751

Determination of the effective path of contact of

undercut involute gear teeth

J I Pedrero1* , M Artés1 and C Garcı́a-Masiá2

1
Departamento de Mecánica, UNED, Madrid, Spain
2
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Mecánica, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Spain

Abstract: An approximate equation for accurate determination of the inner point of the involute
profile of undercut spur and helical gear teeth is presented. This point may have influence on the
effective path of contact and consequently on the contact ratio, the length of the path of contact and
the stress levels, which should be taken into account for calculation and standardization purposes.
Since the equation is valid for any tool proportions, it is very efficient for computer applications.

Keywords: involute gear teeth, helical gear drives, undercut

NOTATION parameters such as the effective contact ratio, the

effective length of contact or the limits of the interval
d reference diameter of single tooth contact. This lower limit, which is often
da tip diameter called the start of the involute, is defined by the
db base diameter intersection of the involute profile and the root trochoid,
h
a0 tool addendum coefficient but the determination of its coordinates is quite different
mn normal module depending on the existence of undercut; while analytical
r reference radius expressions may be found for non-undercut teeth [1],
rb base radius approximate methods based on iterative procedures
spr tool protuberance should be used for undercut teeth [2].
x rack shift coefficient The undercut phenomenon has never been studied in
z number of teeth depth in the past. Neither researchers nor designers
have ever shown special interest in a feature whose
an normal pressure angle main effect is to weaken the tooth, and which can be
at transverse pressure angle avoided relatively easily in several different ways. In
awt operating transverse pressure angle fact, an undercut is usually considered to be a non-
b reference helix angle desirable result of non-appropriate generating con-
ea transverse contact ratio ditions, which should be avoided in the majority of
x involute parameter cases. For this reason, technical literature rarely
r
f P tool tip radius coefficient presents results or calculations for undercut teeth.
j trochoid/tip parameter For example, AGMA 908-B89 [3] presents the equa-
tions and the general method for the determination of
the bending strength geometry factor J of involute gear
teeth. The equations and the calculation method are
1 INTRODUCTION valid for both undercut and non-undercut teeth;
however, numerical values are only provided for non-
undercut teeth, while gear tooth combinations which
The lower limit of the active profile of involute gear
produce undercut tooth forms are addressed in a
teeth may have decisive influence on several operating
footnote, where such circumstance is mentioned and
the recommendation to avoid these combinations is
The MS was received on 20 June 2003 and was accepted after revision explicitly established. Other technical references [4, 5]
for publication on 22 March 2004.
* Corresponding author: Departamento de Mecánica, UNED, Apdo. present different results and calculations but always in
60149, 28080 Madrid, Spain. the same way: tabulated values of the considered

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parameter for non-undercut teeth, and no numerical and the involute properties
information if an undercut exists. qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Nevertheless undercut profiles must be taken into db
rinv ¼ 1 þ x2
account at least for standardization purposes. The load 2
capacity of a gear pair, according to ISO 6336 [6] and Zinv ¼ x  arctan x ð1Þ
AGMA 2001-C95 [7], depends on several parameters
whose values may be affected by the presence of where the involute parameter x has the physical meaning
undercut, as long as the length of action may be of the angle represented in Fig. 1.
reduced. For the revision of ISO 6336 which is actually Figure 2 represents the trochoid generation. From the
in progress, ISO Technical Committee 60 (Gears) properties of ellipses, the instantaneous generating tip
Working Group 6 (Gear Calculations) is studying the point (the point whose normal contains the generating
undercut area, and the start of the involute of under- pitch point) should obey
cut teeth, in order to redefine the effective contact
ratio. Some ISO/TC60/WG6 documents [8, 9] have tan j
tan l ¼
approached the problem, providing general equations cos b
for the involute and the trochoid for rack-type genera-
tion, considering the elliptical tip on the rack and the where l is the angle represented in Fig. 2 and the
tool protuberance [9]. However, the determination of physical meaning of the trochoid/tip parameter j has
the start of the involute is based on solving a highly non- been represented in Fig. 3. If d is the distance between
linear equation by the Newton–Raphson technique. the pitch point P and the instantaneous generating tip
Although it provides very accurate results, such an point T and
iterative method is not convenient for an international  
standard, and an approximate but sufficiently accurate B ¼ mn h
a0  x  r
f P þ r
f P sin j
equation may be preferable. This paper presents this
approximate but sufficiently accurate equation, which from Fig. 2
has been obtained by linear regression of 954 points with
correlating factor 0.9998. It is valid for any tool B ¼ d sin l
proportions and considers tool elliptical tip. Because
of its accuracy and simplicity it may be efficient both for and also
standardized calculations and for computer applica- s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  
tions. d 2 2 p
rtro ¼ þ d  dd cos l
2 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  
d B cos b 2
2 EQUATIONS OF THE INVOLUTE AND THE ¼ B þ ð2aÞ
2 tan j
TROCHOID
where rtro is the distance from the centre of the gear to
To express the equations of both involute and trochoid the generated trochoid point. The polar angle Ztro is
profiles, the polar coordinate system ðr, ZÞ represented in given by
Fig. 1 will be used. The parametric equations of the
involute may be immediately derived from this figure Ztro ¼ y þ e  at ð2bÞ

where y and e are the angles represented in Fig. 2. e may

be computed by taking into account that

d cos l d sin l
tan e ¼ ¼
d=2  d sin l ðd=2  d sin lÞ tan l

so that
 
B cos b
e ¼ arctan
ðd=2  BÞ tan j

The angle y should obey

d d mn r
f P cos j
tan at ¼ y þ A  þ d cos l
Fig. 1 Coordinate system 2 2 cos b

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 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE PATH OF CONTACT OF UNDERCUT INVOLUTE GEAR TEETH 753

Fig. 2 Trochoid generation

and therefore its value is given by 3 UNDERCUT CONDITION

 
2
cos j cos b For no tool protuberance, an undercut is avoided if the
y ¼ tan at þ mn rf P AB
d cos b tan j tangency point of the straight tool flank and the
elliptical tip (point E in Fig. 4) generates at a point on
where, as seen in Fig. 2, the generating pressure line between the generating pitch
point P and the tangency point of the pressure line and
mn r
f P  spr
A¼ þ mn ðh
a0  x  r
f P Þ tan at the base circumference, B. In fact, the involute and
cos an cos b trochoid are tangent in this case, since point E of the

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754 J I PEDRERO, M ARTÉS AND C GARCÍA-MASIÁ

4 PATH OF CONTACT AND CONTACT RATIO

From Fig. 1, the x parameter of a point of the

considered involute profile and that of the mating
profile which is in mesh with the first are related by

db þ db0 d0
x¼ tan awt  b x0
db db

where the prime denotes the mating gear. According to

this equation, the inner point, which is in mesh with the
outer point of the mating gear, is described by
Fig. 3 Trochoid/tip parameter
db þ db0 d0
xINN ¼ tan awt  b x0a
db db
s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
2
da0
rack profile generates the start of involute and the end of x0a ¼ 1
db0
trochoid at the same moment, as seen in Fig. 4, tool (a).
On the contrary, if point E reaches the pressure line
beyond point B, the rack profile interval between points This point will be the inner point of contact (indicated
B and E in Fig. 4, tool (b), remains cutting and some by the subscript IPC) for non-undercut teeth, and also
amount of generated involute is eliminated. Conse- for undercut teeth if it is placed above the start of the
quently, for no tool protuberance, the condition of no involute (indicated by the subscript SOI). If not, the
undercut is equivalent to saying that the ordinate of inner point of contact will be coincident with the start of
point E should be greater than the ordinate of point B, the involute, since the tip of the mating tooth does not
which may be expressed as find a profile to mesh with. According to that, the inner
point of contact may be described by
d   db
þ mn x  h
a0 þ r
f P  r
f P sin an 5 cos at xIPC ¼ maxðxINN , xSOI Þ ð4aÞ
2 2

Note that the involute and trochoid may be tangents or The outer point of contact (indicated by the subscript
secants, but they always have at least one common OPC) is in mesh with the inner point of contact of the
(intersection or tangency) point. mating tooth; therefore
Tool protuberance means a rotation of
db þ db0 d0
xOPC ¼ tan awt  b x0IPC ð4bÞ
2spr db db
DZtro ¼
d cos an cos b
xIPC and xOPC define the effective interval of contact,
of the trochoid with respect to the involute, in the sense which should be used for calculating the effective length
of greater values of Ztro . Since the involute and the of contact and the effective transverse contact ratio. The
trochoid have to be at least tangents, with that rotation latter may be derived from
they necessarily become secants, and an undercut exists,
z
as seen in Fig. 5. In this case, and only in this case, the ea ¼ ðx  xIPC Þ
2p OPC
involute and trochoid may intersect at two points, if the
amount of protuberance is small.
The calculation of the inner and outer points of the
Summarizing the above, the undercut condition may
interval of single pair tooth contact should be also
be expressed as follows: an undercut exists if, and only
computed on the basis of the inner and outer limits of
if,
the effective path of contact, described by equations (4a)
and (4b).
spr =0 ð3aÞ Obviously, the value of the parameter of the start of
the involute, xSOI , is required for the determination of
or the limits of the effective interval of contact. As shown
below, its calculation is not complicated for non-
d  undercut teeth, but there are some difficulties if an
sin2 at  mn h
a0  x  r
f P ð1  sin an Þ < 0 ð3bÞ
2 undercut occurs.
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 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE PATH OF CONTACT OF UNDERCUT INVOLUTE GEAR TEETH 755

Fig. 4 Undercut condition for no tool protuberance

5 LOCATION OF THE START OF THE INVOLUTE

As stated above, if no undercut exists, the end of the trochoid and the start of the involute are coincident and generated by
point E of the tool profile (Fig. 4). As seen in Fig. 3, the tip parameter corresponding to point E is j ¼ an . Consequently,
the distance from the centre of the gear to the start of the involute, rSOI , will be given by equation (2a) for j ¼ an :
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
    
d 



 2 mn h
a0  x  r
f P þ r
f P sin an 2
rSOI ¼  mn ha0  x  rf P þ rf P sin an þ ð5aÞ
2 tan at

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function of j:
s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  
d  2BðjÞ 2 2BðjÞ cos b 2
x ¼ xðjÞ ¼ þ 1 ð6Þ
db db tan j

The second condition may be written as

yðjÞ þ eðjÞ  xðjÞ þ arctan½xðjÞ  at

¼ f ðjÞ ¼ 0 ð7Þ

Consequently, the root of f ðjÞ is the value of the trochoid

parameter j corresponding to the intersection point,
which allows rSOI and ZSOI to be calculated from equations
(2a) and (2b); f ðjÞ may have two roots inside the interval
0 4 j 4 p=2. However, the start of the involute is defined
Fig. 5 Relative rotation by protuberance by the root giving the higher value of rtro , which is always
the smaller root, as easily derived from Figs 2 and 3. The
graphic representation of function f ðjÞ described in
Since in this case the start of the involute belongs to both equation (7) is always similar to the curve in Fig. 6; it starts
the involute and the trochoid, the polar angle ZSOI may be from f ¼  ? for j ¼ 0, increases very quickly up to a
computed with equation (2b) for j ¼ an as well as with maximum and then decreases smoothly, ending at the
equations (1): value of j for which xðjÞ ¼ 0.
The maximum of f ðjÞ is always fmax 5 0, since f ðjÞ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
    has at least one root, as discussed above. The case when
2rSOI 2 4 2rSOI 2
ZSOI ¼  1  arctan  1 5 ð5bÞ fmax ¼ 0 corresponds to the absence of an undercut, and
db db both involute and trochoid profiles are tangents at the
start of the involute. fmax 5 0 means an undercut, and
Equations (5a) and (5b) represent the start of involute f ðjÞ will have one or two roots depending on whether
coordinates for non-undercut teeth. If an undercut exists, the x axis is below or above respectively the end of the
the start of the involute is located at the intersection of the curve. However, in both cases the Newton–Raphson
involute and the trochoid, which implies two conditions algorithm converges to the appropriate root (the minor
to be verified: root) if iterations start from a small value of j.
This method is very accurate and convergence is
ensured with a relatively small number of iteration steps.
rtro ¼ rinv
Nevertheless, the Newton–Raphson algorithm is quite
Ztro ¼ Zinv tedious to implement in computer programs, as the
derivative of f ðjÞ is required, the expression for which is
where all the parameters are given by equations (1) and not simple. Also, iterative procedures may not be the
(2). The first condition allows x to be expressed as a best for standardization. In conclusion, an approximate

Fig. 6 Representation of f ðjÞ

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 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE PATH OF CONTACT OF UNDERCUT INVOLUTE GEAR TEETH
equation, which is simple and sufficiently accurate, may
be convenient for both computer applications and
standardization purposes.
6 APPROXIMATE EQUATION
As seen above, the start of the involute of undercut teeth
is described by the trochoid parameter j which obeys
equation (7) and will be denoted by jSOI . As the start of
the involute is also a point of the involute, it may also be
described by the corresponding involute parameter xSOI .
xSOI and jSOI are related by equation (6).
Many parameters take part in equation (7). Some of
these may be grouped; however, either xSOI or jSOI will
always depend on six independent factors:



spr
z, b, an , ðha0  xÞ, rf P ,
mn
Clearly, it is almost impossible to find an approximate
equation describing the influence of six independent
parameters and giving accurate results. A good correla-
tion of more than two parameters is very difficult to
obtain. However, it is sometimes possible to find one or
two new parameters, expressible as a function of the
initial parameters, which are able to describe the
variations in the target parameter. Of course, this is
not always possible but, if possible, it is always
convenient. Fortunately, in this work it has been
possible for the case of no tool protuberance.
The angle z in Fig. 7 represents the relative rotation
between the involute and the trochoid required to avoid
an undercut, and its value may be derived from
 
d þ 2mn x  h
a0 þ r
f P  r
f P sin an
cosðz þ at Þ ¼
db
For any set of values of the geometric parameters of a
gear tooth, the limit condition for undercutting may be
always expressed as z ¼ 0 and corresponds to rSOI ¼ rb
and xSOI ¼ 0. From Fig. 7, small values of z correspond
to small values of xSOI , and xSOI increases as z increases
too. Then, it may be convenient to represent xSOI as a
function of z and to observe whether it is possible to find
an interval of xSOI for each value of z that is narrow
enough to allow good correlation.
To perform this analysis, 960 undercut teeth were
studied. The teeth were obtained from all the possible
combinations of the following geometric parameters:
(a) four values of the reference helix angle b ¼ 0, 10, 20
and 308;
(b) four values of the normal pressure angle an ¼
10, 15, 20 and 258;
(c) two values of the tool tip radius coefficient r
f P ¼
0:25 and 0.3;
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757
(d) two values of the tool addendum coefficient h
a0 ¼ 1
and 1.25;
(e) five values of the rack shift coefficient x ¼  0:2,
 0:15,  0:1,  0:05 and 0;
(f) three values of the number of teeth, z :¼ z0 , z0  1
and z0  2, where z0 is the integer part of z0:05 , z0:05
being the limit value of z for an undercut with rack
shift coefficient x ¼ 0:05, which from equation (3) is
given by
2 cos b 

z0:05 ¼ 2
ha0  0:05  r
f P ð1  sin an Þ
sin at
For each of these 960 cases, the following calculations
were made:
(a) the value of jSOI from equation (7);
(b) the value of xSOI from jSOI and equation (6);
(c) the value of z from equation (8).
For six of these 960 studies values of z greater than 0.4
were obtained and these were neglected. In fact,
undercut teeth with z > 0:4 should not be considered
in practice. For example, a spur pinion with an ¼
25 , r
f P ¼ 0:3, h
a0 ¼ 1:25 and 18 teeth (the minimum
number of teeth to avoid an undercut if x ¼ 0) needs a
rack shift coefficient x ¼  1:75 for z ¼ 0:4, while the
number of teeth should be less than 7 if x ¼ 0. Both
teeth are represented in Fig. 8. In the first case, the active
profile has been completely eliminated by the trochoid;
not such a large but nevertheless a very important
undercut area may be observed in the second case.
Representing the 954 considered pairs ðxSOI , zÞ the
diagram shown in Fig. 9 was obtained. In this diagram it
may be observed that xSOI is accurately described by z;
therefore it may be concluded that the target parameter
xSOI may be described by only one new parameter z,
ð8Þ which is a function of the initial independent para-
meters, as shown in equation (8). However, this is not
the only interesting conclusion derived from Fig. 9; it is
also very clear that the relation between xSOI and z may
be approximated by the linear equation xSOI ¼ a1 z.
From a linear regression on the 954 considered points
the following equation was obtained:
xSOI ¼ 0:523 191z ð9Þ
The R2 coefficient was 0.9996, corresponding to a
correlation coefficient r ¼ 0:9998. The average percent-
age error was 1.7 per cent, while the maximum error was
smaller than 4 per cent.
These error levels are even smaller when computed in
terms of the transverse contact ratio or the start of
involute radius. If ex is the relative error in the
estimation of xSOI ,
jxSOI  xSOI, est j
ex ¼
xSOI
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758 J I PEDRERO, M ARTÉS AND C GARCÍA-MASIÁ

Fig. 7 Relative rotation z

Fig. 8 Undercut tooth profiles with z ¼ 0:4

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 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE PATH OF CONTACT OF UNDERCUT INVOLUTE GEAR TEETH 759

Fig. 9 Start of the involute parameter xSOI versus relative rotation z

The estimated value xSOI, est will be given by this means very large undercut areas, as seen above.
Then, for an allowable amount of undercut,
xSOI, est ¼ xSOI ð1 + ex Þ
er < 0:03ex
The transverse contact ratio ea , assuming contact along
the entire involute profile, i.e. reaching the start of the In conclusion, both ee and er are very small for the
involute, may be expressed as obtained values of ex .
An example may be illustrative. The geometric
xa  xSOI parameters of pinion teeth are as follows:
ea ¼
2p=z
Number of teeth, z ¼ 13
The relative error in the estimation of ea is Normal pressure angle an ¼ 20
jðxa  xSOI Þ  ðxa  xSOI, est Þj Addendum coefficient a
¼ 1
ee ¼
xa  xSOI Tool addendum coefficient h
a0 ¼ 1:25
xSOI Tool tip radius coefficient r
f P ¼ 0:3
¼ ex
xa  xSOI Rack shift coefficient x ¼  0:125
zx
¼ SOI ex Reference helix angle b ¼ 20
2pea  
z

Tip diameter da ¼ 2mn þ a þx
The coefficient zxSOI =ð2pÞ for the 954 studied cases takes 2 cos b
values between 0.02 and 0.25 and, taking into account ¼ 15:584mn
that, for correct designs, ea should be greater than 1, it
may be concluded that ee is always smaller than 0:25ex . The trochoid parameter of the start of involute, jSOI ,
A similar conclusion is reached when considering the obtained by solving equation (7), is 0.3575. From
radius of the start of the involute. According to equation equation (6), the corresponding xSOI is 0.0538. From
(1), the relative error in the estimation of rSOI is equation (8), the angle z is 0.1043; therefore, according
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi to equation (9) the approximate value of the start of the
 
 1 þ x2  1 þ x2  involute parameter is xSOI, est ¼ 0:0546. This means an
 SOI SOI, est 
er ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi error in the estimation of the SOI parameter of ex ¼ 1:43
1 þ x2SOI per cent, an error in the estimation of the contact ratio of
 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ee ¼ 0:12 per cent and an error in the estimation of
 x2SOI  the start of involute radius of less than er ¼ 0:01 per cent.
 
¼ 1  1 þ e ðe
x x + 2Þ 
 1 þ x2SOI 

Replacing the root by the first two terms of its

Maclaurin series and taking into account that 7 CONCLUSIONS
jex +2j & 2,
The derivation of the coordinates of the start of the
1 x2SOI involute, which is defined by the intersection of the
er & ex
2 1 þ x2SOI involute and the trochoid, has been reported for both
undercut and non-undercut teeth. This allows suitable
where xSOI is smaller than 0.25 for all 954 considered calculation of the effective path of contact, which has a
cases. Greater values of xSOI need not be considered as decisive influence on several operating parameters as
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760 J I PEDRERO, M ARTÉS AND C GARCÍA-MASIÁ
important as the effective contact ratio, the effective
length of the path of contact or the limits of the interval
of single tooth contact. For non-undercut teeth, explicit
equations for the radius and the polar angle of the start
of the involute have been obtained. For undercut teeth,
an iterative method has been described.
For undercut teeth generated with no tool protuber-
ance, an approximate equation of the involute para-
meter of the start of the involute has been obtained by
linear regression of 954 different combinations of tooth
geometric parameters, with a correlating factor of
0.9998. The average percentage error in the estimation
of the involute parameter was 1.7 per cent, while the
maximum error was smaller than 4 per cent. These error
levels decrease significantly when computed in terms of
the radius of the start of the involute or the contact
ratio. Owing to its accuracy and simplicity, the equation
is very efficient for computer applications and for
standardization purposes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are expressed to the Spanish Council for
Scientific and Technological Research (Ministry of
Education and Culture) for the support of the project
‘Tooth contact analysis of gears: influence of profile
modifications’ (Project DPI2000–0427).
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REFERENCES
1 Pedrero, J. I., Garcı́a-Masiá, C. and Fuentes, A. On the
location of the tooth critical section for the determination of
the AGMA J-factor. AGMA paper 97FTM6, 1997.
2 Fuentes, A. Modelo de cálculo a flexión de engranajes
cilı́ndricos de perfil de evolvente. PhD thesis, UNED,
Madrid, 1996.
3 AGMA Information Sheet 908-B89 Geometry Factors
for Determining the Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength
of Spur, Helical and Herringbone Gear Teeth, 1989
(American Gear Manufacturers Association, Alexandria,
Virginia).
4 Mitchiner, R. G. and Mabie, H. H. The determination of the
Lewis form factor and the AGMA geometry factor J for
external spur gear teeth. J. Mech. Des., January 1982,
104(1), 148–158.
5 Pedrero, J. I., Rueda, A. and Fuentes, A. Determination of
the ISO tooth form factor for involute spur and helical
gears. Mech. Mach. Theory, January 1999, 34(1), 89–103.
6 ISO 6336 Calculation of Load Capacity of Spur and Helical
Gears, 1996 (International Standardization Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland).
7 AGMA 2001-C95 Fundamental Rating Factors and Calcula-
tion Methods for Involute Spur and Helical Gear Teeth, 1995
(American Gear Manufacturers Association, Alexandria,
Virginia).
8 ISO/TC60/SC2/WG6 Document 844 Tooth Undercut Lim-
itation Calculation, 2001 (International Standardization
Organization, Geneva).
9 ISO/TC60/SC2/WG6 Document 858 Start of Involute, 2001
(International Standardization Organization, Geneva).
Science
C11003 # IMechE 2004