injury. Debris has been appropriated for iron interior, but
also of coal into the iron room, If not clean, not only receive in addition to the effect of
debris, and take the objects (eg, cotton, straw, rags, etc.) throw into the sieve gate holes,
cause congestion. Even when faced with iron, issue impact the body, resulting in the
machine vibration and noise, so that damage to the hammer or the trash rack of the
sieve, which is very dangerous. Therefore, every day should be cleaned once addition
iron room, should be checked once a week in various parts of the machine working
conditions.
Sieve gap adjustment
Ring hammer coal crusher should periodically adjust the gap between hammer loop and
sieve. The size of the gap determines nesting size. The gap is too big, coal crusher can not
play the normal output and efficiency, On the contrary, will greatly reduce the ability to
exclude debris. The gap can not be too small, the gap is too small, equipment will reduce
contribute and the power consumption increases. So the gap of the sieve should be
appropriate adjustment.

48
Dust iron and removal equipment
Coal from mining to shipped to plant, inevitably mixed with iron and other debris. Debris
into the coal handling system can make the belt vertical cut through, coal drop pipe, coal
bunker and other clogging phenomenon. The coal crusher and other equipment early wear
and tear, and even cause serious accidents. Therefore, usually coal handling system to
conduct multi- level dust iron. Lastly, in the process of crushing, screening, processing,
dust debris and transport, coal due to vibration, shock, throwing and so on, will generate a
lot of dust, to prevent dust pollution to the environment, must do dust is handled.
Ventilation and dust removal in industrial production is the application effective, in the
thermal power plant coal handling system is widely used. Ventilation and dust removal are
sent the gas from fans pipeline into the dust collector, to remove the dust, commonly
referred to as dust removal system refers to the casing, duct, fan and dust that "four pieces"
composed of ventilation and dust removal system, operation and maintenance of dust iron
and removal equipment in coal handling system is an important content of work, good or
bad of work quality has a direct impact on the stable operation of the coal handling
system, affect plant safety. Therefore, it must be carried out strictly in accordance with
relevant procedures.

49
Types of Fan:
A fan is a device by which the air is made to flow at required velocity and pressure in a
defined path imparting K.E of its impellers to air/flue gases. This pressure boost is used to
create a draught in the air and flue gas system. Fans mainly perform two functions:
i. They supply air required for combustion in the furnace with required pressure & flow.
ii. They evacuate the product of combustion i.e. flue gases into the atmosphere via the
chimney.

1. P.A. Fan
The primary air fan supplies heated air to the coal mills known as primary air, to give dry
and pulverized coal to the furnace for efficient combustion. There are two P.Fans per
boiler. The fan impeller is a double inlet, the centrifugal wheel with backwards-curved
plate blades. Ambient air is drawn into the P.A duct by two 50% duty, motor-driven
centrifugal fans. The air from each fan discharges into a hot air crossover duct via a steam
air heater. This duct extends around to each side of the boiler to supply the hot air to the
mills' duct, both of which are branched to supply hot air to four coal mills.

2. F.D. Fan
The forced draught fan system is provided to supply secondary air required for pulverized
coal combustion in the furnace, air for fuel oil combustion and overfire air to minimize
No production. The F.D fan system comprises two single-stage axial flow, constant
speed, and auto variable pitch fans per boiler. These fans provide pressurized
atmospheric air to the boiler for combustion. Ambient air is drawn into the secondary air
system by two 50% duty, motor-driven, axial flow forced draught fans with variable
pitch control. The air from each fan discharges into a hot air crossover duct via the
main air heater. This duct extends around to each side of the boiler furnace to form two
secondary air to burners ducts. At the sides of the furnace, each duct split to supply air
to two corners.

3. I.D. Fan
The induced draught fan system comprises of three centrifugal double inlet fans per
boiler, two operating and one standby. Each fan unit consists of a backward curved
plate bladed impeller, which is driven by an electric motor through a variable speed
hydraulic coupling. The I.D fan serves the purpose of evacuating the products of
combustion or the flue gases in the atmosphere via the chimney. The flue gases after
being cleaned in the precipitators is directed towards the atmosphere through the
chimney

50
 TYPES OF PUMP:
1. Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP)
The function of Condensate extraction pumps is to pump out the condensate to the
desecrator through, LP heaters. The steam from the LP cylinders exhausts into the
condenser shells where it is constrained to flow across the water tubes, through which
cooling water is circulated. The steam condensed on the tubes drain to the bottom of the
shell and is collected in a hot well. The condensate is retained in the hot well by means of
the condenser level control valve. The water in a condenser provides a head of water for
the condensate extraction pump to suppress cavitations in its suction impellers. There are
two 100% duty extraction pumps, one remains in duty and one remains to stand by. With
all the necessary instruments such as suction and discharge valve isolating and dump
valves to ensure efficient operation. The thrust bearings in the driving motors have a
temperatures sensor, which can trip the motors automatically. The pump discharge the
condensate to the LP heater system with pressure increased to approx. 18 kg/sq. cm from
70-75 mm of Hg.

2. Air Extraction Pump (AEP)

The function of the air extraction pump is to raise and maintain the vacuum conditions
in the turbine main condensers, and to remove air and other non \-condensable gases
vented to the condenser from various parts of the turbine and feed water heating
system.

3. Boiler Feed Pump (BFP)

The boiler feed pump is the most critical component of a power plant. It is a rotary
machine, which is coupled to a motor through variable speed coupling or turbo
coupling. Feedwater is supplied to the boiler of each turbo-generator seler feed water
pump sets. Under normal conditions, two 50% boiler feed water pump sets are run in
parallel to undertake a complete load of feeding the boiler, while the third 50% pump
set is on standby duty

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TYPES OF CYCLE:
1. Steam Cycle

A thermal power plant is based upon the principle of conversion of heat

energy (steam energy) into mechanical energy. For this conversion of
energy, a power plant requires a turbomachine. A turbomachine is a power-
producing thermodynamic machine. It requires a suitable working fluid, a
source of high-grade energy and a sink for low-grade energy. In a
thermal powerplant, water is used as a working fluid and it is converted
into steam. The steam turbine is a device that converts the heat energy of
the steam coming from the boiler into mechanical energy (kinetic energy)
with the help of which we rotate our shaft. Steam is formed in the rising
tubes of water walls and is collected in the upper portion of the drum
which is separated by the water in the drum by the drum internals. This
steam contains some water droplets which is to be removed before
reaching turbines. This steam is heated in a superheater (primary
superheater, secondary superheater & final superheater) which makes
this steam free from water droplets. Main steam is then 1st applied to the
high-pressure turbine (HPT) at temp. approx. 540 deg C & pressure
138kg/cm2. The steam coming out from HPT has a low temp. & pressure
and required to raise this temp. & pressure before applying to the next
turbine. Hence, it is passed through reheater due to which its temp. &
pressure is raised enough and is then applied to intermediate pressure
turbine (IPT) and steam coming out of this turbine is directly used to
rotate the final low-pressure turbine (LPT). Steam from this turbine has
very low pressure & temp. and can’t be further used to rotate the turbine.
So, it is condensed and converted to water before sending to the drum for
reuse.

52
2. Water Cycle

The water cycle starts from the condenser and ends at the drum. Steam
from the LPT is condensed in the condenser while condensed steam
known as condensate is collected in a hot well-having temp. about 40oC
& pressure 70-75 mm of Hg. The pressure of this condensate is
increased to approx. 18 kg/cm2 by using CEP while the temp. is
increased to approx. 80 deg C by using a low-pressure heater(LPH). To
remove the dissolved oxygen from condensate, a deaerator is used and
then it is passed through BFP to raise its pressure approx. to the drum
water. To further increase its temp up to 130 deg C, it is passed through
a high-pressure heater (HPH). Then finally before sending it to drum its
temp. is raised to approx. 250 deg C by passing it through economizer.
Hence, the extra steam is condensed and reused.

53
3. Flue Gas Cycle

The fuel such as coal when heated in the furnace produces smoke and
ash. This smoke produced is known as FLUE GAS whose temperature is
very high and so used to heat few systems such as superheater &
reheater.

The flue gas is produced in the furnace. It then heats the superheater &
reheater after which it heats the economizer and air preheater (APH).
Since now also its temperature is quite high and also contains some
dust hence, it is precipitated in an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) before
leaving chimney.

54
Types of Heater:
1. High-Pressure Heater (HPH)
In the water cycle, the temperature of feed water from BFP is increased
to approx. 130 deg C by heating it in an HP heater. As the heating of the
feed water in the HP heater is done by the extra steam coming out of the
High-Pressure Turbine(HPT) hence, it is named as High-Pressure
Heater(HPH).

2. Low-Pressure Heater (LPH)

In the water cycle, the temperature of condensate from CEP is raised to
approx. 80 deg C by heating it in an LP heater. As the heating of the
condensate in the LP heater is done by the extra steam coming out of the
Low-Pressure Turbine(LPT) hence, it is named a Low Pressure
Heater(LPH)

55
TYPES OF TURBINE
H.P. Turbine
HP turbine is a single flow design with eight stages of balding. Each stage
comprises stationary and moving blades which are positioned into the rotor
mounted on the diaphragms, direct steam into the rotor mounted on the moving
blades. H.P. turbine is double-shell construction comprising inner and outer
casing. H.P steam enters the H.P. turbine inner casing through vertical inlet
connections are mounted on the top and bottom outer casing. The steam
directed through the diaphragm expands through the rotor blades and
diaphragm towards the fronts of the cylinder. The steam exhausts through the
two branches in the bottom half casing and returns to the boiler to be reheated
to increase the temperature of the steam to 538 deg C so that the efficiency of
the Rankin Cycle increases.

I.P. Turbine
An intermediate pressure turbine is a double-flow design with seven-stage of
balding on either side of the central steam inlet. Each stage comprises
stationary and moving blades which are positioned so that the stationary blades
mounted on the diaphragm, directs the steam into the rotor mounted moving
blades. The turbine is a double-shell construction inner casing, two diaphragms
carry the ring and outer casing. The first 4 stages of each flow are located within
the inner casing and the remaining stage within the diaphragm carries the ring .
The inner casing, diaphragm carrier ring and outer casing are made in halves
bolted together in the horizontal centre.

L.P. Turbine
LP turbine is of double-flow design incorporating six stages in each of its front and
rear flow paths. Each stage consists of a number of stationary blades incorporating
in the diaphragm located in the casing and a set of rotating blades mounted on a
rotor disc. A spray water system design to operate automatically, ensure that
excessive temperatures are not produced in the exhaust flow during prolonged
operation at low turbine load /low condenser vacuum.

56
Different Control Loops in Power Plant:
The boiler control loops are very essential for the safe operation of the boiler in any
power plant industry. In modern power plant industries, the boiler is provided with
various controls to ensure the safe, efficient and reliable operation of the plant.

Here are some important control loops employed in the boiler plant operation:
1. EXCESS AIR -O2 CONTROL LOOP
2. FURNACE INVENTORY CONTROL LOOP
3. FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL LOOP
4. SUPERHEATER STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP
5. BED TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP
6. DRUM LEVEL CONTROL LOOP
7. AUTO COMBUSTION CONTROL LOOP
8. BED LEVEL CONTROL LOOP

1. EXCESS AIR -O2 CONTROL LOOP

The function of the excess air control loop is to maintain the excess air at the desired
limit during the boiler operation. Signals from the O2 controller regulates the fan speed
to supply the required airflow to maintain the excess air depends on the streamflow
and fuel being fired. Control can be operated either in manual or automatic mode
depends on the process requirement. O2% set point for auto control can be varied
depends on the streamflow and quality of the fuel being fired. The excess air control
loop is used for better fuel combustion. Control to be switched over to auto mode
whenever the steam flow is increased above 60% MCR and boiler operation is stable.
However close observation may be required as it may be difficult to maintain the O2
as per the predicted values during upset conditions like heavy bed, moist fuel and
fluctuating steam demands.

2. FURNACE INVENTORY CONTROL LOOP

Furnace inventory control is an integrated part of bed temperature control. The
function of this control loop is to maintain the DP across the furnace as per the steam
flow, bed temperature and fuel being fired. As per the DP requirement, the controller
adjusts the speed of MDC ash recycle RAVs.

3. FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL LOOP

A furnace pressure control loop is used to maintain the furnace pressure at the desired
limit, during the running boiler operation. In this loop, the signal is used to the pressure
controller modulate the ID Fan speed or Fan inlet damper opening to maintain the
optimum furnace draft. Control can be operated either in manual or automatic mode
depends on the process requirement. Furnace pressure set point for auto control can
be

57
varied depends on the process requirement. Control to be switched over to auto mode
after the stabilization of firing. During bed activation, slumping and disturbed operating
conditions, in AFBC boiler control may be switched over to manual mode as the air and gas
flow may vary drastically & abruptly during such conditions.

4. SUPERHEATER STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP

Superheater steam temperature control loop is to maintain the final steam temperature
at the desired limit during the Running boiler operation. There are two stages of at
temptation provided between PSH I (primary superheater) &II and between PSHII &
SSH I/L(secondary superheater inlet ) for the fine control of main steam temperature. The
signal from the individual temperature controllers modulates the respective attemperator
spray control valve opening to maintain the steam temperature the temptation line for
the spray is taken from the discharge of the feed line which is going for the economizer
inlet for controlling the main steam temperature up to desired limits .attemptation
Control can be operated either in manual or automatic mode depends on the process
requirement. Steam temperature set point for auto control can be varied depends on the
process requirement. Controllers to be switched over to auto mode after the steady
steam flow is established. During disturbed operating conditions, controllers may be
switched over to manual mode as the steam temperature may vary drastically & abruptly
during such conditions.

5. BED TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP

The function of the bed temperature control loop is to maintain the bed temperature as
per the steam flow & fuel being fired. Bed temperature is controlled either by Bed
Temperature only OR Bed Temperature/ Shaft differential pressure along with airflow
depends on operating load and fuel being fired. The signal from the bed temperature
control regulates the speed of MDC ash recycle RAV & airflow to the furnace. The selection
of the mode of control (based on Bed Temperature only OR Bed Temperature/ Shaft
differential pressure) shall be selected by the operator from the control console.

6. DRUM LEVEL CONTROL LOOP

Dum level control loop is used to maintain the drum water level at the desired limit,
during the running boiler operation. The signal from the level controller modulates the
30% or 100% feedwater flow control valve opening (depends on the valve selection i.e.
30% or 100%) to maintain the drum level. For drum level control, two types of controls
are provided in the boiler, i.e. single element and three-element control. Single element
control is employed during cold startups and steam flow less than 30% of
MCR( maximum continuous rating) flow conditions. In a single element control loop,
only drum level is considered Three element control is a fine control, which works
effectively on higher and steady load conditions. Three element control can be switched
over to auto mode after steady and steam flow is ensured. In three elements controls
system main steam flow, drum level and feedwater flow is considered in this loop. Both
30% and 100% control valves can be operated either in manual or automatic mode
depends on the process requirement.

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7. AUTO COMBUSTION CONTROL LOOP
The function of the auto combustion control loop is to maintain the rated pressure of final
steam during the boiler operation. The signal from the pressure controller regulates the
airflow & fuel feed rate to maintain the desired steam pressure. Control can be operated
either in manual or automatic mode depends on the process requirement. The pressure
setpoint for auto control can be varied depends on the process requirement. Control to be
switched over to auto mode, whenever the steam flow is increased above 60% MCR and
boiler operation is stable. These control loops are controlled through a monitoring system is
called DCS 52 (Distributed control system ) However close observation may be required as it
may be difficult to maintain the final steam pressure as per the predicted values during
upset conditions like heavy bed, continuous variation in fuel quality and fluctuating steam
demands. If the required controller can be switched over to manual mode as per the
process requirement.

8. BED LEVEL CONTROL LOOP

The function of the bed level control loop is to maintain the required bed level and bed
bulk density during the boiler operation. The signal from the bed level control initiates the
ash cooler operation and stop the cycle as per the preset time. Ash cooler
operation/sequence can be activated either in manual or automatic mode depends on the
requirement. A bed level control loop is used for the purpose of maintaining the desired
bed height during the ruining boiler for maintaining the desired bed temperature and
protect it from the clinker formation. Bed level setpoint for auto control may be varied
depends on the stream flow and quality of the fuel being fired. Control can be operated in
auto mode, however close observation of the furnace and drained bed material may be
required to optimize the draining frequency.

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THERMAL POWER GENERATION EFFICIENCY:
The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station is defined as salable energy
produced as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed. A simple cycle gas
turbine achieves energy conversion efficiencies from 20 to 35% Typical coal-based power
plants operating at steam pressures of 170 bar and 570 °C run at an efficiency of 35 to 38
%with state-of-the-art fossil fuel plants at 46% efficiency. Combined cycle systems can
reach higher values. As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited and governed by
the laws of thermodynamics.

The Carnot efficiency dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the
temperature of the steam. Sub-critical fossil fuel power stations can achieve 36-40%
efficiency. Supercritical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new
"ultra-critical design using pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and multiple Hage reheat
reaching 45-48% efficiency. Above the critical point for the water of 705 deg F (374 deg C)
and 3212 psi (22.06 MPa), there is no phase transition from water to steam, but only a
gradual decrease in density.

A Rankine Cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed waterheater

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Currently, most of nuclear power stations must operate below the
temperatures and pressures that coal-fired plants do, in order to
provide more conservative safety margins within the systems that
remove heat from the nuclear fuel rods. This, in turn, limits their
thermodynamic efficiency to 30-32%. Some advanced reactor
designs being studied, such as the very high-temperature reactors,
Advanced gas-cooled reactor and supercritical water reactor, would
operate at temperatures and pressures similar to current coal plants,
producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

The energy of a thermal power station not utilized in power

production must leave the plant in the form of heat to the environment.
This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with
cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead
utilized for district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important
class of thermal power station are associated with desalination
facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large
supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and
electricity are equally important co products.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plant:

Advantages
1. Fuel cost of the thermal power plant is relatively low.
2. We can produce thermal energy almost everywhere in the world.
3. Heat production System is simple compared to other systems.
4. Over system cost-effective.
5. Easy mechanism.
6. Same heat could be reused.
7. Easier Maintenance of the power station.
8. Use of water is prominent here, therefore, any place with an ample supply of water is
a perfect location for installing a thermal power station.
9. Thermal power plant requires comparatively small space to be installed.

Disadvantages
1. Huge production of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
2. Exhausted gases harm the outside environment badly.
3. Low overall efficiency.
4. Thermal engines requires a huge amount of lubricating oil that is very expensive.
5. Nuclear thermal power plant demands an excessive amount of water for cooling
purposes.
6. Coal type thermal power plant requires a comparatively larger duration before it
supplies generated power to the grid.
7. This type of power station ultimately responsible for raise in sea water level.

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ELECTRICITY COST :
The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal
power station. is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for
the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such
factors as ash handling and disposal. Indirect, social or
environmental costs such as the economic value of
environmental impacts, or environmental and health
effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant
decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation
costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form
part of an environmental impact assessment.

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CONCLUSION
On completion of my vocational training at NTPC KBUNL
(MUZAFFARPUR), I have come to know about how the very
necessity of our lives nowadays that is how electricity is
generated and what all processes are needed to generate
and run the plant on a 24*7 basis. NTPC KBUNL
(MUZAFFARPUR) is one of the plants in India to under the
highest load factor for the maximum duration of time and
that to operating at the highest plant efficiency. This plant
is an example to work efficiency and management of
resources to all other thermal plants in our country. The
training gave me the opportunity to clear my concept from
a practical point of view with the availability of machinery
of diverse ratings.

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REFERENCES:
1.https://kbunl.co.in/

2. https://www.ntpc.co.in/

3. https://www.wikipedia.org/

4. Power Plant Engineering Book by P. K. Nag

5. https://www.babcock.com/en/thermal

6. https://www.researchgate.net/

7. https://hpep.bhel.com/

8. https://www.theengineerspost.com/

9. https://www.coalhandlingplants.com/

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