RT Level II Course Notes PDF Free

Bvk
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
SNT TC-1A 1996 OF ASNT-LEVEL II
3/16/2013 1
INTRODUCTION TO NDT
NDT
SURFACE VOLUMINAR
1.Visual Testing(VT) 1.Radiography Testing(RT)

2.Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 2.Ultrasonic Testing(UT)
3.Penetrant Testing (PT)
3/16/2013 2
INTRODUCTION TO NDT
Conventional NDT Methods
• Accoustics Emmission Testing (AET)
• Leak Testing(LT)
• Thermal Infrared(IR)
• Eddy Current Testing(ET)
• Neutron Radiography(NRT)
3/16/2013 3
CONTENTS
• Basic Radiation Physics.
• Equipment (x-ray, -ray).
• Films Screens & Processing .
• Geometric Considerations & Quality.
• Radiography Techniques.
• Discontinuties & Process.
• Interpretation/Codes & Standard.
• Safety.
3/16/2013 4
Basic Radiation Physics(BRP)
Fundamental Particles:
• Basic particles of an atom are Proton, neutron and electron.
• The proton is positively charged and electron is negatively charged, Neutron
has no charge.
• The mass of Neutron and Proton are 1 and electron is 1/1840 of a proton.
• Let us see how the atom is arranged.
Nucleus consist of Protons and Neutrons
N
Electrons revolving around nucleus
3/16/2013 5
BRP-Definitions
• Atom:It is the smallest Particle of an element.
• Atomic No:It is the No.of protons or No.of electrons present in an

atom.It is denoted by the letter z.
Z = P = E.
• Atomic Mass or Mass No:
It is the sum of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom.It is denoted by the letter ‘A’.
A = P + N.
A = E + N.
A = Z + N.
3/16/2013 6
BRP-Definitions contd.
• ISOTOPES:
Atoms of the same element having the same atomic No. but different
Mass No.
eg: Uranium – 92U233, 92U235 ,92U238.
• RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES:
The isotopes that emit radiation.
They are available.
1.Natural Co -59.
2.Artificial Ir-192.
3.Fission fragments. Th-170.
3/16/2013 7
BRP-Definitions contd.
• RADIOACTIVITY:
The spontaneous and continuous emission of Radiation by some Radioactive
elements due to atomic disintegration.The activity/ strength is usually
measured in Curies(Ci).S.I unit is Bequerel(Bq).
• Half Life Period:
The time taken by a Radioactive Isotope to reduce its activity to half of its
initial amount.
Iridium Ir-192 74.5 days.
Cobalt Co–60 5.3 years.
Thulium Tu-170 130 days.
Cesium Cs-137 33 years.
Radium Rd 1900 years.
3/16/2013 8
BRP-Radiation Units .
CURIE:
1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10 disintegration per second (dps)
1 Bq = 1 dps
1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10 Bq
= 37 x 10 9 Bq
= 37 Mega Bq
1 Ci = 37 GBq
3/16/2013 9
BRP-Radiation Units contd.
ROENTGEN :
Roentgen is the unit for measurement of Radiation.
1 Roentgen is the amount of Radiation that can
produce 1 e.s.u. of charge in 1cc of air at S.T.P.
1 Roentgen (R) = 1000 milli Roentgen(mR).
3/16/2013 10
BRP-Properties.
Properies of Electro Magnetic radiation :
• They travel in a straight line
• They are not effected by magnetic or
electric fields
• They start ionisation
• They damage living tissues
3/16/2013 11
BRP-Electromagnetic spectrum
• Let us see the electro magnetic spectrum

• ------------- Radio waves (m+)
• -------------TV Waves (Cm)
•-------------Rador Waves (mm)
•-------------Infrared (7500Ao)
•-------------Visible Spectrum ( 4000Ao)
•--------------UltraViolet ( 3650Ao)
•--------------X-rays (0.1Ao to 0.001Ao)
•--------------Gamma Rays (0.1Ao to 0.001Ao)
•Note : 1Ao = 10-7 mm or 100 ηm.
As the wavelength decreases penetration will increase
3/16/2013 12
BRP-Electromagnetic spectrum
Electro Magnetic Spectrum
3/16/2013 13
BRP-Radition Types
• Types of Electro Magnetic radiation
1.Alpha rays
2.Beta rays
3.Gamma rays
4.X rays
3/16/2013 14
BRP-Alpha Rays
• Alpha Particles.
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239)
decay by the emission of alpha particles. These alpha particles are
tightly bound units of two neutrons and two protons each (He4
nucleus). Emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a
decrease of two units of atomic number (Z) and four units of mass
number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies
characteristic of the particular transformation from which they
originate. All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide
transformation will have identical energies.
3/16/2013 15
BRP-Beta Rays
• Beta Particles.
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons
may decay through the emission of a high speed electron
called a beta particle. This results in a net change of one
unit of atomic number (Z). The beta particles emitted by a
specific radionuclide range in energy from near 0 up to a
maximum value characteristic of the particular
transformation.
3/16/2013 16
BRP-Gamma Rays
• Gamma rays.
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or
more photons (packets of electromagnetic radiation) of
discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not
alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but
instead has the effect of moving the nucleus from a higher
to a lower energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray
emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and
other nuclear decay processes.
3/16/2013 17
BRP-X Rays
• X rays.
X-rays are also part of the electromagnetic spectrum and are distinguished
from gamma rays only by their source (orbital electrons rather than the
nucleus). X-rays are emitted with discrete energies by electrons as they shift
orbits following certain types of nuclear decay processes. Internal conversion
occurs in a isotope when the energy is transferred to an atomic origin electron
that is then ejected with kinetic energy equal to the expected gamma ray, but
minus the electron's binding energy. The vacancy in the atomic structure is
filled by an external electron, resulting in the production of x-rays. Thulium-
170 is a good example of this type of disintegration. When Thulium-170
looses its energy it will exhibit a 60 % probability of interaction with an orbital
electron thus producing x-radiation.
3/16/2013 18
BRP-EMR
Penetration
Power
3/16/2013 19
Gamma Ray Sources
Industrial Radiography mostly uses gamma radiation sources of Ir-192
and Co –60 for the following range of thickness.
Ir-192 19 to 62 mm of steel.
Co-60 32 to 200 mm of steel.
Radioactive decay measurement:
At = Ao e – λt.
Where At Activity after time period ‘t.’
Ao Initial activity.
λ decay constant = 0.693 / Half Life Period.
t time period e exponential constant.
3/16/2013 20
Gamma Ray Sources
Example Problem:
Find the activity of an Ir-192 source of activity 10 Ci after a
time period of 30 days.
Formula: At = Ao e – λt.
= 10 x e – 0.693 / 74.5 x 30.
= 10 x e – 0.279.
= 10 x 0.756.
= 7.56 ci.
3/16/2013 21
Gamma Ray Sources
•Output of Isotope.
RHM:Roentgen hour per metre.
It is the amount of radiation from a 1 ci Isotope at a distance of 1 metre for
1 hour.
For Ir- 192 0.5 RHM.
For Co-60 1.3 RHM.
ENERGY:
For Ir-192 range 0.4 to 0.7 mev.
mean value 0.55 mev.
For Co-60 range 1.17 to 1.33 mev.
mean value 1.25 mev.
3/16/2013 22
Gamma Ray Sources
Inverse Square Law.

I1 D2 2.
-------- = ---------.
I2 D12.
Where I1 = Intensity of Radiation at distance D1.

I2 = Intensity of Radiation at distance D2.
In instance where I1 is not given directly I1 can be calculated as follows.

I1 = Source Strength x RHM x 1000 mR/hr. In this case.
D1 = 1 metre because RHM is for 1 metre distance.
3/16/2013 23
Gamma Ray Sources
Example Problem:
Find the Radiation intensity at 20 metre distance from a
source producing 200 mR/hr at 10 metre distance.
Directly substituting the above datas in inverse square law,
200 20 2 I2 200 x 100.
----- = ------ = -------------.
I2 10 2 400.
Thus I2 = 50 mR/ hr.
3/16/2013 24
Gamma Ray Sources
Example Problem:
Find the Radiation intensity from a 15 ci Ir-192 source at a
distance of 30 metres.
Substituting I1 = SS x RHM x 1000 and D1 = 1 metres ,
15 x 0.5x 1000 30 2 I2 7500.
------------------ = ------ = -------------.
I2 12 900.
Thus I2 = 8.33 mR/ hr.
3/16/2013 25
Gamma Ray Sources
SHIELDING.
Half Value Thickness (HVT):

It is the thickness of Shielding material that can reduce the radiation
intensity to half (1/2)of its initial amount.
Tenth Value Thickness (TVT):

It is the thickness of Shielding material that can reduce the radiation
intensity to one – tenth (1/10)of its initial amount.
3/16/2013 26
Gamma Ray Sources
Half Value Thickness (HVT) in mm
Material
Depleted Lead Steel Concrete
Source Uranium
Ir-192 3.3 5.0 12.5 44.0
Co-60 6.0 12.0 20.0 66.0
1 TVT = 3.323 HVT
3/16/2013 27
Gamma ray Sorces
Radioaction Intensity after shielding measurement:
I = Io e – μt.
Where I Intesity of Radiation after shielding.
Io Intesity of Radiation without shielding.
e exponential constant.
μ Linear attenuation / absorption co efficient = 0.693 / HVT.
t thickness of shielding material.
3/16/2013 28
Gamma Ray Sources
Example Problem:
What is the radiation intensity when 200 mR/hr Radiation from an Ir-192
source passes through 50mm of steel.
Formula: I= Io e – μt.
= 200 x e – 0.693 / 12.5 x 50.
= 200 x e – 2.772.
= 200 x 0.0625.
= 12.5 mR/hr.
3/16/2013 29
Gamma Ray Sources
Example Problem:
What is the radiation intensity from a 20 ci co 60 source at a distance of
40 metres with a shielding of 500 mm concrete.
Soln:
This problem is divided into two steps.First find the intensity without
shielding using inverse square law and then use the shielding formula.
Step1:
Substituting I1 = SS x RHM x 1000 and D1 = 1 metres ,
20 x 1.3x 1000 40 2 I2 26000.
------------------ = ------ = -------------. = 16.25 mR/hr.
I2 12 1600.
3/16/2013 30
Gamma Ray Sources
Step2:
Now 16.25 mR/hr radiation after passing through 50mm of concrete.
Using the formula I = Io e – μt. We get,
= 16.25 x e – 0.693 / 66 x 500.
= 16.25 x e – 5.25.
= 16.25 x 0.0052.
= 0.0845mR/hr.
3/16/2013 31
Gamma Ray Sources
Equipments:
Encapsualtion:
The process of sealing of radioactive pellets in capsules or
capsuling pellets .
Packing
Capsule
Pellets
3/16/2013 32
Gamma Ray Sources
Equipments sketch:
Radiography camera with driving unit.
3/16/2013 33
Gamma Ray Sources
Accesories:
•A Isotope trnsport container.
•Collimator for prevention of
radiation passing 360 deg.Best
acessory for safety.
3/16/2013 34
Gamma Ray Sources
Specific Activity:
Activity per unit mass.Its unit is ci/gm.
Lets take 1gm each of Ir 192 ,Co 60 and Cs 137 isotopes and load in a nuclear
reactor for 2 to 3 months.Note the activity obtained.It shall be approximately.
Ir 192 - 2 ci / gm, Co 60 - 1 ci/gm and Cs 137 – 0.5 ci/gm.
These are the Specific activity values.Suppose we want to make 10 ci each we may require
as follows.
Ir- 192 Co – 60 Cs – 137.
5gm 10gm 20gm.

From the above we can infer that a source with high specific activity will have smaller
physical size.
3/16/2013 35
X-Ray Sources
X rays are produced

when a high speed electrons
are suddenly stopped by an
obstacle.
In other words X rays are
produced by decelerating fast
electrons.
3/16/2013 36
X-Ray Sources
X ray tube:
Cathode(Filament)
Anode(Tungsten Target)
Fast Electrons
3/16/2013 37
X-Ray Sources
Controls in an X ray machine

Tube Voltage
Tube Current
Time
Tube voltage - Kilo voltage (Kv):
When Kv is raised,
•Speed of electrons increase
•Penetration Power increase
•Quality & Quantity of radiation increase
3/16/2013 38
X-Ray Sources
Controls in an X ray machine

Tube current – milli Ampere (mA):
When mA is raised,
•Amount of electrons increase
•Quantity of Radiation increase
•Intensity of radiation increase

Time :
Depending on Kv,mA & thickness different exposure time are set
3/16/2013 39
X-Ray Sources
Types of X ray
Continuous X ray (Brehmstralung Rdn):
It occurs due to electrical disturbance
3/16/2013 40
X-Ray Sources
Types of X ray.
Characteristic X ray :
It occurs due to electronic disturbance.The percentage of occurance is
less.
3/16/2013 41
X-Ray Sources
Types of Rectification
Self Rectification
Greinisher circuit
Types of X-ray Tube
Uni Polar Tube ( x ray crawlers)
Bi Polar Tube (Generally used)
3/16/2013 42
X-Ray Sources
Applications
Medical Less than 100 Kev
Industrial 100 Kev – 25 Mev
* Kev Kilo electron Volt

* Mev Mega electron volt
3/16/2013 43
X-Ray Sources
Types of X ray Machines

•Portable
•Mobile
•Stationary (High energy X ray Machines):
1. Vandegraff Generator
2. Cyclotron
3. Betatron
4. Linac
3/16/2013 44
X-Ray Sources
Vandegraff Generator 1 – 5 Mev.

An American physicist, R. J. Van de Graaff developed one of the first
particle accelerators in the early 1930’s. Known as the Van de Graaff
generator, electrostatic generator. This device accelerates electrons to
produce high energy radiation. Initially, the generator was capable of
producing x-radiation in the 1 to 2 MeV range. Continued design
changes produced even higher energies. .
The generator operates by projecting electrons onto a moving belt. The
electrons ride on the belt and are collected at the opposite end on a high
voltage terminal. Here a heated filament supplies electrons for
acceleration, a glass/metal tube with a vacuum provides a path for
particle acceleration away from the high voltage terminal. At the end of
the tube is a target, whereby the accelerated particles can interact
producing high energy radiation.
Not long after the development of the Van de Graaff generator, it was
determined that charged particles could be accelerated to very high
speeds by driving them in a circular path. This was accomplished by the
application of strong electromagnets. A variety of these have been
developed to produce even higher energy radiation than that of the Van
de Graaff generator.
3/16/2013 45
X-Ray Sources
Cyclotron 5 – 10 Mev.
Again in the early 1930’s, E.O. Lawrence also an
American physicist developed the Cyclotron. This device
is capable of accelerating charged particles (protons) in a
circular path to energies that exceed 10 MeV. The
Cyclotron is comprised of a large cylindrical box
sandwiched between the poles of an electromagnet. The
box is evacuated until a high vacuum exists. Charged
particles are fed into the cylindrical box. Two `D’ shaped
electrodes placed back to back with a gap between them
are connected to a high voltage source inside of the
box. By rapidly reversing the electric charge on the
electrodes, and the due to the presence of the magnetic
field of the electromagnets, the charged particles move in
a circular fashion. Each time the charged particles cross
the gap of the electrodes, the particles gain energy, and
begin moving towards the outside of the cylindrical
box. Once the charged particles reach the outer edge of the
box, they are deflected towards the target, resulting in high
energy x-radiation. .
.
3/16/2013 46
X-Ray Sources
Betatron 5 – 10 Mev.
Betatron, was developed in the early 1940’s by a man name Donald Kerst at the
University of Illinois. Kerst’s Betatron is used to accelerate electrons (beta
particles) to produce high energy x-radiation. The first Betatron developed
produced a radiation energy of a little more than 2 MeV. Continued development
allowed the Betatron to generate energies as high as 300 MeV. .
The Betatron operates on the principle of the transformer, the primary side
consists of a large electromagnet, and the secondary side is the electron stream
that is being accelerated. The electrons are accelerated in a circular tube known as
a doughnut that has been evacuated. When the electrons have achieved maximum
energy, they are directed to a target, the resulting interaction is the production of
high energy x-rays.
3/16/2013 47
X-Ray Sources
Linear accelerator(Linac)
10-25 Mev.
Linear accelerator is designed to move charged
particles at high velocities along a straight path to
a target. Linear accelerators are comprised of a
series of drift tubes mounted inside of an
evacuated chamber. The charged particles are fed
into one end of the chamber, and accelerated by a
alternating high frequency voltage that is applied
to the drift tubes. Due to high frequency, the drift
tubes alternate charges, resulting in repulsion of
the particles as they leave a tube, and attraction by
the next tube. It is this alternating high frequency
that accelerates the particles as they cross the gaps
between tubes/Present day Linear accelerators
may be several miles long, capable of producing
extremely high energy x-rays.
3/16/2013 48
X-Ray Sources
Measuring the effective Focal Spot
3/16/2013 49
Interaction of Radiation with Matter
Photo Elecric Effect:

Only electron is ejected.
less than 100 Kev.
3/16/2013 50
Compton Scattering
Greater than 100 Kev but less than 1000Kev
Electron + Photon is ejected
3/16/2013 51
Pair Production
Greater than 1.02 Mev
Electron + Positron ejected
3/16/2013 52
FILMS,SCREENS & PROCESSING
Structure of film
Super Coating (2-3 microns)
Silver bromide 1.5 microns
Polyester Base 175 microns
Gelatin Coating 2 microns
3/16/2013 53
Types of film
• Slow Film:Fine Grain size,Maximum exposure time and
best quality
• Medium Film: Medium grain size,moderate exposure
time and quality
• Fast Film: Coarse grain ,Least exposure time and Poor
quality
3/16/2013 54
Types of Screens.
• Metallic Screen:
Lead foil Screens. Lead + Antimony.Widely used.
• Fluoroscent Screen:
Calcium Tungstate CaWO4.They absorb X or γ Photons and release
light photons that show fluoroscence.
• Fluorometallic Screen:
Metallic + Fluoroscent . Not mostly used.
3/16/2013 55
Function of Screen.
Primary:
It emits electrons thus providing electron intensification.
Secondary:
Reduces Exposure Time.
Reduces Back Scatter.
3/16/2013 56
Processing
 Developing
 Stop bathing
 Fixing
 Washing
 Drying
3/16/2013 57
Developing
Devoloping usually takes place in a chemical called developer.Developer
is a base with Ph value 9.5 to 11.5 .It reduces Silver bromide crystals on
the exposed part to metallic silver and bromine ion.It contains the
following chemicals
•Metol,Hydroquinone or phenidione – Developing Action
•Sodium Sulphite – Preservative Controls oxidation
•Sodium carbonate – Accelerator
•Potassium Bromide – Anti fogant
Normal developing time shall be 5 mts at a temperature of 20 deg c
3/16/2013 58
Developing.
Devoloping time is very crucial.As the temperature increases development
time reduces and vice versa.
When the developing time increases above the manufacturers
recommended time film contrast decreases .
Developer is constantly agitated to maintain uniform supply of electrons.
After prolonged usage,the developer activity reduces and the activity can
be maintained by the addition of replenishers.
Typical temperatures and development time.
3/16/2013 59
Stop Bathing.
The purpose of Stop bath is to stop developing action.
It is a mixture of water + Acetic Acid.
Normal Stop bathing time shall be 1 minute.
3/16/2013 60
Fixing.
Fixing process takes place in a solution called Fixer.The main function of
a Fixer is to remove the unexposed silver grains.Fixer is an acid with a Ph
value of 4.5.The norml fixing time shall be 10 to 15 minutes and the
minimum shall be half the clearing time.It contains the following
chemicals.
•Sodium thio sulphate ( Hypo) –Fixing action.
•Sodium sulphite – Control oxidation (Preservative).
•Acetic acid – Accelerator , maintain Ph value.
•Potash Alum - Hardener.
3/16/2013 61
Washing.
To remove the traces of salts of chemicals from solution
washing is done.
Washing is done normally in running water.
There are special washing process where it utilises two tanks
called cascading.
Normal washing time shall be 2o to 25 minutes.
Washing has a great impact on the storage life of radiographs.
3/16/2013 62
Drying.
Drying shall be done in ordinary air.
Special drying cabinets are available for quicker drying.But

care should be taken that the radiograph shall not be kept
inside the oven for a long time.
Sometimes wetting agents are added to water during washing

proces to enable quicker drying.
3/16/2013 63
The Process
3/16/2013 64
Geometric Considerations &
Qualities of a Radiograph
QUALITY
Density Sensitivity
3/16/2013 65
Density.
Density is the degree of darkness or blackening in a
Radiograph.
D = Log ( Ii / It ).
Where Ii Incident intensity of light.
It Transmitted intensity of light.
The unit of light is Lux.Our eye is sensible to light of.
30 – 100 cd/ m2. whereas the maximum lighting capacity.
is 10,000 cd/ m2. Hence we cannot read more than density 4.
3/16/2013 66
I i (units) It (units) Transmittance % Density
100 100 100 0
100 10 10 1
100 1 1 2
100 0.1 0.1 3
100 0.01 0.01 4
Normal Density: 2.0 to 2.5
Acceptable Density: For X ray 1.8 to 4.0
For Gamma ray 2.0 to 4.0
For Castings 1.5 to 4.0
3/16/2013 67
Density Measurement:
1.Densitometer
2.Density Strip
Film Factor:
The amount of radiation required by a particular film to reach density 2.0
Film
Source
NDT 65 NDT 70 AGFA D7 AGFA D4
Ir-192 1.4 1.0 1.1 3.5
Co-60 2.8 2.0 2.2 7.0
3/16/2013 68
Sensitivity.
Before going to sensitivity in detail lets see the factors that effect
sensitivity.
Sensitivity is mainly affected by two factors.
1.Definition or Unsharpness.
2.Contrast.
1.Definition or Unsharpness:
The sharpness of the outline of an image boundary is called Definition
or Unsharpness.It is denoted by the letter μ.
3/16/2013 69
Definition or Unsharpness
1.Geometric Unsharpness μg
2.Movement Unsharpness μm
3.Scatter or Screen Unsharpness μs
4.Film or Inherant Unsharpness μi
Total Unsharpness μ = μg2+ μm2+ μs2+ μi2
3/16/2013 70
Method to find Geometric Unsharpness
Source(S)
SOD
OFD Object
Film
µg = S x OFD/SOD where S Effective Source size

OFD Object to Film distance
SOD Source to object distance
3/16/2013 71
Acceptable µg or Ug:
For thickness upto 50mm 0.5 mm ( 0.020” ).
µg = S x t / d for Gamma ray.
µg = f x t / d for X ray.
As a rule of thumb the d/t ratio shall be 8 or more.
Determination of Effective source size:
Source.
Height(h) Effective dia(D) D= h 2 + d 2.
Actual dia(d).
3/16/2013 72
µg shall always be as low as possible.

To reduce µg.
Reduce the Source size.
Reduce the OFD.
Increase the SOD.
The nominal source dia shall be 2.5mm and hence the effective source
size shall be 4.0mm.
3/16/2013 73
• RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST.
The difference in densities between adjacent areas in a radiograph.
Radiographic Contrast.
Subject Contrast Film Contrast.
1.Thickness of material 1.Type of film.
2.Density of material 2.Processing condition.
3.Energy selection.
4.Scattering.
3/16/2013 74
Scattering.
Scattering are low energy radiation of longer wave length.
Types of Scatter:
1.Back Scatter ---eg: Flloors,Back walls,film holders etc.
2.Side Scatter ---eg: Side walls or side lying objects.
3.Forward or internal Scatter ---eg:the object itself.
Methods to avoid Scatter:
1.Using Filters – Lead,Steel,Copper,Barium,Clay.
2.Masks.
3.Diaphragms.
4.Lead Shots.
3/16/2013 75
Characteristic Curve or Sensitometric Curve or H& D Curve or Hurther &
Drifield curve.
6.0.
E
5.0.
D
4.0 A-B Under Exposure.

C
B–C Straight Line.
2.0 C–D Over Exposure.
0.7 B E Point of Solarisation.

A
The slope of the straight line portion in a H & D curve is a measure of.
Film contrast or average gradient.
3/16/2013 76
Sensitivity:
The least discontinuity that can be visible in a Radiograph.
To measure sensitivity Image Quality Indicators (IQI) are normally kept

on the Radiograph.
Types of IQI:
1.Wire Type.
2.Step Hole Type.
3.Strip Hole Type.
3/16/2013 77
Wire Type IQI
1.DIN Wire Type
DIN 62 Fe
1 ISO 7
DIN – Dutch Industrial Normale

62 - 1962 Year of invention of Penetrameter
Fe – (Ferrous)Steel & Steel Alloys
3/16/2013 78
DIN Wire Type
DIN Wire Type Thickness range
1 ISO 7 > 50mm
6 ISO 12 >19mm < 50mm
10 ISO 16 <19mm
The diameter of a DIN wire type penetrameter varies by a geometric

progression of 0.8.Each penetrameter will have 7 wires and 2 or 3 wires
will be repeated on the next series.
The penetrameter material shall be the same or similar material to that of
the object being radiographed.For eg radiographing aluminium we need to
use Al penetrameter.
3/16/2013 79
DIN Wire Diameters
Wire No. THICKNESS
1 3.2
2 2.5
3 2
4 1.6
5 1.25
6 1
7 0.8
8 0.625
9 0.5
10 0.4
11 0.32
12 0.25
13 0.2
14 0.16
15 0.13
16 0.1
3/16/2013 80
ASTM Wire Type :
The left side 01,02,03,04,05 gives the
material Grouping and on the right
A,B,C & D gives the four sets of wires.
Each penetrameter contains 6 wires out

of which 1 wires shall be repeated in
the next adjacent set.
Totally the four sets A,B,C & D will

therefore account 21 wire diameters.
The diameter varies by a geometric

progression of 1.25.
3/16/2013 81
ASTM Wire Type :
Heavy Metal Group
Light Metal Group Group Material
No
Group No Material
01 Steel
03 Magnesium
02 Aluminium bronzes & Nickel
02 Aluminium
Aluminium bronze
01 Titanium
03 Nickel-chromium-Iron alloy
04 Nickel copper
05 Tin bronzeincluding Gun
metal & valve bronze.
3/16/2013 82
ASTM Wire Type :
3/16/2013 83
Finding Sensitivity:
Sensitivity = Least wire dia visible x 100 %

Thickness.
Acceptable sensitivity shall be 2% or < 2 %. (Pressure

Vessels & Pipelines).
Hence penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material

thickness.
3/16/2013 84
STRIP HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETER:

2T
1T
4T
20
(T)Penetrameter designation/Thickness
in Thou/ mils
1 Thou = 1 / 1000 inch
1 Thou = 1 mil
1 mm = 40 Thou
3/16/2013 85
STRIP HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETER
3/16/2013 86
Sensitivity Levels
Sensitivity Equivalent
Levels Sensitivity
1-1T 0.7%
1-2T 1.0% Nuclear
1-4T 1.4%
2-1T 1.4%
2-2T 2.0% Pressure Vessels &
2-4T 2.8% Pipelines
4-1T 2.8%
4-2T 4.0% Structural
4-4T 5.6%
3/16/2013 87
Sensitivity Level 2 – 1T.
Here 2 implies penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material thickness
and the least visible hole was 1 T.
Obtained Sensitivity.
= 100 TH.
X 2.
Where X - material thickness in Thou.
T - Penetrameter thickness in Thou.
H- Hole dia visible.
3/16/2013 88
Example Problem:
Job thicknes X = 20 mm = 800 Thou
IQI Thickness T = 15 Thou
Hole dia H = 2T = 2 x 15 Thou = 30 Thou
Sensitivity = 100 15 x 30
800 2
= 1.875%
3/16/2013 89
RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
• Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)
• Single Wall Panaromic (SWP)
3/16/2013 90
SWSI.
For Radiographing Tanks,Vessels
and large dia open end pipes.
Best Technique.
IQI Selection:
SWT + one Reinforcement.
Minimum SFD:
Length of Coverage & Ug
requirements.
3/16/2013 91
DWSI.
For pipes with OD > 89mm.
Minimum 3 exposures placed at
120 deg apart.
IQI Selection:
SWT + one Reinforcement.
Minimum SFD:
Normally Pipe OD.
Ug requirement & not less than
pipe OD.
3/16/2013 92
DWDI (Elliptical Exp).
For Radiographing pipe with.
< 89mm OD.Minimum 2
exposures placed at 90 deg apart.
IQI Selection:
DWT + one Reinforcement.
Minimum SFD:
Ug requirement.
Rule of thumb d/t shall be 8 or
more.
3/16/2013 93
DWDI(Super imposed).
For Radiographing pipe with.
< 89mm OD particularly on.
Nozzles,Flanges etc.Minimum 3
exposures placed at 120 deg apart.
IQI Selection:
DWT + Two Reinforcement.
Minimum SFD:
Ug requirement.
Rule of thumb d/t shall be 8 or
more.
3/16/2013 94
SWP.
For radiographing large dia pipelines,
cirseam welds in Pressure vessels &
Tanks where source is positioned on
axis.
The entire circumference is completed
in a single exposure.
IQI Selection:
SWT + One Reinforcement.
Minimum 3 IQI placed at 120 deg
apart.
Minimum SFD:
Half the Diameter of pipe.
3/16/2013 95
Exposure Time:
E = F.F * 2 X/HVT * SFD2 * 60

S.S * RHM * 1002
Where FF - Film Factor

X - Material thickness in mm
HVT - Half Value Thickness in mm
SFD - Source to Film Distance in cm
SS - Source Strength
RHM - Roentgen hour per metre
3/16/2013 96
STEEL EQUIVALENT FACTOR.
.
X-rays.
Gamma Rays.
Material.
50 kV.
100 kV.
150 kV.
220 kV.
400 kV.
1000 kV.
2000 kV.
4 to 25 .
MeV.
3/16/2013
Ir . 97
192.
X-ray Exposure Chart:
.
X-rays.
Gamma Rays.
Material.
50 kV.
100 kV.
150 kV.
220 kV.
400 kV.
1000 kV.
2000 kV.
4 to 25 .
3/16/2013
MeV. 98
Ir .
Time Distance Formula.
T1 D1 2.
-------- = ---------.
T2 D22.
Where T1 = Exposure time at distance D1.

T2 = Exposure time at distance D2.
Exposure time is directly proportional to the distance.

This formula is also called as Direct square Law.
3/16/2013 99
SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
Parallax Principle
a
a/ b = (D-d) / d
Source Positions
ad = bD – bd
ad + bd = bD
defect d(a + b) = bD
D
d = bD/ (a + b)
= defect shift x SFD
d Object
(source shift + defect shift)
b Film
3/16/2013 100
Parallax Principle(Lead Marker

Source positions
Method)
By similar triangles ratio

a = d
Marker
b t
t d = at / b
d
a b Depth of defect d =
defect shift(a) x thickness(t)
marker shift (b)
3/16/2013 101
Double Exposure Parallax

Principle
3/16/2013 102
Stereo Radiography.
• Three dimensional effect is

obtained using a stereoscope.
3/16/2013 103
Fluoroscopy
3/16/2013 104
Flash Radiography.
Freezing the motion of projecties &

Trajectories.
High Speed radiography.
Cuurent- 2000A.
Exposure time – nano seconds.
3/16/2013 105
Proton Radiography
• Very high sensitivity 0.05 %
• Attenuation only after the proton passes through 90% of
material thickness
• No burning of edges
3/16/2013 106
Xero Radiography or Xonics Electron Radiography.

• Selenium coated Aluminium Plate.
• Well polished aluminium plate coated with selenium
oxide.
• When exposed to xrays charge on weld portion remain.
• Image obtained by developing charged particle.
3/16/2013 107
Micro Focus Radiography.

• Image enlargement is possible.
• Application:Segregation &
Coring in alloys.
3/16/2013 108
Hot Radiography.
• Radiography of radioactive
materials.
3/16/2013 109
Photo Electron Radiography.
•Application:
Radiography of Bank notes,
stamps, Coins & clothes.
3/16/2013 110
Neutron radiography.
•Suitable for hydrogeneous

material & Radioactive material.
•Does not depend on density &
thickness.
•Applications:
Corrosion in space and aircraft
components,explosives,organic
compound,plastics.
3/16/2013 111
Discontinuities & Process
Classification of Discontinuties:
1.Inherent- Mostly at the molten stage.eg.Gas inclusions.
2.Process-During Process eg. Discontinuties occuring durinng
process like welding,casting, forging,rolling etc.
3.Service-During Service eg: Fatigue crack,Intergranular.

Corrosion Cracking.
3/16/2013 112
Discontinuities -Casting
Types of Casting:
1.Temporary Casting:
a.Sand casting
b.Shell Casting
c.Invest ment casting
2.Permanent Casting:
a.Centrifugal casting
b.Pressure die casting
c.Continuous casting
3/16/2013 113
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by

accumulated gas or air which is trapped by the
metal. These discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the be trapped
as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows
can also be caused by sand that is too fine, too
wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so
that gas can't escape. Too high a moisture
content in the sand makes it difficult to carry
the excessive volumes of water vapor away
from the casting. Another cause of blows can
be attributed to using green ladles, rusty or
damp chills and chaplets.
3/16/2013 114
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on

the radiograph. Shrinkage assumes various forms but in all cases it
occurs because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions
of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the
volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially
retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage can be recognized in a number of
characteristic by varying appearances on radiographs. There are at
least four types: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4)
sponge types. Some documents designate these types by numbers,
without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding.
3/16/2013 115
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of

very fine lines or small elongated cavities
that may vary in density and are
usuallyunconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as
a continuous structure of connected lines
or branches of variable length, width and
density, or occasionally as a network.
3/16/2013 116
• Cavity shrinkage appears as areas

with distinct jagged boundaries. It
may be produced when metal
solidifies between two original
streams of melt, coming from
opposite directions to join a
common front; cavity shrinkage
usually occurs at a time when the
melt has almost reached
solidification temperature and there
is no source of supplementary
liquid to feed possible cavities
3/16/2013 117
Core shift shows itself as a

variation in section thickness,
usually on radiographic views
representing diametrically opposite
portions of cylindrical casting
portions.
3/16/2013 118
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in

a supposedly solid metallic matrix.
They may be less or more dense than
the matrix alloy and will appear on the
radiograph, respectively, as darker or
lighter indications. The latter type is
more common in light metal castings.
3/16/2013 119
Sand inclusions and dross are

nonmetallic oxides, appearing on the
radiograph as irregular, dark blotches.
These come from disintegrated
portions of mold or core walls and/or
from oxides (formed in the melt) which
have not been skimmed off prior to
introduction of the metal into the mold
gates. Careful control of the melt,
proper holding time in the ladle and
skimming of the melt during pouring
will minimize or obviate this source of
trouble.
3/16/2013 120
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as

areas of lacy texture with diffuse
outlines, generally toward the mid-
thickness of heavier casting sections.
Sponge shrinkage may be dendritic or
filamentary shrinkage; filamentary
sponge shrinkage appears more blurred
because it is projected through the
relatively thick coating between the
discontinuities and the film surface.
3/16/2013 121
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged)

linearly disposed discontinuities that
occur after the melt has solidified.
They generally appear singly and
originate at casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near
a surface of cast metal as a result of
two streams of liquid meeting and
failing to unite. They may appear on a
radiograph as cracks or seams with
smooth or rounded edges.
3/16/2013 122
Discontinuties-Casting
• Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal during
solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to overly hard (completely
unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears, as a stress concentration, is similar to that of
an ordinary crack; how tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger
runs of a casting type, they may call for explicit improvements in technique.
• Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with a definite
smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily eliminated by specific
remedial actions in the process.
• Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less dense images.
The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin-section radiographs, most
often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary
material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly
consider mottling as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often
have to check the condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in
mottling are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly in
appearance.
3/16/2013 123
• Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds.
• Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective conditions or in
joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair that these descriptions of the
more common weld defects are provided here. The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390.
For additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the
"Radiographic Control of Welds."
• Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and base metal.
Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow indications to short wide
indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.
• Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally cylindrical or
elliptical in shape.
• Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal.
It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears as a dark indication at
the toe of a weld.
• Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the thickness of
the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at the center of a weld and is a
wide, linear indication.
• Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld joint with
adjacent metal; either base or previously deposited weld metal. On a radiograph, this appears as a
long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line.
3/16/2013 124
• Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip, fused root or
adjacent base metal) resulting from complete melting of a localized region but without development
of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round or elliptical
indication.
• Burn-through is a void or open hole into a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal.
• Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface contour of a
finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat generated when electrical
energy passes between surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source.
• Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during welding and
which do not form part of the actual weld: weld spatter appears as many small, light cylindrical
indications on a radiograph.
• Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions appear most
linear, very light radiographic images; accept/reject decisions for this defect are generally based on
the slag criteria.
• Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide formation
on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere. Also called sugaring.
• Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into the clearance
between backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in radiographs as a sharply defined film
density transition.
• Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of the base
metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.
3/16/2013 125
Discontinuities -Welding
Welding Discontinuties:
1.Mechanical - Mismatch or offset
2.Inadequate - LP,LF
3.Metallurgical - Porosity,Cracks
Welding Discontinuties:
1.Planar --LF
2.Voluminar --Slag,porosity
3/16/2013 126
Discontinuities. Defects.
Discontinuities are Discontinuities, which do not
interruptions in the typical meet the requirements of the
structure of a material. These codes or specification used to
interruptions may occur in invoke and control an
the base metal, weld material inspection, are referred to as
or "heat affected" zones. defects.
3/16/2013 127
Fluoroscopy
Offset or mismatch are terms associated appearance
with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned.
The radiographic image is a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces.
The difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The dark,
straight line is caused by failure of the weld
metal to fuse with the land area.
3/16/2013 128
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of Fluoroscopy
penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld appearance
metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of
the most objectionable weld discontinuities.
Lack of penetration allows a natural stress
riser from which a crack may propagate.
The appearance on a radiograph is a dark
area with well-defined, straight edges that
follows the land or root face down the
center of the weldment
3/16/2013 129
Incomplete fusion is a condition Fluoroscopy
appearance
where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal.
Appearance on radiograph: usually
appears as a dark line or lines oriented
in the direction of the weld seam along
the weld preparation or joining area.
3/16/2013 130
Fluoroscopy
Cracking can be detected in a radiograph
appearance
only the crack is propagating in a direction
that produced a change in thickness that is
parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will
appearas jagged and often very faint
irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes
appearing as "tails" on inclusions or
porosity.
3/16/2013 131
Fluoroscopy
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of appearance
the base metal next to the root of the weld.
In the radiographic image it appears as a
dark irregular line offset from the centerline
of the weldment. Undercutting is not as
straight edged as LOP because it does not
follow a ground edge
3/16/2013 132
Fluoroscopy
appearance
External or crown undercut is an
erosion of the base metal next to the
crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it
appears as a dark irregular line along
the outside edge of the weld area.
3/16/2013 133
Fluoroscopy
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid appearance
material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base metal. In a
radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or along the
weld joint areas are indicative of slag
inclusions.
3/16/2013 134
Fluoroscopy
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the
appearance
surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense
than the surrounding materials and,
therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped
discontinuities in the radiograph.
3/16/2013 135
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle Fluoroscopy
and inherently dense material used in the appearance
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If
improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld.
Radiographically, tungsten is more dense
than aluminum or steel; therefore, it shows
as a lighter area with a distinct outline on
the radiograph.
3/16/2013 136
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying
metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but Fluoroscopy
often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearance
appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes
porosity is elongated and may have the appearance of
having a tail This is the result of gas attempting to escape
while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it
will have a radiographic density more than the surrounding
area.
3/16/2013 137
Cluster porosity is caused when flux Fluoroscopy
coated electrodes are contaminated with appearance
moisture. The moisture turns into gases
when heated and becomes trapped in the
weld during the welding process. Cluster
porosity appear just like regular porosity in
the radiograph but the indications will be
grouped close together.
3/16/2013 138
Fluoroscopy
Internal concavity or suck back is appearance
condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn
up into the root of the weld. On a
radiograph it looks similar to lack of
penetration but the line has irregular edges
and it is often quite wide in the center of the
weld image.
3/16/2013 139
Fluoroscopy
Cold lap is a condition where the weld
appearance
filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold lap). The arc does
not melt the base metal sufficiently and
causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into base material without bonding.
3/16/2013 140
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area Fluoroscopy
of a weld where the thickness of weld metal appearance
deposited is less than the thickness of the
base material. It is very easy to determine
by radiograph if the weld has inadequate
reinforcement, because the image density in
the area of suspected inadequacy will be
more (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.
3/16/2013 141
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a Fluoroscopy
weld, which has weld metal added in excess appearance
of that specified by engineering drawings
and codes. The appearance on a radiograph
is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A
visual inspection will easily determine if the
weld reinforcement is in excess of that
specified by the individual code involved in
the inspection.
3/16/2013 142
Burn through (icicles) results when too Fluoroscopy
much heat causes excessive weld metal to appearance
penetrate the weld zone. Lumps of metal
sag through the weld creating a thick
globular condition on the back of the weld.
On a radiograph, burn through appears as
dark spots surrounded by light globular
areas.They are most commonly found in
GMAW welds.
3/16/2013 143
Interpretations,Standards & Codes
Acceptance Considerations:
1.Stresses
2.Type of Stress
3.Environment
4.Thickness
5.Consequences of failure
6.Rectification cost
7.Standards
3/16/2013 144
Qualities of a good Interpreter:
1.Enhance knowledge on Techniques.
2.Knowledge of Product.
3.Nature of Product.
4.Acceptance Standards.
Functions of a good Interpreter:
1.Check the quality of the rdiograph or weld image.
2.Identify the discontinuty.
3.Interpret the discontinuity.
4.Evaluate the discontinuity in terms of codes and standard.
3/16/2013 145
Code:
It is a collection of relative standards and specification often applied to a
particular product line.
Standard:
It is a published specification,test method or practice that has been
prepared by an isolated body.
Specification:
It is a document which states in detail the set of requirements associated
with the product.
Procedure:
It is the specific way to perform an activity which says performed by
whom ,when, where and in what way.
3/16/2013 146
International Organisations that prepare a code:
•ASME - American Society for Mechanical Engineers
•AWS - American Welding Society
•AWI - American Welding Institute
•ANSI - American National Standards Institute
•ASNT - American Society for Non Destructive Testing
•API - American Petroleum Institute
•EN – European Nations
3/16/2013 147
3/16/2013 148
RADIATION SAFETY
ALARA - As Low As Reasonably Achievable

TDS - Time Distance Shielding
• Spend the least time near radiation
• Spend maximum distance
• Ensure adequate shielding
• T D S
3/16/2013 149
Radiation Units
• Radiation level - exposure rate - R per hour (or)
- mR per hour
• Exposure - charge released in air
- Coulomb per kg or esu per cc
• Activity - Bq - 1 transformations /per second

1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 transformations / second
1Ci = 37 GBq
3/16/2013 150
Radiation Units
• Absorbed Dose : Energy absorbed

- 1 joule / kg - gray ( Gy)
- 100 ergs/gm - rad
- 1 Gy = 100 rad
• Biological effects depend upon
• - Spatial distribution of energy
• - Energy loss per unit path length
• - Different for different radiation's
3/16/2013 151
Radiation Units
• Equivalent Dose :
Dose x Radiation Weighting Factor (WR)
- 1 Joule / kg - Sievert ( Sv)
- 100 ergs/gm - Rem
- 1 Sv = 100 Rem
- 1mSv = 100 mRem
• Effective Dose - for Non Uniform Exposure or
Individual Organ Exposure
Dose x Tissue Weighting Factor ( WT)
3/16/2013 152
RADIATION SAFETY
Biological Effects :
• Inhibition of Cell division

• Chromosome abberation
• Gene Mutation
• Cell death
3/16/2013 153
RADIATION SAFETY
Background Radiation:
Terrestial Cosmic Rays.
1995 – 125 mR/ year ,Latest – 240 mR/year.
Because of ozone depletion and other factors.
Radiation Limits(MPD -Maximum Permissable Dose):
Radiation Worker --- 5000 mR/ Year (Old).

--- 2000 mR/ Year (New).
General Public --- 5% of Rdn worker. ie 100 mR/year(New).
3/16/2013 154
RADIATION SAFETY
Radiation Limits (MPD):
Radiation Worker General Public

20 mSv/Year 1 mSv/Year
40 mR/Week 40 mR/Week
8 mR/Day 8 mR/Day
1 mR/Hour 1 mR/Hour
3/16/2013 155
RADIATION SAFETY
DOSE:
1.Acute Dose:
Sudden dose.
e.g.Dose received during one operation or in a day.
2.Chronic Dose:
Cumulative dose.
e.g.Dose received for 1 year year.
3/16/2013 156
RADIATION SAFETY
EFFECT:
1.Stochastic Effect:
No threshold value or limits.
e.g.Cancer,Leukamia,Genetic effects.
2.Non Stochastic Effect:

Threshold value or limits.
e.g.Cataract, skin erythma.
3/16/2013 157
RADIATION SAFETY
Whole Body Dose and Effects:
Upto 0.1 Gy No detectable effect
0.1 – 0.25 Gy Chromosome abberation
0.25 – 1.0 Gy Blood Picture Changes.
Reduction in blood count etc.
1.0 – 3.0 Gy NVD Nausea Vomitting & Diarrhoea
3.0 – 5.0 Gy LD 50/60. Lethal Dose.
50%of exposed individual die within 60 days
> 5.0 Gy Death within Few days.
3/16/2013 158
RADIATION SAFETY
Local Radiation or Organal Dose:
ORGAN DOSE EFFECT

Testes 1.25Gy Temporary sterlity
Ovary 3.0 Gy Temporary sterlity
Ovary 4.5 Gy Permanent sterlity
Testes 6.5 Gy Permanent sterlity
Eye 6.0 Gy Cataract(delayed effect)
Skin 8.0 Gy Skin Erythma
3/16/2013 159
RADIATION SAFETY
Radiation Monitoring Devices

Area Monitor Personnel Monitor
1.Survey Meters: 1.Film Badge
a.Geiger Muller Counter-Low level Rdn
b.Ionisation Chamber-Low level Rdn. 2.TLD Badge
c. Scintillation Counter
d. Proportional counter 3.Pocket Dosimeters
2.Audible alarms
3/16/2013 160
RADIATION SAFETY
Survey Meter
3/16/2013 161
RADIATION SAFETY
Audible Alarm:
3/16/2013 162
RADIATION SAFETY
Film Badge:
Useful Range:
20 mR – 2000R.
It can be used to detect the effects
of all ionising radiations
Alpha,Beta,Gamma,Neutons,Low
energy Xrays,High energy Xrays &
Gamma Rays.
3/16/2013 163
RADIATION SAFETY
TLD Badge:
Lithium Fluoride,Calcium Zinc
Sulphate.
20mR – 20,000 R.
When certain materials are exposed to
ionising radiation, some of the energy
absorbed is stored. This stored energy is
released in the form of light when the material
is heated. Lithium fluoride has this property
which is called thermoluminescence. The
amount of light emitted on heating the lithium
flouride, is proportional to the amount of
radiation that had been incident on it. Its
response is relatively independent of the
energy of the radiation.
3/16/2013 164
RADIATION SAFETY
Pocket Dosimeter:
0 – 200 mR or 0- 2 mSv.
Advantage:
• On the spot indication.
• Measures total dose.
3/16/2013 165
RADIATION SAFETY
Permissable Leakage Radiation

Type of Max.at At 1 metre
Device Surface Distance
Portable 100 mR/hr 2 mR/hr
Mobile 100 mR/hr 10 mR/hr
Stationary 200 mR/hr 20 mR/hr
3/16/2013 166
RADIATION SAFETY
SHIPPING.
Dangerous Goods. Class 7. UN 2972.
Transport Index:
The value of Leakage radiation measured in mR/hr at 1 metre
distance from the surface of the package.
Type Maximum Transport Index
Contact Reading
White I 0.5 mR/hr < 0.05
Yellow II 50 mR/hr Upto 1.0
Yellow III 200 mR/hr 1.0 – 10.0
3/16/2013 167
RADIATION SAFETY
SHIPPING.
Radiation warning Transport label:
49 CFR 172.403.
3/16/2013 168
THE END
Thank You.
Good Luck for Your Examination
3/16/2013 169

RT Level II Course Notes PDF Free

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

RT Level II Course Notes PDF Free

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bvk

1.Visual Testing(VT) 1.Radiography Testing(RT)

• Eddy Current Testing(ET)

Nucleus consist of Protons and Neutrons

• Atomic No:It is the No.of protons or No.of electrons present in an

1 Roentgen (R) = 1000 milli Roentgen(mR).

• Let us see the electro magnetic spectrum

As the wavelength decreases penetration will increase

• Types of Electro Magnetic radiation

Inverse Square Law.

Where I1 = Intensity of Radiation at distance D1.

In instance where I1 is not given directly I1 can be calculated as follows.

Thus I2 = 50 mR/ hr.

Thus I2 = 8.33 mR/ hr.

Half Value Thickness (HVT):

Tenth Value Thickness (TVT):

Ir-192 3.3 5.0 12.5 44.0

Co-60 6.0 12.0 20.0 66.0

1 TVT = 3.323 HVT

Radioaction Intensity after shielding measurement:

Using the formula I = Io e – μt. We get,

= 16.25 x e – 0.693 / 66 x 500.

5gm 10gm 20gm.

X rays are produced

Controls in an X ray machine

•Quality & Quantity of radiation increase

Controls in an X ray machine

•Intensity of radiation increase

Medical Less than 100 Kev

Industrial 100 Kev – 25 Mev

* Kev Kilo electron Volt

Types of X ray Machines

Vandegraff Generator 1 – 5 Mev.

Photo Elecric Effect:

Super Coating (2-3 microns)

Silver bromide 1.5 microns

Polyester Base 175 microns

Gelatin Coating 2 microns

The purpose of Stop bath is to stop developing action.

It is a mixture of water + Acetic Acid.

Normal Stop bathing time shall be 1 minute.

Special drying cabinets are available for quicker drying.But

Sometimes wetting agents are added to water during washing

Total Unsharpness μ = μg2+ μm2+ μs2+ μi2

µg = S x OFD/SOD where S Effective Source size

Height(h) Effective dia(D) D= h 2 + d 2.

µg shall always be as low as possible.

4.0 A-B Under Exposure.

2.0 C–D Over Exposure.

0.7 B E Point of Solarisation.

To measure sensitivity Image Quality Indicators (IQI) are normally kept

DIN – Dutch Industrial Normale

The diameter of a DIN wire type penetrameter varies by a geometric

Each penetrameter contains 6 wires out

Totally the four sets A,B,C & D will

The diameter varies by a geometric

Sensitivity = Least wire dia visible x 100 %

Acceptable sensitivity shall be 2% or < 2 %. (Pressure

Hence penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material

STRIP HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETER:

STRIP HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETER

• Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

E = F.F * 2 X/HVT * SFD2 * 60