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Education in the Middle East: Challenges and Opportunities

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DOI: 10.1057/9781137396969_9

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 8
Education in the Middle East: Challenges and
Opportunities
Sherif Kamel

Introduction
For several centuries the Middle East was socially, economically, and technologically

advanced. One of the reasons for this was its people’s appreciation of and openness to

knowledge creation and dissemination. This trend lasted from the 8th to the 13th centuries

(Aubert and Reiffers 2003). Knowledge became the most important and determining factor

for economic growth. The impact and contribution of this wealth of knowledge were felt and

appreciated across different sectors and disciplines and acknowledged beyond the region and

around the world. However, things changed drastically in the 18th and 19th centuries

following the Industrial Revolution. In the 21st century, with oil exploration and an economic

boom in some parts of the region, investment and attention was redirected to building state of

the art infrastructure in various sectors, including education and health, as Middle Eastern

countries prepared to engage with and integrate in the knowledge society. To date,

investments allocated to sectors such as education, information infrastructure, research and

development, and innovation have been insufficient in most Middle Eastern countries (Aubert

and Reiffers 2003), when compared to other regions, including emerging economies.

However, increasing attention is being paid to these sectors compared to past decades and

more concrete achievements have been realized in recent years.

Education in the Middle East has consistently faced a variety of challenges.

According to the World Bank, the quality of education in the region is falling behind other

regions and needs urgent intervention and reform in order to address issues associated with

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unemployment (Gavlak 2008). Although the knowledge ecosystem, including awareness,

education, training, and lifelong learning, represents a cornerstone for development and

growth in the Middle East, there is still a lot that needs to be done before the education sector

becomes a catalyst for economic production and development and a driver for societal growth

(Holmes 2008). Moreover, higher education plays an invaluable role within society because it

creates additional opportunities for development and provides knowledge transfer for

students and other stakeholders, and promotes change, creativity, innovation, and progress

(Wilkens 2011).

Over the last few decades successive governments in the region sought to expand

enrollment to formal education and improve the quality and efficiency of education service

delivery (Welmond 2006). Education and lifelong learning should be considered as the

invaluable foundation upon which most economic and social strategies are based, and

policies and directions are built. Therefore, education should be made a top priority if the

national objective is to realize effective and sustainable economic development and growth in

the long term. Building a knowledgeable society remains an integral platform for creating

jobs, improving standards of living, and becoming more competitive as a nation. The impact

is usually realized following years of strategic planning in which synergies are established

among key stakeholders in the economy. Moreover, modern education and lifelong learning

policies are increasingly being defined in terms of economic development, growth and timely

global competition (Shirazi 2010).

The key challenges facing the Middle East could be summarized in three main points:

an increase in educational disparity within countries; a constant decrease in the quality of

education, despite an ongoing increase in per capita education expenditure; and the mismatch

and growing divide between market needs, in terms of capacity and skills, and what the

educational system has to offer in terms of output (UNDP 2002). Moreover, there are factors

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that impact higher education such as, but not limited to, regional and international

geopolitical challenges, student mobility and the impact of emerging technologies, in addition

to socioeconomic development and growth.

Basic education
Historically, free public education across the Middle East was an integral element of the

social contract in the post-independence period (Akkari 2004). With massive population

growth rates, governments tried to extend the right to education to everyone; however,

something had to give and unfortunately it was quality that was greatly affected. This has

become a major challenge, especially since population growth in the Middle East is the

highest in the world. Countries like Egypt grow by over 1.9% annually and the number of

births in 2012 exceeded 2.6 million. Today, while primary education is compulsory,

enrollments are gradually increasing at primary, secondary and university levels, with

variations between countries of the region dependent on their economic resources. This

growth is placing many challenges on different governments to maintain universal access to

education while also maintaining an acceptable quality, targeted to realize a positive societal

impact.

While basic education is spreading across the Middle East, there are still some

demographic pressures from desert locations, mountains, and remote communities across the

region. There are also limited resources resulting in up to three teaching shifts per day to

accommodate the increasing number of students across the region. That there are few

qualified teachers also contributes to the deteriorating quality of basic education. Information

and communication technology (ICT) could play a pivotal role in delivering education,

whether at pre-university or university levels, as a platform that can overcome the barriers of

distance and lack of infrastructure. The answer could be home schooling and blended

learning approaches while capitalizing on state of the art ICT tools and applications.

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 When studying the Middle East, there is a need to understand common elements in

the quality of the educational process as well as the region’s general demographics. These

include: an overwhelmingly young population; massive unemployment; a growing need for a

variety of skills and capacities to achieve economic diversification and service sectoral

requirements, such as industrial, agricultural, and service sectors; and a growing need to

invest in building, education, vocational training and lifelong learning.

In developing countries, primary education continues to be the main investment

priority with a growing population. In terms of a return on investment (ROI), or rather return

on education (ROE), private education usually comes above public education and investing in

women has a better turnover than investing in men (Psacharopoulos 1994). However, these

returns addresses quantitative rather than qualitative elements, such as student–teacher ratios,

number of students per class, number of students graduating, and so on. There is little

emphasis on quality of education, impact, assurance of learning and more. It is important to

note that, up until the 1950s, public education in Egypt was driven by quality and was

recognized as delivering successful graduates to serve in different sectors countrywide as

well as proving themselves in different ventures around the world. Quality was the driving

factor, not quantity, which was helped by the minimal population growth during that period,

the awareness of the population, and the fact that urbanization was still in its infancy. Things

changed in the mid 1950s with a boom in population, providing education for free through

public schools, and the tendency to be more oriented towards numbers rather than impact.

Today’s economic climate, coupled with an accelerated rate of change, is putting

additional pressure on the education sector with its different stakeholders. The demands of

the 21st century are different and constantly changing. The role of ICT is becoming core. The

marketplace is looking for a new, well-rounded breed of entrepreneurs and leaders who are

technology savvy, smart, innovative, globally oriented, and culturally aware of the different

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values and norms across various societies and communities. Therefore, graduates need to be

well equipped to meet these global market challenges. The emerging generation of students

are accustomed to a variety of unprecedented tools and techniques for collaboration and

interactive communication to retrieve, capture, create, and exchange knowledge (Rajendran

2010). Such emerging technologies overcome the barriers of distance and time and enable

access to a repository of knowledge and a world of contacts and networks that provides

diversity and exposure and contributes to the learning environment.

The societies that are capable of creating knowledge and using it effectively and

efficiently will be the ones able to compete in a competitive and changing global market

place (Aubert and Reiffers 2003). Education is an essential pillar in alleviating poverty and

minimizing the gaps between different segments in the community. In improving the know-

how and value of human capital, standards go up and, indirectly, societal productivity

improves and helps the nation to improve its position on the competitive global ladder.

Moreover, education contributes directly to the growth of national income by improving the

productive capacities of the labor force. According to a study of 19 developing nations,

including Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, a nation’s long-term economic growth increases by

3.7% for every year the adult population’s average level of schooling rises (UNESCO 2002).

In that respect, education on a strategic long-term scale could be used as an invaluable

platform for reducing poverty and improving the standard of living in the Middle East

(Roudi-Fahimi and Moghadam 2003). The impact of scalable quality education could be

diffused across different sectors and yield positive outcomes throughout the community.

Statistically, the Middle East has not achieved the increased literacy and school

enrollment witnessed in other regions, such as Asia and Latin America (Gavlak 2008).

Obviously, there are different conditions and one must not generalize across time or regions.

However, even by the scale of development and progress in the Middle East, there are some

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countries, such as Djibouti, Yemen, Iraq, and Morocco, that need to invest more effort in that

area to achieve educational reform, despite an increase in access to education and a decrease

in the gender gap. Customization for local conditions and needs is one of the critical success

factors in building workable, effective business models. Countries in the region that have

witnessed clear educational reform have witnessed the creation of more jobs. For better

education to be offered to the current and next generations in the Middle East, it should form

be an integral component of any national development strategy. The formulation of the

education strategy should be aligned with the nation’s long-term vision of where it sees itself

in 40–50 years. The five-year plans that are common practice in the region are probably

counter-productive given the short-term impact and the lack of strategic thinking associated

with such short- to medium-terms plans. The rational development of a nation’s human

capital is the proper approach to realizing effective and sustainable socioeconomic

development. Long-term strategies are the only path to benefiting effectively from the

educational sector in a scalable way.

Higher education
In general, as the Middle East’s population has increased there has been a remarkable

attention paid to expanding access to basic and higher education. This has taken place

through the proliferation of a large number of private and public schools at basic education

levels and through the establishment of satellite campuses and branches of international

universities. A variety of mechanisms, techniques and tools have been used, all contributing

to the bigger picture of improving the outcome of education but, in reality, they look like a

set of islands without bridges and that in itself leads to benefiting much less from potential

opportunities. Unlike the huge number of public universities available in the past, there is

now an increasing number of local private universities in different countries across the

region. However, as in the case of basic education, while the increase in the quantity of the

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offerings has been impressive, the level of quality remains a concern and a challenge, given

the massive increase in the number of students enrolled every year at both school and

university levels. The delicate balance between responding to increasing market demands and

providing quality education should remain at the core of decision making associated with

education policies and strategies.

Middle East education profile

The number of education establishments grew exponentially during the last century. In 1940,

there were only 10 universities in the region; in 2000 there were 140 institutions, which

became 233 in 2003 and 260 in 2007 (Romani 2009). In 2013, the number of universities

exceeded 470 universities, excluding higher institutions, colleges and vocational training

academies, which amounted to over 1200 entities. There are variations among different

countries in terms of the number of institutions, their capacity and individual profiles and the

resources available vary dramatically within the Middle East (Winckler 2002).

In the case of Egypt, the first university – Fouad I University, now Cairo University –

was established in 1908 and was followed by the American University in Cairo (AUC) in

1919. The American University of Beirut (AUB) was the first university established in

Lebanon in 1866. Perhaps, the modern legacy of these institutions is a solid educational basis

where knowledge transfer is initiated and its impact realized beyond national boundaries and

throughout the region (Thi Phan 2010). Saudi Arabia established its first university in 1957,

King Saud University, and had eight universities in 2003. Today, there over 100 universities

and colleges, with an annual budget of over US $25 billion, for 23 million inhabitants

(Krieger 2007a). In the United Arab Emirates and Qatar there are over 40 branches of

European, American, and Australian universities that were established over the last decade

using different business models (Krieger 2007b). Then there is the establishment of free trade

educational spaces, such as the knowledge village in Dubai (UAE), which led to an

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increasing number of educational institutions being built in the Gulf region and adding to the

capacity of these countries to absorb students from the region and beyond (Lasanowski

2010).

However, collectively, despite a decade or more of extensive growth and expansion in

enrollment, female participation, numbers of programs, degrees and institutions, the number

of places within higher education in the region is still too low when compared to the needs of

students, employers, and society at large (Wilkens 2011). Current demand in the region and

the constant request for change, mainly from students, stems from the frustration many feel

with the existing status quo and the failure, or slow progress, of the social contract for the

advancement of society that could be facilitated and supported through quality higher

education (Wilkens 2011). It is quality that remains the focal issue in crowded settings. It is a

chronic problem that existed for decades without a turnkey solution. Ironically, the typical

measurement has been the annual numbers of graduates who remain, unfortunately,

unemployed while many employers fail to find the caliber and capacity they consistently look

for. There is a gap between what the graduates know and what the market needs. A

curriculum that addresses these issues will make a difference in the dynamic and agile global

marketplace of the 21st century. Hence, there is a need to keep pace with the shifting

demand, needs and requirements for human capital and, specifically, the skills and capacities

needed (Wilkens 2011).

The United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Arab Human Development

Report focused on the role of education as an enabling force for accelerating change,

progress, and development and the report asked for dramatic changes and a revamping of the

educational systems in the Middle East. This is not the time for a quick fix but for a

comprehensive and overarching strategic strategy (UNDP 2002). While there is a need to

realize some quick wins, the emphasis and focus should remain on a long-term development

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strategy with education, in its widest sense, at its core. Decades of quick fixes and firefighting

have resulted in numerous studies but no impact. The education sector should be addressed as

a holistic ecosystem with multiple variables, which affect each other and should be dealt with

collectively to be able to realize the desired impact.

Countries in the Middle East spend a comparatively high percentage of their gross

domestic product (GDP) on education (Sabry 2009). On average, countries spend around 5%

of GDP and 20% of government expenditure on education but the results and the impact vary

between nations. A resulting outcome is better access to education for a larger segment of the

community; however, quality remains a major issue. It is important to note that back in the

1960s, the region had some of the lowest educational indicators in the world so, in many

ways, the universal access that has been achieved is remarkably impressive; however, much

more is needed in terms of the resulting impact and matching capacities and skills with

market needs and demands. In fact, with the increasing number of enrollments the delivery of

a standard quality across different educational institutions has become more of a challenge.

While one issue of increasing universal access is fixed another issue emerges, that of

compromising quality.

Internationalization of higher education

One of today’s primary issues is the internationalization of higher education while factoring

in and blending it with glocalization to cater for local values, norms, beliefs, and different

cultures. Higher education across the world should be undertaking policies and practices that

can cope with global change and transformation. There have been multiple developments in

internationalization efforts in the Middle East over the last few decades, including the

proliferation of satellite schools and universities from Europe, North America, and Asia,

especially in the Gulf region. Activities and initiatives that offer various opportunities for

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cultural diversity include migrating programs for delivery in the Middle East using local and

international faculties, and study abroad and exchange programs (Altbach and Knight 2007).

Within the notion of globalization countries in the Middle East have heavily invested

in knowledge industries and in human capital across the board, whether in higher education

and vocational training. These developments have had increasing impact on the migration of

research interest into higher education institutions in the region; however, there is a long way

to go before the expected outcome from research is realized. There is a need to focus on

homegrown capacities that can provide the services and offerings through sustainable models.

The emphasis on research coupled with the provision of the required infrastructure in terms

of human resources, finance, and different tools and techniques remains an important element

that is still lacking in higher education in the Middle East. International cooperation is

important but local capacity development is a must.

While globalization, in many ways, is a one-way process, internationalization

provides the platform for a two-way process where students and faculty have the chance to

move between developed and developing economies and represents a possible value-added

platform between the Middle East and the rest of the world. This also includes the migration

of programs, initiatives, and ideas (Altbach and Knight 2007). Education is increasingly

becoming a trading commodity between the haves and the have nots. In a growing

marketplace such as the Middle East, the higher education institutions cannot meet the

growing demand in terms of volume or quality, yet. Thus, opting to host international

universities and institutions is perceived by many as an important support. However, it is vital

to emphasize that to realize long-term, sustainable and value-added scalable impact, there

needs to be investment in homegrown capacities and the formulation of processes that reflect

local needs. Investing in human resources is key; academics, researchers, scholars, and

administrators all represent different building blocks of the educational cycle.

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 In the context of the Middle East, the types of university proliferating in the region

can be grouped into two main categories. The first address mainly for-profit transactions,

while the second is focused on investing in people, disseminating knowledge, and increasing

cultural understanding (Altbach and Knight 2007). The many satellite universities and

branches are usually located in countries whose governments provide both public funding for

education and the opportunity for international funding and foreign direct investment (FDI) in

lifelong learning schemes. According to Altbach and Knight (2007): ‘most initiatives –

including branch campuses, franchised degree programs and partnerships with local

institutions – are focused on developing and middle-income countries’. However, it is

obvious that the same trend is taking place in the Middle East, especially in the relatively oil-

rich countries of the Gulf. This indicates that models are changing and that there is no one

size that fits all. However, nations around the world, the Middle East included, look for

different scenarios that can help improve one of their primary resources, people. Over the last

few years, the notion of internationalization gradually increased, in the sense that universities,

especially private ones, started to invest in study abroad experiences, curriculum enrichment

via international study majors, language of instruction and the provision of scholarships and

fellowships for international students to visit and study on campus (Siaya and Hayward

2003).

In the context of internationalization, there is no doubt that the Middle East is

witnessing rapid development not only with the proliferation of international campuses and

branches, as indicated before, but also through the initiatives and agreements set by private,

and in some cases public, universities through joint programs with international universities,

such as Cairo University in Egypt, and campus branches, such as INSEAD in the United

Arab Emirates, and the establishment of universities such as the German University in Cairo

and the British University of Egypt, with their respective affiliations in Germany and the UK.

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Moreover, there are a few developments in Jordan with the proliferation of joint programs

offered in collaboration with European and American universities (Massadeh 2010). In

addition, there are multiple examples from Qatar where investment in higher education is

clearly visible at Education City with satellite branches from a number of American

universities including, but not limited to, Virginia Commonwealth University for arts and

design programs for female students; Texas A&M University for engineering programs;

Carnegie Mellon University for business and computer science programs;wand and George

Town University for international affairs programs (Thi Phan 2010). There are also

government-supported institutions that offer joint programs with affiliations in the

Netherlands and the UK, such as the Regional Information Technology Institute (RITI)

established in Egypt in 1992.

Internationalization is also manifested through joint research activities, guest

lecturing, using international curricula and textbooks, and more. Some of these collaborations

employ traditional teaching techniques while others opt for blended learning platforms and

mechanisms. One thing that needs to be addressed is the quality assurance of those programs

and the ability to ensure that the standards set and the expectations planned are actually met.

Hence, accreditation and continuous improvement become primary integrated elements. It is

important to note that, as programs and institutions grow in number and their spread covers as

many stakeholders as possible, delivering quality education benefits the public at large and

that they should not simply be a venue for profit making and profit maximization (Siaya and

Hayward 2003).

It is important to note that while these international programs offered through

different models in the Middle East are important for exposure and diversity, there needs to

be a constant look at the core values of different societies to be able to adapt and cater for

local conditions (Ward 2010). The challenge remains to provide the appropriate learning

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materials with culturally adapted and localized cases, articles and content (Walters et al.

2010). While comparing content and examples is of high value, transplanting content and

curricula that does not match the needs of local markets is not useful. For example, in 2007,

the American University in Cairo school of business established El-Khazindar Business

Research and Case Center (KCC) primarily to develop business cases that reflect the

organizational and market developments, challenges, successes and failures that face

companies in the Middle East region. The reason for establishing KCC was to overcome a

lack of cases studies covering the developments that are taking place in the region, reflecting

business and organizational issues related to business in the Middle East. Educational

development and reform should be current, open to global developments and emerging

concepts and techniques, and culturally responsive and relevant to local conditions, norms,

values, and beliefs.

Education in the Middle East

Education and empowering woman

There is no doubt that education, training, and lifelong learning represents a critical success

factor in socioeconomic development and growth. That applies to all elements of society

regardless of gender, background, location, and socioeconomic stature. Moreover, the United

Nations clearly indicated with its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the goal to

improve education, gender equality, and women’s empowerment (Roudi-Fahimi and

Moghadam 2003). In general, the MDGs clearly emphasized their crucial role in building

democratic societies and establishing a solid and sustainable infrastructure for socioeconomic

development and growth (UN 2003).

Access to education over the last few decades in the Middle East has improved

massively in terms of numbers accommodated by different schools and universities. This

includes the number of girls and women admitted to different programs, an encouraging sign

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when compared to the past and has resulted in reducing the gender gap in a number of

programs, at both school and university levels as well as in a number of countries in the

Middle East (Roudi-Fahimi and Moghadam 2003).

While the number of female enrollments is on the rise, the size of the challenge

remains big given the quality issues that need to be addressed, as indicated before. According

to the Arab Human Development Report (2002): ‘The most worrying aspect of the crisis in

education is its inability to provide the requirements for the development of Arab societies’.

Therefore, the more investment is allocated to education and lifelong learning, the slower the

population grows and the faster the economy grows (UNFPA 2002). There are a number of

examples from the Middle East, such as the case of the college for women’s liberal arts

education that was inaugurated in 1999 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, the Effat College, now Effat

University. The country remains interested in investing in higher education. It injected over

US $260 million in 2012 into building hospitals, power stations, and buildings to support the

university infrastructure. Education is both a vertical and horizontal sector affecting different

elements in the economy and with more investment in the different building blocks of the

sector the impact will be scalable, effective, and long term. Investing in people is investing in

the future.

The liberal arts education model is all about giving choice to the students so they can

explore a variety of fields until they decide what they want to do (Ward 2010). The model

provides a web of interactive processes and a collaborative environment that enriches the

experience of the students. Effat University offers its students the opportunity to study a

variety of subjects that provides them with a broad educational base. More importantly,

according to Grant (2013) ‘the model emphasizes critical thinking as opposed to rote

learning’. The university has started to offer a combination of liberal arts courses with more

technical courses, which is catering to the growing needs of the Saudi Arabian market. There

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are other examples from the Middle East where attempts to fill the void resulted in depriving

some groups from having access to education due to limited resources and lack of attention to

underprivileged communities.. In that sense, universities throughout the region should

maintain close attention to poverty alleviation and unemployment while supporting major

issues such as health, civic engagement, and social responsibility (Al-Rashdan 2009).

Transforming higher education using ICT

Institutions in the world of higher education are turning to virtualization (Rajendran 2010).

The role of ICT is gradually emerging as the main platform and infrastructure for education,

learning, and knowledge dissemination in the 21st century. The increasing number of

enrollments to schools, colleges, and universities, coupled with various economic challenges,

makes capitalizing on ICT important as a platform and gateway for accommodating different

kinds of students. It is important to emphasize that higher education plays a key role in

societal transformation and undoubtedly represent an engine of social and economic progress.

Therefore, there needs to be a serious look at the content, strategic direction, expectations,

and other elements that shape how countries in the Middle East want to look like and be

known for in the decades to come.

Moreover, the increase in college and university enrollments, fueled by various

economic and financial challenges, creates growth opportunities in the education sector while

posing the question of identifying the possible paths countries should pursue to meet the

increasing student population. One of the options is to turn to blended learning, virtualization,

and the use of platforms that combine traditional and unconventional knowledge delivery

platforms. These technologies provide a different learning experience and can reach students

in remote locations that otherwise would not benefit from programs and activities offered by

the educational sector. This could be labeled next generation learning, assessment, and

development. The shift to ICT is undeniable and students are constantly demanding different

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learning experiences based on interactive platforms. They are cost effective and provide a site

for a value-added scalable impact. Moreover, such technologies are also useful and effective

in unconventional conditions. For example, during the events in Egypt that started in January

2011 and were still erupting 30 months later, deploying blended learning techniques helped

the American University in Cairo proceed with its mission uninterrupted during most of the

period when the academic schedule was suspended for a variety of reasons, including the

curfew that affected evening classes, the graduate degree programs, and executive education.

Web 2.0 applications, tools, and techniques continue to support the process of change

and transformation and attempt to meet the changing needs of students around the world who

want know more and become more competitive. This includes implicit and explicit platforms

for knowledge sharing and dissemination, including social media applications such as

Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn, and Flickr.

ICT provides the ecosystem through which remote locations, villages, rural settings,

and underprivileged communities can be reached and students can benefit from blended

learning techniques. This represents a scalable and cost-effective solution that can effectively

and efficiently meet next generation lifelong learning, monitoring, and evaluation (Rajendran

2010). The use of ICT is universal in today’s global marketplace and marketspace and it is

becoming a requirement that most students possess a certain level of know-how and

experience in ICT in order to compete locally and globally. With two billion people

connected to the Internet, there are various opportunities for ICT to play a major role in

education and learning. In the context of the Middle East, it could help reach underprivileged

communities and remote locations. Therefore, universal access becomes a priority across

society in order to help minimize digital literacy and enable inclusion. Universal access

extends the ability of individuals to acquire education and health information. It is important

to note that, in order to promote entrepreneurship and innovation, the educational ecosystem

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must be connected with industry and the platform for research and development (Nottebohn

et al. 2012). In that sense, innovation goes way beyond the role ICT plays in the community.

While universities and schools help transforming higher education, students should

have the ability to solve problems through critical thinking and innovation. Unemployment in

the region averages 14%, it is one of the worst regions in the world in failing to create jobs

for the young and emerging workforce. Unemployment can only be fixed through better

education systems and, given that about 60% of the population are under the age of 25 and

coupled with the current population growth rate, around 100 million new jobs will need to be

created in the next 10–15 years.

Challenges and opportunities

Education has been and will remain the primary platform for socioeconomic development

growth and the engine for productivity and prosperity. The Middle East is not an exception.

In fact, given the region’s population demographics, the role of education is really pivotal. In

many ways, according to Al-Rashdan (2009): ‘education can be considered as society’s most

critical investment in human resources’. The challenges vary from one country to another and

relate to different elements of the educational ecosystem. One of the primary challenges is the

ability to attract and retain top academic talent, which is arguably a problem worldwide,

however, given the political and economic conditions in the Middle East it is a major issue

(Hajjar and Gotto 2013).

One of the primary building blocks in education is teachers, their capacities and their

readiness to operate and deliver in an ever-changing education and learning global

ecosystem. One of the major challenges facing the region is the quality of teachers and

instructors. This is a crucial element in the learning lifecycle. They mediate students’ access

to content and, in many ways, control what knowledge students absorb, whether implicitly or

explicitly, as well as having a role in extracurricular activities. Therefore, an improvement in

115
educational quality connects with their drive and determination to improve teachers and

teaching practices (Chapman and Miric 2009). Skills and capacities development is as

important for teachers and instructors as it is for students and recipients of knowledge

(Randall 2004). The platform of delivering knowledge represented by teachers is a core

element within the production function of knowledge since they introduce new concepts and

practices and determine the adoption of innovative tools and techniques within the learning

process (Chapman and Miric 2009). Teachers and faculty training is invaluable and should

not be a one-off activity. The more they are acquainted with relevant and current content and

teaching methodologies and techniques, the better the outcome from the learning experience

which will be translated into added value in the marketplace. Faculty and teacher

development programs are extremely valuable and should be offered on a regular basis. Table

8.1 demonstrates some of the barriers to change in education.

Table 8.1 Barriers to change in education

Faculty/teachers/instructors University/school systems Risk aversion

Disciplinary silos Lack/limited resources Leadership

Research and development Government policies Complacency

Source: Thomas et al. 2013

Education and learning ecosystems are believed to be of high value and concrete impact

when students demonstrate higher levels of learning, understanding, and contributing to

different curricular projects and initiatives. It is difficult to assess all the countries of the

region in terms of students’ knowledge absorption, given that systematic evidence of

educational quality measured against set objectives and learning goals is rather limited and

only a handful of countries have engaged in such an exercise, mainly Egypt, Jordan, and

Oman (Berryman 1997). A number of other countries have started to introduce continuous

assessment and improvement mechanisms, such as the United Arab Emirates (Witte 2010)

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and Tunisia. An integral element of the assessment process is the role of teachers and

instructors in delivering knowledge. In that respect, one of the major deficiencies of the

educational process in the Middle East is the notion of private tutoring, which started over

three decades ago and became widely diffused and negatively affected learning outcomes in

the classroom. Table 8.2 demonstrates some statistics on private tutoring and its impact on

some countries in the region.

Table 8.2 Prevalence of private tutoring in sample countries in the Middle East

Country Prevalence of teachers tutoring Impact

privately

Algeria 15%–20% N/A

Egypt 90% Salary increasing by up to 10 fold

Iraq 50% Salary increasing by up to 50%

Jordan Fair percentage N/A

Oman Small percentage N/A

Tunisia 60% N/A

Yemen Very small percentage N/A

Source: Chapman and Miric 2009

Case of Egypt: education for socioeconomic development

In Egypt, before 1952, education did not reach the masses, in many ways it privileged those

who could afford it. Later on, in the pursuit of social justice and economic development

Egypt’s leaders opted to eliminate tuition and established a universal admission process and

focused on providing access to higher education to as many Egyptians as possible (Howard-

Merriam 1979). The objective, as outlined and planned, was to use these steps and eventually

develop a set of policies to increase inclusiveness as enrollments were expected to grow

exponentially, as they did (Cupito and Langsten 2011). The problem is that years later these

policies had some positive implications in that more students enrolled; however, in terms of

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inclusiveness, the overall picture became slightly better for females but not necessarily for

males. Better education remains expensive and out of the reach of the vast majority of the

population, especially in the case of higher education.

During the first few decades of the 20th century, Egypt had three national universities

and one private university. These were Cairo, Alexandria and Ain Shams University and the

American University in Cairo (Richards 1992; Supreme Council of Universities 2006). The

total number of students enrolled was around 50,000, the total number of enrollments today

exceeds two million. The policy to extend higher education to everyone was codified in the

1971 constitution stating that ‘education is the birthright of every Egyptian child’ (Hyde

1978). The intention was for all Egyptians to benefit from two basic principles, equity and

equal opportunity for all (El Baradei and El Baradei 2004). It is important to note that the

premise was that the impact of higher rates of student enrollment across the education

spectrum, at school or university level, would foster gender equality and a better distribution

of education opportunities throughout society and especially among the poor (Lewin 2008).

From a research perspective, the end result was different. In many cases, including in Egypt,

this approach created additional opportunities for the capable rather than those in real need.

Such a trend is not confined to the Middle East, but can be seen in other countries, such as

France (Deer 2005). However, in other cases inequality declined as higher education

expanded while keeping an eye on quality (Arum et al. 2007).

In Egypt, most students complete their secondary education by the age of 18 and then

move on to higher education, which is divided into upper-intermediate and university. The

former provides technical and vocational training and the latter provides mainstream

academic and professional education (Cupito and Langsten 2011). From a cultural

perspective, university graduates are better appreciated and more accepted in different job

opportunities, which is a problem that needs addressing given the importance of capacities

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and skills in the marketplace. This has been a problem since the late 1960s with most students

focusing on university education and obtaining a university degree rather than obtaining skills

and capacities that can provide them with multiple opportunities in the market. Moreover,

with direct implications on the economy, it can be argued that the quality of graduates not

matching the needs of the marketplace contributes to increased unemployment. In fact, Egypt

is known to be providing more university graduates that can be effectively absorbed by the

market (Cupito and Langsten 2011).

In that respect, there is a direct correlation between economic development and the

proper spread of quality higher education and the diffusion of knowledge and culture

(Fergany 2000). Unfortunately, due to the lack of a clear education strategy and well-thought

out policies, there are so many barriers to realizing such a development in Egypt. The chronic

problems of higher education in Egypt today are that it suffers from poor quality, lack of

sufficient resources, obsession with quantity, and no vision or strategy. In general, Egypt has

made limited improvements in terms of offering quality higher education to students from a

broader range of socioeconomic backgrounds (Cupito and Langsten 2011). In terms of long-

term planning, the government of Egypt is set to increase higher education enrollment from

around 31% today to 40% by 2022 (Helal 2007), which, although substantial, is not seen as

meeting the growing need for higher education given the population increase.

Recommendations
Higher education coupled with scholarly research should be addressed as one of the primary

vehicles for promoting and encouraging socioeconomic development and growth in the

Middle East, given the changing dynamics of globalization. The focus across the region

should be more on the quality of the graduates rather than their annual volume. When

addressing educational challenges the ecosystem should be perceived as in dire need of

reformation. The problem is that it is mostly dealt with by firefighting and not with a long-

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term strategy and vision to realize societal strategic objectives in the region. Today, countries

should be engaging all concerned stakeholders in dealing with sectoral issues and mapping

them to the emerging needs of society and the projection of future needs as countries position

themselves in the global market place.

There is a need to address human, administrative, and curricula issues, as well as how

policy development and implementation take place. There is a need to strategize long term

when it comes to educational reform in the Middle East. Strategies should address quality

issues, focusing on research as opposed to teaching and coursework, concentrating on priority

areas for government, business and industry and the establishment of a regulatory framework,

regulatory institutions, and effective quality assessment, evaluation and accreditation

organizations.

As nations move forward, there are many issues that need to be addressed and

questions that need to be answered such as: what are the roles of the different stakeholders in

the educational ecosystem? How are they facilitating or hindering the development process of

various targeted educational outcomes? What are the platforms for collaboration between

different educational institutions to provide diversity and effective learning opportunities?

What needs to be done regularly to be ahead of the curve when it comes to providing an

educational venue that drives societal development and growth?

Among the recommendations suggested by UNDP (2002) is to call for concrete

actions in three specific directions: enhancing human capacities; creating strong synergy

between education and socioeconomic systems; and formulating a program for education

reform across the Middle East that caters for the different needs across various countries,

because there will never be one solution that fits all the conditions and challenges faced.

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 There is an opportunity to improve the effectiveness of the educational space.

However, there is a need to think strategically and develop a long-term plan for what each

country wants to do with its graduates, especially given the growth rate and accommodating

their needs for education and lifelong learning. Creating jobs and niche industries, and the

competitiveness of every nation should be integral parts of developing the strategy. One of

the primary issues that needs to be addressed by the strategy is the development of different

schemes to support students who cannot afford the associated expenses. The notion of student

loans and student support should be diffused to different segments of the community to avoid

the creation of haves and have nots within education.

Another primary issue is a transformation of the mindset that everyone should receive

a university education. There is a need for an awareness campaign that focuses on the

importance of technical training across different professions. These skills are much needed

across the region and are better guarantees of employment than focusing on a handful of

professions that the bulk of students associate themselves with. Table 8.3 demonstrates some

of the suggestions and recommendations for realizing the potential of the growing population

of the region through their education systems.

Table 8.3 Recommendations for higher education in the Middle East

Government and public institutions responsible Rewarding teachers and instructors through
for higher education should ensure the provision incentive schemes in the form of fellowships,
of a sustainable model to help improve the quality continuous improvement and training is a must.
of teaching and learning.

Developing strategies focused on regularly Developing curricula should be the product of

improving teaching and learning while keeping a constant deliberation between different market
focus on the production of quality research. stakeholders to factor in theory and practice.

Engaging students and other stakeholders for Setting assurance of learning criteria is important to
continuous assessment and evaluation of the assess the learning outcome. Benchmarks are vital
teaching and evaluation environment. for regular assessment and evaluation.

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 Certifying teachers and instructors should be a
required condition for all those teaching in
education throughout their recruitment and
regular assessment for continuous improvement.
Promoting interdisciplinary approaches while
focusing on promoting entrepreneurship,
innovation, leadership and responsible business. It
is always important to focus on what the market
really needs.

Investing in training and leveraging the ICT Formulating internationalization strategies that
capacities of teachers and instructors to improve encourage the exchange of students, joint research
the quality of teaching and learning. and the mobility of students and teachers across the
region.

Source: European Commission 2013

Education in the Middle East: what’s next?

Over the years to come, there needs to be a major transformation in the education sector in

the Middle East. With a growing population, the future is in the private sector with an

emphasis on entrepreneurship that can only be based on quality education so that the divide

between education supply and market demand is improved. Unfortunately, research and

development remains massively behind, which affects the promotion of innovation and will

not contribute to developing a true, well-founded and sustainable entrepreneurial culture. The

events that have occurred in the Middle East since 2011 require a focus on creating jobs and

promoting start-ups and an agile and competitive private sector. This needs a comprehensive

strategy for a robust higher education ecosystem that addresses learning and research that can

serve local market needs.

Entrepreneurship will have concrete implications for creating jobs and promoting

innovation across different sectors. It needs to be embedded in the curriculum as a culture, it

requires a different mindset that needs to be well established and synchronized with different

activities within the classroom and through extracurricular activities. The role of education

and culture in the future should also address the issues that surfaced across the Middle East in

terms of promoting citizenship and engaging in the proper transformation process of different

societies in the region. Moreover, issues such governance, transparency, accountability, and

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the ability to respond to market needs should be embedded in the curriculum. As the world

moves forward, there is a need for more creative, innovative, flexible, and young

entrepreneurs who are equipped with the knowledge required to meet the challenges of the

21st century and an ever-changing and competitive marketplace.

Looking forward: investing in entrepreneurial education1

Sometimes a business school can choose just the right strategy at just the right time. That was

the case for the American University of Cairo’s School of Business when it decided to launch

its Entrepreneurship and Innovation Program (EIP), just three months before the Egyptian

uprising, one of the most pivotal political, social, and economic events in the country’s

history. Since this uprising in January 2011, there has been a growing sentiment across the

country that it is time to focus on the private sector, that entrepreneurship will change the

lives of Egyptians. This was a huge shift in mindset. Egyptians are traditionally risk averse,

preferring to wait and see rather than taking action. Now people want to learn how they can

make a difference. This is important enough to be reflected in the educational curricula. The

future of education should address the issues of leadership, entrepreneurship, innovation, and

responsible business. There is a need to educate younger generations on how to take the

initiative, think differently, and think of how to constantly transform their society for the

better (Thomas et al. 2013). EIP, as it turned out, was the right program at the right time. This

is a model program with academic components and extracurricular activities that should be

clearly visible across different educational programs. The concept of EIP originated in 2009.

As indicated, there had been a proliferation of new business schools and programs in the

Middle East, and the only way for AUC EIP to stay ahead of the pack, was through building

continuous improvement as a culture and as a mindset. This was what the markets were

looking for in terms of employment and reflected what education had to offer. It is an

ecosystem at large that complements itself and caters for societal needs. However, unless a

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curriculum is based on long-term strategies and what a nation wants to do with its graduates,

the output of the educational process will remain ineffective and not provide the human

capital needed to make a difference.

In Egypt, the population is increasing by 1.9%, or more than two million people each

year, of Egypt’s 83.7 million citizens, 7.1 million work for the government. That leaves a

huge population ready for a more robust private sector. It would be a catastrophe for Egypt

not to utilize its most precious resource, human capital. It was also noted that Egypt is not

home to many large corporations, it has more small- and medium-sized enterprises. Hence,

the future is in the private sector, primarily promoting entrepreneurship and start-ups. There

is a need for a curriculum that provides that level of much needed knowledge and orientation

and how to adapt to the realities of development and growth. There is a need to know how to

produce innovative leaders who will develop more of these start-ups that will transform the

economy. Moreover, there is a need to stay competitive and relevant, therefore schools are

required to graduate entrepreneurs who do not just start companies, but who also introduce

change to society. It is all about positive change. The program is just a nucleus and Egypt and

the region at large needs at least a hundred fold of such programs, given the size of the

population and its demographics. To accomplish these ambitious goals, AUC School of

Business launched EIP in October 2010. Through EIP, a variety of offerings were introduced,

including degree programs, minors, seminars, workshops, networking events, a mentorship

program, business boot camps, mentoring, and business plan competitions. EIP helps

entrepreneurs generate ideas for businesses, and then connect the most viable start-ups to

incubators and help them find venture capital, angel investors, and other sources of seed

funding. The mentorship scheme that was developed led to the organization of a number of

mentoring events, such as speed mentoring, in which mentees have a series of 30-minute

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networking sessions with a range of start-up veterans. All this contributes to the learning and

educational experience of all those affiliated to or attending the program.

Great ideas come not only from the big cities but also from the 4000 villages across

Egypt. For that reason, EIP’s events and services are open to students at all Egyptian

universities and to all citizens in Egypt’s 28 provinces. Most of them come to the university

campus in Cairo for different workshops, mentorship sessions and to interact with other

students and future entrepreneurs. Some of the information and services are also offered

online, in a more blended mode. EIP also sponsors a series of business plan competitions,

which are supported by 32 partner organizations. These include regional companies, such as

ArabNet, an online hub for Arab digital professionals, and Egypreneur, a networking hub for

Egyptian entrepreneurs. The partners also include international organizations such as Intel,

the Global Entrepreneurship Program, and USAID. In June 2011, EIP partnered with Science

Age Society to hold a start-up summer camp, where 60 mentors and 10 investors evaluated

start-ups, EIP helped the winning plans develop their ideas further.

EIP is further complemented by a student-governed club, the Entrepreneurs Society.

Active since 2003, the club organizes its own training workshops and conference. The society

has produced more than 50 companies in areas ranging from the food industry to web

development to tourism. They also write their own publication called The Lead, which

includes mini case studies and lists of market opportunities. The Entrepreneur Society’s most

recent endeavor is The Hit project, a reality show competition. The Hit is filmed and edited

by students and faculty as it follows 16 teams of AUC student entrepreneurs through all the

phases of their start-ups. The winning team sells its product on Souq.com, an Arab e-

commerce site and sponsor of the show. Live episodes of The Hit are available at

www.thehit2012.com. The story of EIP is interesting but in order to embed that culture in the

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mindset it has to be blended with the content taught and the teaching methodologies utilized

across the educational cycle.

When the strategy of the school was built around EIP, it was clear that

entrepreneurship would be important to the country’s future, but no one had any idea just

how timely EIP would be. After the uprising, which introduced major transformations and

changes in the Egyptian mindset, it was clear that EIP would have a bigger role to play than

was initially thought – and an update of the curriculum had to take place to address those

developments. For example, the case-writing center had not been very active since it opened

in 2007, but in just two years, it has produced more than 100 cases. Unlike other parts of the

world, companies in Egypt are traditionally reluctant to share the details of their business –

their financials, their successes, their failures. But the uprising has changed attitudes. More

companies are willing to share their experiences. They used to think their power rested in

withholding information, now they see more power in sharing it. The school launched three

different series of leadership panels, including one called Transforming Egypt. Students,

researchers, faculty, and industry experts were gathered to discuss how the economy could be

brought back on track. Several research papers resulted from that meeting, which were shared

with government officials to aid their decision-making processes. There was a partnership

with TechWadi, a Silicon Valley non-profit that promotes Middle Eastern entrepreneurship,

to hold Egypt Rising. This event brought together leaders of thought in education, business,

technology, health care, with successful Arab expatriates, to outline a plan to develop Egypt’s

economy through entrepreneurship. All these activities are integral to the students’ learning

process, they bring the real world into their university years and make them better prepared

for market challenges.

Before the uprising, the curriculum was changed based on traditional competitive

trends. Now, the position has become more profound. People younger than 25 years old make

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up 58% of the Egyptian population, and that number is growing. Egypt’s youth are

passionate, fresh, and experiencing exceptional moments both in their own lives and in their

country’s history. That combination is building up a positive momentum in the country,

inspiring the youth to think in brand new directions. Egypt is a country that is more than 7000

years old, but it is still the land of opportunity and so much of it remains untapped.

Egyptians throughout history were known as successful entrepreneurs across Africa

and the Middle East, moving across nations and actively involved in trading and growing

businesses in different sectors; something that had changed by the early 20th century when

most Egyptians aspired to work for the government to secure a job with minimal risk.

Fortunately, this has gradually changed since the late 1990s with a growing young population

that is technology savvy, better educated, more exposed, and willing to venture into the

business world at a younger age. This was coupled with a growing belief that Egypt’s future

could only be improved with a more agile and competitive private sector and that investing in

entrepreneurial education would help change the lives of many Egyptians. It required a

change of mindset, with many thinking like entrepreneurs, not necessarily to start-up a

company or invest in the private sector but to become agents of societal change.

These entrepreneurial notions were magnified after the Egyptian uprising of 2011 and,

despite the ongoing challenges over 30 months, hundreds of start-ups have emerged that

address various community needs. It is people who make a difference. They are the

differentiating factor in a world increasingly driven by fierce and timely competition.

Therefore, the American University in Cairo (AUC) School of Business is driven by the

notion that entrepreneurial education is invaluable for Egypt’s development and growth,

especially at this important junction in the nation’s history. That was why the school

formulated a strategy that focused on entrepreneurship, innovation, leadership, and

responsible business while addressing the issues of ethics, sustainable impact and good

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citizenship. It had a vision to help educate Egypt’s potential leaders and entrepreneurs, as

well as create a robust and competitive private sector. The ecosystem comprises all the

stakeholders of the school, including faculty, staff, students, alumni, and employers.

Entrepreneurial education can never be addressed as a vertical subject, it has to be

embedded in the curricula as part of a larger ecosystem. It is only through that approach that

it will change how people think, generate ideas, perceive opportunities, promote innovation,

develop alternative solutions, and become impact-driven. Therefore, AUC School of

Business launched AUC Venture Lab (VLab) in June 2013 as an interdisciplinary, university-

based incubator/accelerator and acting as home and hub for all EIP activities, with a strategic

target of helping to improve the economy. The goals of AUC VLab include, but are not

limited to, encouraging employment and job creation; investing in people and innovation;

focusing on the development of high-growth, small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs);

empowering and engaging youth and building their capacity; and, engaging the private sector

in community development (CSR). AUC VLab offers young and promising entrepreneurs a

variety of services, including assisting their start-ups, helping secure access to funding from

angel investors, venture capital, or other sources.

To assess the success of AUC VLab, a number of key performance indicators (KPIs)

were formulated, including the number of start-ups created, entrepreneurs trained, start-ups

incubated, and start-ups able to access funding (and the amount of funding) as a result of the

VLab incubation cycle. Egypt’s future will be determined by how effectively and efficiently

it invests in its primary invaluable resource of human capital. The building blocks include

four distinct elements: youth, passion, innovative ideas, and sustainability. Communities rise

because of their people, their intellectual contributions, their innovative approaches, and their

capacity to be constantly looking forward, projecting the needs of societies and developing

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solutions and alternatives to become constantly competitive. This can only be realized

through investing in Egypt’s rising entrepreneurs and future leaders.

Conclusion
The future of education in the Middle East should be linked and in sync with the future of

education 2.0. Strategies should be devised to capitalize on global opportunities and to

benefit from ICT and its potential to provide universal education, knowledge, and lifelong

learning across different communities. Education 2.0 is the platform for drastically redefining

and reshaping societal learning in general and student learning in particular, while focusing

on collaborative learning, employing experiential and hands-based learning, knowledge

capture and dissemination, working with different institutions and positioning higher

education institutions as innovative platforms.

There is no doubt that, for the Middle East to cope with its growing population and

the challenges of competition and dynamics of change in the global market, there need to be

long-term strategies and short-term quick wins when it comes to the student product the

education process delivers. To realize these objectives, there needs to be a proliferation of

innovative ideas that capitalize on available resources and benefit from those emerging

technology tools and applications that can reach universal dimensions within societies – not

just focusing on the classic geographic locations in developing and emerging economies,

such as the capitals and the major cities. It is important to realize that investing in human

capital as part of the educational and learning ecosystem is integral to social and economic

advancement in society (Cassidy and Miller 2001). There is a need to stay away from

focusing on quantity and mainly address quality issues. There is a need to reinvent education

and how it is conducted in the Middle East, in schools, universities, and vocational training.

The youth population, which is currently at a peak and continues to grow exponentially,

creates an increasing demand on higher education that needs to be made available for future

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generations. The future of the Middle East depends in a special and unique way on the

collective work, efforts, capacities and skills of all stakeholders in improving the quality of

education and learning, and an invaluable component is the quality of higher education

(European Commission 2013). Higher education in the Middle East is witnessing exciting

times and the potential is big for development and growth given the demographics of the

population and the growing interest in capitalizing on talented human resources who can

make a difference in society. In today’s global marketplace, human, financial and other

resources must be allocated in more strategic ways (Chapman and Miric 2009). Moreover,

efficient use of knowledge and innovative strategies need to be deployed throughout the

region to improve economic growth.

To conclude, in order to improve the economy, there is a need to create jobs across

different sectors and to be able to do that there is an urgent need for better education and the

sector must become the top priority. However, the newly revamped education sector should

be driven by promoting entrepreneurship, innovation, leadership, critical thinking, and

responsible business. Investing in education helps people to unleash the creative capacities of

all citizens irrespective of their background and effectively supports their drive to improve

their lives and to build better societies. Education benefits all, individuals, organizations, and

society and leads to major positive transformations that could lead to further growth and

development.

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An earlier version of this section featured in an earlier publication by Sherif Kamel, “Entrepreneurial
Uprising”, BizEd. The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)
International Magazine, November/December 2012, pp. 46–47.

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