2/3/2022

Medical Instrumentation
and Measurements
By
Dr. Waleed M. AL-Talabi

Sana’a Community College

Biomedical Engineering 4th Level
2021-2022

Measurements
System II
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Agenda
• Characteristics of Instrument Performance
• Generalized static characteristics
• Generalized dynamic characteristics
• Necessity for Calibration
• Errors in measurements
• Types of errors
• General design criteria and process of medical instrument
• Break
• Biostatistics
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Calculating Measures of Spread

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Characteristics of Instrument
Performance
Instrumentation
Characteristics

Static Dynamic Refer to the

Refer to the
comparison between
comparison between
instrument output
steady output and
and ideal output
ideal output when
when the input
the input is constant.
changes.

Describe the Require the use of

performance of differential and/or
instruments for dc or integral equations to
very low frequency describe the quality
inputs. of measurements.

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Characteristics of Instrument
Performance
• Evaluate new instrument designs, quantitative
criteria for the performance of instruments.

• These criteria must clearly specify how well

an instrument measures the desired input and
how much the output depends on interfering
and modifying inputs.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

• Accuracy • Threshold
• Tolerance • Zero drift
• Precision • Sensitivity drift
• Resolution • Linearity
• Reproducibility • Input ranges
• Statistical control • Input impedance
• Static sensitivity • Hysteresis

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Accuracy
• The accuracy of a single measured quantity
is the difference between the true value and
the measured value divided by the true
value.
• This ratio is usually expressed as a percent.
± 0.01%

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Tolerance
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related
to accuracy and defines the maximum
error that is to be expected in some value.
• Whilst it is not a static characteristic of
measuring instruments, but the accuracy
of some instruments is sometimes quoted
as a tolerance figure.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Precision
• The precision of measurement expresses
the number of distinguishable alternatives
from which a given result is selected.
• High precision measurements don’t imply
high accuracy, because precision makes
no comparison to the true value.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

High accuracy
High precision

Low accuracy
High precision

High accuracy
Low precision

Low accuracy
Low precision

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Resolution
• The smallest incremental quantity that can
be measured with certainty is the
resolution.
• Resolution expresses the degree to which
nearly equals values of a quantity can be
discriminated.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Reproducibility
• The ability of an instrument to give the
same output for equal inputs applied over
some period of time is called
reproducibility or repeatability.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Statistical control
• Statistical control ensures that random
variations in measured quantities that
result from all factors that influence the
measurements process are tolerable.
• Any systematic errors or bias can be
removed by calibration and correction
factors, but random variations pose a
more difficult problem.
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Generalized Static Characteristics

Statistical control
• In this case statistical analysis must be
used to determine the error variation.
• Making multiple measurements and
averaging the results can improve the
estimate of the true value.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Static sensitivity
• The static sensitivity of an instrument or
system is the ratio of the incremental
output quantity to the incremental input
quantity.
• A high sensitivity implies that a small
change in input quantity causes a large
change in its output.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Example: The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the
instrument in Ω/°C.
Resistance (Ω) Temperature (℃)
307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7 Ω.
Hence the measurement sensitivity:
𝟕
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟑 Ω/℃
𝟑𝟎

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Threshold
• If the input to an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to reach
a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough
magnitude to be detectable.
• This minimum level of input is known as the
threshold of the instrument.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Zero drift
• The zero drift is has occurred when all
output values increase or decrease by the
same absolute amount.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Factors can cause zero drift:
 manufacturing misalignment,
 variations in ambient temperature,
 hysteresis,
 vibration,
 shock, and
 sensitivity to forces from undesired
directions.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Sensitivity drift
• Sensitivity drift causes error that is
proportional to the magnitude of the
inputs.
• The slope of the calibration curve can
either increase or decrease.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Sensitivity drift

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Sensitivity drift can result from:
 manufacturing tolerances,
 variations in power supply,
 nonlinearities, and
 change in ambient temperature and pressure

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Linearity
is a measure of the maximum deviation of
any reading from a straight calibration line.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Input ranges
• The range is the minimum and maximum
operating limits that the instrument is
expected to measure accurately.
• For example, a temperature sensor may
have a nominal performance over an
operating range of [-200 : +500 ℃].

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Generalized Static Characteristics

Input impedance
The generalized input impedance 𝑍 is the
ratio of the phasor equivalent of a steady-
state sinusoidal effort input variable
(Voltage, Force, Pressure) to the phasor
equivalent of a steady-state sinusoidal flow
input variable ( Current, Velocity, Flow).
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑍 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
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Generalized Static Characteristics

Hysteresis
• In some instruments, the input-output
characteristic follows a different nonlinear
trend, depending on whether the input
quantity increases or decreases.

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Generalized Static Characteristics

• Hysteresis is most commonly found in
instruments that contain springs, such as
the passive pressure gauge.
• Hysteresis can also occur in instruments
that contain electrical windings formed
round an iron core, due to magnetic
hysteresis in the iron.

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

• Most of the biological signals time-varying
in nature and therefore we should make
sure that the instrument is a time-invariant
system for an accurate measurement.
• The dynamic characteristics of an
instrument include its transfer function, its
frequency response, and its phase or time
delay.

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

• Dynamic characteristics require the use of
differential or integral equations to
describe the quality of the measurements.
• Transfer functions are used to predict the
stability of a system.

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

Zero Order Instruments
It has ideal dynamic performance, because
the output is proportional to the input for all
frequencies and there is no amplitude or
phase distortion.
Example: Linear Potentiometer

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

First Order Instruments
It contains a single energy storage element.
Example: Low-pass RC filter.

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

Second Order Instruments
Instruments that requires second-order
differential equation is required to describe
its dynamic response.
Many medical instruments are second order
or higher, and low pass.
Example: Force-measuring Spring Scale

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Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

Time Delay
Instrument elements that give an output that
is exactly the same as the input, except that
it is delayed in time.
Example: Equipment that require significant
signal processing schemes.

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Medical Instrumentation
and Measurements

Quiz
Next Time!
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Necessity for Calibration

• During use the instrument, its behavior will
gradually diverge from the stated specification
for a variety of reasons.
• Such reasons include:
 mechanical wear,
 the effects of dirt,
 dust,
 fumes and
 chemicals in the operating environment.

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Necessity for Calibration

• The rate of divergence from standard
specifications varies according to
 the type of instrument,
 the frequency of usage and
 the severity of the operating conditions.
• When this situation is reached, it is necessary to
recalibrate the instrument to the standard
specifications.

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Necessity for Calibration

• Such recalibration is performed by adjusting the
instrument at each point in its output range until
its output readings are the same as those of a
second standard instrument to which the same
inputs are applied.

• This second instrument is one kept solely for

calibration purposes whose specifications are
accurately known.

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Errors in measurements
• When we measure a variable, we
seek to determine the true value.
• This true value may be corrupted by a
variety of errors.

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Errors in measurements
For examples:
• Movement of electrodes on the skin may
cause an undesired added voltage called
an artifact.
• Electric and magnetic fields from the
power lines may couple into the wires and
cause an undesired added voltage called
interference.

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Errors in measurements
For examples:
• Thermal voltages in the amplifier
semiconductor junctions may cause an
undesired added random voltage called
noise.
• Temperature changes in the amplifier
electronic components may cause
undesired slow changes in voltage called
drift.

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Errors in measurements
We must evaluate each of these error
sources to determine their size and what we
can do to minimize them.

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Types of Errors
Basically Three types of errors are studied:
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

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Types of Errors
Gross Errors
mainly covers the human mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating
measurement results.
• These are avoided by adopting two means:
 Great care is must in reading and recording the
data.
 Two , Three or even more reading should be taken
for the quantity under measurement.

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Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
Classified into three categories:
1. Instrumental Errors
These errors arises due to:
1. inherent shortcoming in the instrument, because of
friction , hysteresis , or even gear backlash,
2. misuse of the instruments, or
3. loading effects of instruments.
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors

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Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
Classified into three categories:
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
These errors are due to:
conditions external to the measuring device including
conditions in the are surrounding the instrument, such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of
external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
3. Observational Errors

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Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
Classified into three categories:
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors:
 Parallax, i.e. Apparent displacement when the line of
vision is not normal to the scale.
 Inaccurate estimate of average reading.
 Wrong scale reading and wrong recording the data.
 Incorrect conversion of units between consecutive
reading.
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Types of Errors
Random Errors
We are aware for some of the factors
measurement, but about influencing the rest we
are unaware.
The errors caused by happening or
disturbances about which we are unaware are
Random Errors.
Its also known as Residual Errors.

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General Design Criteria and Process of

Medical Instrument
• Many factors affect the design of
biomedical instruments.
• Some of the general requirements can be
categorized as a signal, environmental,
medical, and economic factors.

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Sensitivity, Range, Differential Initial instrument

or single ended, Input
Signal Factors Impedance, Transient and Design
frequency response, Accuracy,
Linearity, Reliability.

Specificity, Signal-to-noise ratio, Prototype Test

Stability: temperature, humidity,
Environmental pressure, shock, vibration,
Factors Radiation Power requirements,
Mounting size, shape.
Final Instrument
Design
Measurand
Invasive or non-invasive,
Tissue-sensor Interface Approval
Medical Factors requirements, Material toxicity,
Electrical safety, Radiation and
heat dissipation, Patient
discomfort.
Production

Cost, Availability, Warranty,

Consumable requirements,
Economic Factor Compatibility with Existing
equipment

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Medical Instrumentation
and Measurements
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Biostatistics
The science of collecting and analyzing
biologic or health data using statistical
methods.

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Biostatistics Populations and Samples

• A population is the entire group that you want to
draw conclusions about.
• A sample is the specific group that you will
collect data from.
• The size of the sample is always less than the
total size of the population.

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Biostatistics Variables and Parameters

• Variables are quantities which vary from individual
to individual.

• Parameters do not relate to actual measurements

or attributes but to quantities defining a theoretical
model.

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Biostatistics Variables and Parameters

• If we measured the weight of one particular
person several times on a very sensitive scale,
we might get different values.
• The person’s true weight is not changing over a
few seconds, but there is variability of the
measurement process itself.
• This source of variability is sometimes known as
noise, and we try to eradicate or minimize it.

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Biostatistics Variables and Parameters

Noise includes not only measurement error
but also legitimate variation.
Measured Value = True Value + Noise

We get this We want this We don’t want this

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Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a single
value that attempts to describe a set of data
by identifying the central position within that
set of data.
The mean, median and mode are all valid
measures of central tendency.

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Measures of Central Tendency

• Means (or average) measure the middle of the
distribution of a numerical characteristic.
• The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in
the data set divided by the number of values in
the data set.
• if we have 𝑛 values in a data set and they have values 𝑥 , 𝑥 , …, 𝑥 the sample mean
𝑥̅ , usually denoted by

1
𝑥̅ = 𝑥
𝑛

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Measures of Central Tendency

• Median is the middle score for a set of data that
has been arranged in order of magnitude.
56 14 68 97 34 80 45 66 90

14 34 45 56 66 68 80 90 97
66

56 14 68 97 34 80 45 66 90 75

14 34 45 56 66 68 75 80 90 97
average them to get a median
67

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Measures of Central Tendency

Mode is the most frequent score in our data set.
On a histogram it represents the highest bar in a
bar chart or histogram.

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Calculating Measures of Spread

The range is the difference between the largest
and the smallest observation.

𝑹=𝑯−𝑳
• R = range
• H = highest value
• L = lowest value

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Calculating Measures of Spread

The Standard Deviation (SD) is a measure
of the spread of observations around the
mean and is used in many statistical
procedures.
• SD is the most commonly used measure
of dispersion with medical and health data.

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Calculating Measures of Spread

The Formula for Standard Deviation

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1
where:
𝒙𝒊 =Value of the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 point in the data set.
𝒙 =The mean value of the data set.
𝒏 =The number of data points in the data set.

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Calculating Measures of Spread

Example:

• Step 1: Find the mean.

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Calculating Measures of Spread

• Step 2: Find each score’s deviation from
the mean.

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1

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Calculating Measures of Spread

• Step 3: Square each deviation from the
mean

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1

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Calculating Measures of Spread

• Step 4: Find the sum of squares.

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1
• Step 5: Find the variance.

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Calculating Measures of Spread

• Step 6: Take the square root.

∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛−1

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Calculating Measures of Spread

The Coefficient of Variation (CV) is a measure of
relative spread that permits the comparison of
observations measured on different scales.

𝑺𝑫
𝑪𝑽 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎%)
𝒙

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Medical Instrumentation
and Measurements
Thank You

Questions