Module 2 –

Problem, Hypothesis and Research Design

Research Problem
A research problem is an area of concern where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed
for professional practices.
Components of a research problem-
i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains
Selecting the problem-
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a
subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
(v) v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem.
(vi) (vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Necessity of defining the problem-

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas
an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What
characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored.
What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the
mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions
only when the research problem has been well defined.
Techniques involved in defining a problem-
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one
after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii) understanding the nature of
the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the ideas through
discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: The problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself
thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In
case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as
such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often
called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek
the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. The
problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must
be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept
in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem
is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view. For a better understanding
of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who
have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The
researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to
be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature : This means that the researcher must be well-
conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other
relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already
undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other
materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are
 available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that
might be used.”. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps
in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under
study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different
studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so
on. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to
the present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich
experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the
researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within
the field.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has
been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be
studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the
available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into
analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the
researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the development of working
hypotheses.

Hypothesis
Definition-
“Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches– assumed for use in
devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental
test when possible”. (Eric Rogers, 1966)

“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between

an independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)

Characteristics of hypothesis:
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
 (ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable
hypotheses, many a time the research programmes have bogged down.
Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a
testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from
it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a
relational hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher
must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and
he should develop such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that
the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember
that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it
should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One
should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in
reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted
generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it
should have empirical reference.

Importance of Hypothesis-
• Hypotheses are indispensable research instrument, for they build a bridge between the
problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
• A hypothesis provides the map that guides and expedites the exploration of the
phenomena under consideration.
• A hypothesis pin points the problem. The investigator can examine thoroughly the
factual and conceptual elements that appear to be related to a problem.
• Using hypothesis determines the relevancy of facts. A hypothesis directs the
researcher’s efforts into a productive channels.
• The hypothesis indicates not only what to look for is an investigation but how to obtain
data. It helps in deciding research design. It may suggest what subjects, tests, tools, and
techniques are needed.
• The hypothesis provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for
exploring and explaining the unknown facts.
• A hypothesis provides the framework for drawing conclusions.
• These hypotheses simulate the investigator for further research studies
Types of Research Hypothesis-

Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The
relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children
aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ
levels than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of
effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists
between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the
relationship.

Null Hypothesis
It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative
statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a
change in the other variable. Whereas, causal hypothesis proposes a cause and
effect interaction between two or more variables.

Alternative Hypothesis 
An alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 or Ha, challenges the null hypothesis and
states that there is a relationship between the two variables of the study and that
the results are significant to the research topic.

Research Design
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims
to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” In fact,
the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted;
it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As
such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Different research designs

 Different Research designs are: (1) research design in case of exploratory research
studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies,
and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies
are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is
that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such
studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate
for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because
the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more
precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods
in the context of research design for such studies are talked about: (a) the survey of
concerning literature; (b) the experience survey and (c) the analysis of ‘insight-
stimulating’ examples.

The survey of concerning literature -Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be

reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It
may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.

Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to
obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to
the research problem.

Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting

hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of
selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. The design in such studies
must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
 (a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability,
but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this
requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean
the design of experiments. Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental
designs.

Unit 3:
Sampling

 Sampling, a method used for research involving large populations, is a technique of choosing
individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them.
 It helps in estimating the characteristics of the whole population.
 Different sampling methods are used by researchers in research so that they do not need to
study the whole population to collect insights.
 It is also time-convenient and cost-effective thus forming the basis of many research designs.
 For example, if a drug manufacturer wants to research the side effects of a drug on the
country’s population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone.
In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then
researches them, giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.

Sample: A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a pre-defined selection method.
Sampling frame: The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Example- You are researching working conditions at Company X. Your population is all 1000 employees
of the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR database which lists the names and contact
details of every employee.

Sample size: The number of individuals in your sample. It depends on various factors, including the size
and variability of the population and your research design.

Characteristics of a Good Sample

Types of sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and
chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of
the sample with this selection parameter. For example, in a population of 1000 members, every
member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling
eliminates bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.

Types of probability sampling

 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member
of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability
of being chosen to be a part of a sample. For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if
the HR team decides on conducting team-building activities, they would likely prefer picking
chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being
selected.
Advantages

Disadvantages

 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it
very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback. For example, if
the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as
the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.

Advantages

Disadvantages

 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method
has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming. For
example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th
individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

Advantages

Disadvantages
  Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each
group separately. For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people
belonging to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the
annual family income.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Uses of probability sampling

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived
from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the
understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality
data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Non-probability sampling:

In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This sampling
method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a
population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample. In most situations, the output of a
survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the
desired target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost
constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the
other type.

Types of non-probability sampling

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects.

Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based
on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when
there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. For example, startups and NGOs
usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or
promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets
randomly.
  Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed at the
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with
the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand
the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection
criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a
“No” are excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a
few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling
method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example,
surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the
questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with
the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific
attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a
rapid method of collecting samples.

Uses of non-probability sampling

 Creating a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it
is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

Steps in Sampling Designing

Type of Universe - Clearly define the set of objects, called the Universe, to be
studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In case of an infinite universe,
we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. e.g. listeners of a
specific radio program, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.
 Sampling unit - Before selecting sample a decision regarding sampling unit need to be taken.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may
be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to
select for his study.
  Source list - Sampling frame contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite
universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list
to be as representative of the population as possible.

Size of sample - The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be
optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. Researcher must determine an acceptable
confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in
case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The parameters of interest in a research
study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.Budget constraint need to be
consider.

 Parameter of interest- In determining the sample design, must consider the question of the
specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population. There may
also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make
estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.

 Budgetary constraint- Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact
upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This
fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

 Sampling procedure - Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample i.e., he must
decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this
technique stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample designs.Researcher
must select the design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost has a smaller
sampling error.

MODULE 4
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis
Galton (1822 - 1911). In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a
number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. Questionnaire
method of data collection is quite popular also it is being adopted by private individuals, research
workers, private and public organizations and even by government.

Characteristic of good questionnaire- page 271

Types of questionnaire- page 272

The advantages of using questionnaire methods are

1. Compare to other types of survey questionnaire methods are cheap,

2. Do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys
3. questionnaire methods often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data

The disadvantages of using questionnaire methods are

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires

2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

4. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

5. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Interviews
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. There are variety form of interview method which including: individual, face-to-
face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing. Interviews can be – Structured, Semi-structure or
Unstructured.

Characteristics of the Structured Interview

a. The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.

b. The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set of
response categories.

c. There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended
questions included in the interview guide.

d. Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept
consistent from interview to interview.

e. The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not insert his
or her opinion in the interview.
Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews

a. The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.

b. The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions and
topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.

c. The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the
conversation that may stray from the guide when she/he feels this is appropriate.

Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews

a. The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a
scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to be an
interview.

b. The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of the interview.
This guides the discussion.

c. There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds rapport with
respondents, getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way.

d. Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants’ responses.

The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:

(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview
method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.

(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always
there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.

(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.

(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible
in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held

(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous
reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.

(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.

(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important weaknesses,
mention may be made of the following:
 (i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or
people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample
is large and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting,
training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.
(vi) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(vii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that
would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult
requiremen

Observation
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks
and controls on validity and reliability. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey research to
analyse behaviour, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in
evaluating political candidates, public health officials, professional organizations, and advertising and
marketing directors.

Observational methods can be classified as follows –

1. Natural Observation: Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal setting
and in this type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior
of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the information and improvement in the
environment of making an observation can be done with the help of natural observations.

2. Subjective and Objective Observation: All the observations consist of the two main components,
the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers to the
activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the
observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations involving
observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective
observation. Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.

3. Direct and Indirect Observation: With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes
to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he present and then
 this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves
studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like photographic
or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect
observation.

4. Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured observation works according to a plan and
involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information
that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various features that are
to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such observations involve the use of
special instruments for the purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature. But in
the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured
observation.

5. Participant and Non Participant Observation:

The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly,
this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview
or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects
(i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the
other.

However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the
information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

Survey
Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Today, survey research is used
by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey research to analyse
behaviour, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in evaluating
political candidates, public health officials, professional organizations, and advertising and marketing
directors. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that is given to a sample. Surveys
provide a means of measuring a population’s characteristics, self-reported and observed behavior,
awareness of programs, attitudes or opinions, and needs. Repeating surveys at regular intervals can
assist in the measurement of changes over time. These types of information are invaluable in planning
and evaluating government policies and programs.
Case study
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete
observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the
entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more
emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The
case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is
essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case
study method is to locate the factors that account for the behavior-patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality

The advantages of case study method are

(i)Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences
which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with
the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.

(ii) This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its
relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.

(iii) It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing
them.

(iv)Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task of
constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough knowledge of
the concerning universe

The disadvantages of case study method are

(i)Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as
such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.

(ii) Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere. It is not possible to use it in case of a big
society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method

(iii)Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is often
not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words, logical concepts and
units of scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator.

The characteristics of a good test are

Objectivity- a test must have the trait of objectivity that it must be free from the subjectivity element so
that there is complete interpersonal agreement among experts regarding the meaning of the items and
scoring of the test.
Reliability- reliability refers to self -correlation of the test. It shows the extent to which the result
obtained are consistent when the test is administrated once or more than once on the same sample
with reasonable time gap.

Validity- validity indicates the extent to which the test measure what it intends to measure, when
compared with some outside independent criterion.

Norms- norms refer to the average performance of a representative sample on a given test. There are
four types of norms- age norms, grade norms, percentile norms and standard score norms.

Practicability/ usability- a test must also be practicable/usable from the point of view of the time in its
completion, length, scoring etc.

Psychometrics is a systematic approach to looking at individual differences. It is concerned with

identifying factors (a) that predict future behaviour and (b) that we can measure reliably or consistently.
Psychometric tools are structured frameworks, in the form of questionnaires, exercises, activities, games,
etc., that aid an unbiased evaluation of psychological characteristics, such as personality, behavior,
intelligence, aptitude, motivation and values. Psychometric tools help objectively assess psychological
characteristics that differentiate candidates from one another, aiding assessors in making better decisions. 

Proper psychological testing consists of the following:

a. Standardization - All procedures and steps must be conducted with consistency and
under the same environment to achieve the same testing performance from those being
tested.

b. Objectivity - Scoring such that subjective judgments and biases are minimized, with
results for each test taker obtained in the same way.

c. Test Norms - The average test score within a large group of people where the
performance of one individual can be compared to the results of others by establishing
a point of comparison or frame of reference.

d. Reliability - Obtaining the same result after multiple testing.

e. Validity - The type of test being administered must measure what it is intended to
measure.

MODULE 5:
Reliability is the precision, or accuracy, of the measurement or score. Reliability refers to this
consistency of scores or measurement which is reflected in the reproducibility of the scorers.
When all the other factors are held constant or being controlled then a reliable test produces
identical result for an examinee from one occasion to other. According to Anastasi “Reliability
refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals when re-examined with test
on difficult occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other variables
examining conditions.

Types of Reliability

Test Retest Reliability- In test reliability, the single form of the test is administrated
twice on the sample with a reasonable time gap. In this way, two administrated of the same test
yield two independent sets of scores. The two sets, then correlated, give the value of the reliability
coefficient.

The disadvantages of test reliability is that it’s a time consuming method for estimating the
reliable coefficient also this method assumes that the examinee’s physical and psychological setup
remains unchanged in both the testing situations but the fact is the examinee’s health, emotional
condition, motivational conditions and his mental set up all changes. Also, some uncontrolled
environmental changes may take place during the administration of test. All these factor likely to
make the total score of the examinee different from the first administration thus the examinee
relative position is likely to change lowering the reliability coefficient. The test retest method is
the most appropriate method of estimating reliability of both the speed and the power test.

Internal Consistency Reliability

The most common method of estimating internal consistency reliability is the split half method in
which the test is divided into two equal or nearly equal halves. The usual way of spitting the test is
the odd-even method. Generally the easier items are placed at the beginning or in the first half of
the test and the difficult part are placed at the end of the test or in the second half. The advantage
that this method has over the test–retest method is that only testing is needed. This technique is
also better than the parallel form method to find reliability because only one test is required.

The advantages of split half method is that all data necessary for computing of the reliability
coefficient are obtained in a single administrated test. The disadvantages is that the both the sets
of scores are obtained on one occasions, fluctuation due to change in temporary conditions within
the examinee as well as due to the temporary changes in the external environment will operate in
one direction that is either favorably or unfavorably the obvious result of which be either an
enhancement or depression in the real coefficient of reliability. The other disadvantages is that
split half method should not be used in speed test.

Alternate form- pg 93

Factores affecting reliability- pg 97

Extrinsic factors which affect the reliability of the group are variability, guessing by the examinees,
environmental conditions and momentary fluctuations.
Intrinsic factors which affect the reliability of the group are length of the test, range of the total
scores, homogeneous of items, difficulty value of items and discrimination values.

Validity
Validity reflects an evolutionary, research based judgment of how adequately a test measures the
attribute it was designed to measure.The validity of any measuring instruments depends upon the
accuracy with which it measures what it to be measured when compared with standard criterion.
A test is valid when the performance which it measures corresponds to the same performance as
otherwise independently measured or objectively defined.

The validity of any measuring instruments depends upon the accuracy with which it measures
what it to be measured when compared with standard criterion. A test is valid when the
performance which it measures corresponds to the same performance as otherwise
independently measured or objectively defined. At this point, a distinction needs to be made
between validity and reliability.

Content validity is determined by the degree to which the questions, tasks, or items on a test are
representative of the universe of behavior the test was designed to sample. Content validity is a
useful concept when a great deal is known about the variable that the researcher wishes to
measure. Content validity becomes more of an issue for tests of achievement or ability and less a
concern for tests of personality, where high content validity may limit the overall
usefulness/applicability of the test. Content validity of a test is examined in two ways (i)by the
experts’s judgement and (ii) by statistical analysis. Content validity is most appropriately applied
to the achievement test or the proficiency test.

A test has face validity if it looks valid to test users, examiners, and especially the examinees. Face
validity is really a matter of social acceptability and not a technical form of validity in the same
category as content, criterion-related, or construct validity. Face validity is needed in all types of
tests and helps a lot in improving the objectively determined validity of the test by improving the
wording and structure of the test content.

Criterion-related validity is demonstrated when a test is shown to be effective in estimating an

examinee’s performance on some outcome measure. In this context, the variable of primary
interest is the outcome measure, called a criterion. The test score is useful only insofar as it
provides a basis for accurate prediction of the criterion. Criterion validity is a very common and
popular type of test validity.

In a concurrent validation study, test scores and criterion information are obtained
simultaneously. Concurrent evidence of test validity is usually desirable for achievement tests,
tests used for licensing or certification, and diagnostic clinical tests. An evaluation of concurrent
validity indicates the extent to which test scores accurately estimate an individual’s present
position on the relevant criterion. Concurrent validity can be determined by establishing
relationship or discrimination. Concurrent validity is most suitable to tests meant for diagnosis of
the present status rather than for prediction of future outcomes.

Factors affecting the reliability

The item difficulties value of an item is defined as the proportion or percentage of examines or
individual who answer the item correctly. According to Tate (1955), item difficulty can be
calculated by finding out the proportion of the subjects that have answered the item correctly. He
stated that, difficulty value of an item is inversely proportional to the proportion of students that
have answered it correctly. The percentage of those who pass the test item and those who fail is
determined to find out the difficulty level. Neither a very easy item which can be responded to by
every individual of a group nor the difficult items that cannot be responded by every individual of
a group are included in the test. Generally, that item is considered to be of appropriate difficulty
level to which 50 per cent of any group have responded. An item which 90 per cent of the group
answered correctly would be considered an easy item. One which only 10 per cent answered
would be termed very difficult. An item that half of the class answered correctly and half
answered incorrectly is said to have 50 per cent difficulty. There are two important methods of
determining the difficulty value of an item are the method of judgement and the empirical
method.The item-difficulty index is a useful tool for identifying items that should be altered or
discarded.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING NORMS

1.The first step in developing norms is to define the composition of the target group. The test is
intended to be used for a particular type of person group of persons. The composition of the
target group (also called normative group) is determined by the intended use of the test.

2. Selecting the sample from the target population: When the test constructor has defined the
target population, he proceeds to select a representative sample from each of the target
population or group. To make the selected sample representative of the target population, a
cross-sectional representation of the target population must be made.

. 3. Standardizing conditions for proper implementation of test: Unless conditions of test

administrations are standardized, valid and proper comparisons of individual test scores to test
norms are impossible. Therefore, factors like adequate sound control, lighting, ventilation,
temperature of working space must be properly controlled. Also, factors like test timing, test
security, adherence to test-manual direction and assuring that the examinees work on proper test
sections are most important for standardizing the conditions of working space. Without these
standardization procedures, norms cannot serve as a useful comparative device.