CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

I was privileged to have an attachment with Gitto Construction Company; the

company had a road and bridge project in Nasarawa so I had privilege of learning

about road and bridge construction.

This report is a comprehensive summary of my six months training which was

completed at the above mentioned organization and also contains information

about the company.

I officially started my Industrial Training on 16th of April 2018 but resumed on first

of May 2018 and worked with the survey section in the earlier part of my training.

I also worked with the concrete section, laboratory and Quantity survey section.

I help to provide the various sections I worked with the functionalities they needed.

Tasks carried out, works observed and experiences gained are fully explained in

the later chapters of this report.

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF ATTACHMENT

The industrial training is a training which forms part of the approved minimum

academic standards for the various degree programmes in Nigerian universities.

1
The programme is aimed at bridging the gap between theory and practice in

learning, and helps students to gain practical experience in their different fields of

study.

The training exposes students to work methods, work safety, and equipment in

their different fields. This experience also helps prepare the student for ready

absorption into the labour market.

Objectives:

To enable students acquire industrial skills and experience in their course of study

so as to comprehend the knowledge already obtained in class.

To prepare students for the work situation they will be facing after graduation.

To strengthen employers involvement in the entire educational process of

preparing university graduates for employment in industry.

Gives students opportunity to appreciate what they have learnt in class by allowing

them apply theoretical knowledge in real life.

Helps students better understand different work methods and get insight about

professional practice.

Enhance student’s understanding of organizational and group processes

Helping students to gain inter-personal skills, such as relationship with co-workers.

2
1.2 COMPANY INFORMATION

The Company was founded in 2002 with over 95% owned by the renowned Civil

Engineering Company, Italy that has been in existence since 1957. Within this

short time span, the Gitto Costruzioni Generali Nigeria Ltd has over 26 project

sites with an estimated value of $1billion within Nigeria. The growth of the

Company is achieved through increased volume of business, qualified staff,

enlargement of the fleet of vehicles and equipment and the acquisition of vanguard

technologies. The Company throughout its history has been concerned with the

honouring of its commitments and its fulfilment of the engagements accepted, as

well as attainment of its professional objectives.

The Company was founded by Cav. Carmelo Gitto in 1957. Over the years, the

company has achieved a high degree of competence in various branches of civil

engineering such as underground works, construction of viaducts, bridges and

ground consolidation. The growth of the Company through the increased volume

of business, qualified staff, enlargement of the fleet of vehicles and equipment and

the acquisition of vanguard technologies, has been acknowledged both in Italy and

in countries in the Middle East and Africa. The Company throughout its history

has been concerned with the honouring of its commitments and its fulfilment of the

3
engagements accepted, as well as attainment of its professional objectives. Civil

Engineering Company now has projects now spread over three continents.

The company has completed jobs worth over US$ 1 Billion in both infrastructure

and building works in Nigeria and abroad.

Some remarkable works completed by Gitto Constructioni Generally include; the

Wadi Haddada Tunnel in Amman, built in record time and open to the public by

King Hussain four months before the contractual due date and also the Completion

of the National Ecumenical Centre in Nigeria which was constructed in under a

year to meet with the country’s desire of hosting its Independence Day Service in

October 2005.

In Nigeria, the company currently work for both Federal and State Government.

The company has many fully registered professionals as staff and has six distinct

departs which includes:

Land surveying

Civil engineering

Architecture

Quantity surveying

Building

4
Administration

1.3 COMPANY PROFILE

Company Name: Gitto Construczioni Generali Nigeria Company

Head Office: Plot 737 Mabushi Abuja.

Type of Business: Construction firm

Date of Establishment in Nigeria: 2002

Phone: 00234-(0)95242380

Fax: 00234-(0)95242391

E-mail: abuja@gittonigeria.com or info@gittogroup.it.

1.4 Company Mission:

The mission of Gitto Construzni Generali Nig. Ltd. is to carry out construction

works and deliver projects effectively and to give its clients, employees and the

society maximum satisfaction. Gitto Construction is a company that understands its

clients’ needs and delivers projects no matter the specification, environment and

time.

5
1.5 COMPANY ORGANOGRAM

COMPANY ORGANOGRAM

Board of Directors

General Manager

Project Purchasing H/R Director Financial Marketing

Manager Manager Director Director

Site Materials Personnel Accountant Marketing

Engineer
Necessities Insurance Cashier Sales
Surveyor Office Advertisement
Management
Quantity
Surveyor

Laboratory
Safety and
workshop

6
 CHAPTER TWO

During the course if my I.T. I worked with the land survey unit, Concrete Unit,

Laboratory Unit, and Quantity Survey Unit. These units make up the technical

department of the company. This section would highlight operations carried out by

each of these units.

I was introduced to survey unit. Firstly, I was instructed to start with the Land

Survey Department to get the basics of all operations carried out in the field

especially of road construction. Field data generated by the land Survey is required

in the design of road and detailing of the road before any form of work commences

on site. If bridges and culverts are required, surveyors generate the levels. The

levels are necessary so that there is a smooth transition along the entire road; the

levels also ensure that water inlet and outlet are correctly located to ensure smooth

flow. Data generated by land survey helping in design of the road and in

measurement of extent of work done.

2.1 Equipment Used By Surveyors

7
Total station:

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying and

building construction that uses electronic transit theodolite in conjunction with

electronic distance meter (EDM). It is also integrated with microprocessor,

electronic data collector and storage system.

The instrument is used to measure sloping distance of object to the instrument,

horizontal angles and vertical angles. This Microprocessor unit enables for

computation of data collected to further calculate the horizontal distance,

coordinates of a point and reduced level of point.

Data collected from total station can be downloaded into computer/laptops for

further processing of information.

Land surveyors and civil engineers mainly use total stations, either to record

features as in topographic surveying or to set out features (such as roads, houses or

boundaries). Are also used by archaeologists to record excavations and by police,

crime scene investigators, private accident Reconstructionist and insurance

companies to take measurements of scenes.

8
Level (instrument):

A level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the same

horizontal plane in a process known as levelling, and is used in conjunction with a

levelling staff to establish the relative heights levels of objects or marks. It is

widely used in surveying and construction to measure height differences and to

transfer, measure, and set heights of known objects or marks.

It is also known as a Surveyors level, Builders level, Dumpy level or the historic

"Y" level. It operates on the principal of establishing a visual level relationship

between two or more points, for which an inbuilt telescope and a highly accurate

bubble level are used to achieve the necessary accuracy.

9
Measuring tapes: is a flexible ruler use to measure length. It comes in various

types and casing. It could be made of steel, fiber, or ribbon clothing.

Pegs: they are wooden or metal usually with a pointed end used to mark points on

site.

Paint: a coloured liquid that put on a surface usually for beautification. Surveyors

paint to make desired objects clearly visible, or to write chainages visibly on

permanent structure within.

Barricade tape: a brightly colored tape (often two colors say red and white) used

to warn or catch attention. It is used on pegs to make them clearly visible.

Hammer: tool consisting of a piece of metal with a flat end which is fixed onto the

end of a long thin usually wooden handle, used for hitting things. Its used in survey

for driving in pegs.

Machetes: are made of flat metal or steel, having one sharp edge and a handle used

for cutting. In survey, it is used to clear or remove obstacles along survey path and

to cut bush pegs for survey operations.

10
Permanent markers: a thick pen for writing or drawing. Its used in survey to

write levels on pegs.

Calculators: a small electronic device used for doing calculations. Its used in

surveys to do calculations of reduced levels in field and office.

2.2 Hazards of Route Survey

Some Hazards of road survey are Sunburn, Poison oak, Snakebite, Danger from

Moving machinery and more.

2.3 BENCHMARKS

The benchmarks are established before taking levels. The benchmark is a

reference level used as a guide to determine every other level on the road. The

elevation, location, position and I.D. of every benchmark is known. If it is an

entirely new project and there is no pre-existing benchmark close to the site from

which level can be transferred, the surveyor might contact the ministry of works

in-charge of the area. Levels are commonly transferred from a known benchmark

or level to unknown points.

Benchmarks are usually introduced at every 100m interval, the point of new

benchmark must be clearly visible from the immediate previous one; so if at 100m

11
interval along the road the benchmark cannot be seen, the new benchmark should

be placed at the maximum distance at which it can be seen from the previous one.

Benchmarks are commonly of two types namely permanent and temporary

benchmarks.

2.3.1 Permanent Benchmarks:

Permanent benchmarks are established with reference to GTS benchmarks. They

are established by local state government agencies or railways at railway stations,

public buildings, at bridges etc. Permanent benchmarks are useful for future

references also.

<<

2.3.2 Temporary Benchmarks:

Temporary benchmarks are created by the surveyors in the field to mark the point

in the field up to which the survey is completed. Then, it is easier to continue the

survey from that point after large gap or on the next day of work.

The temporary benchmark point should be decided in a way that the object or point

should be permanently fixed in that position.

Most benchmarks used along during road construction are temporal.

2.3.3 Procedure for Establishing Temporary Benchmarks

12
 1. Decide the best location for new benchmark; considering inter-visibility,

safety, relationship with project/job to be done.

2. Drive a peg (steel) into the spot decided.

3. Locate the total station at the previous and determine the horizontal distance

to the new benchmark, its bearing or angle, elevation, location.

4. Excavate and cast 10cm2 area ensuring that the peg is in center. Ensure that

the peg is extended at least 2cm above the casting.

5. Guard the new benchmark by surrounding it with about three pegs (wooden)

for safety and clear visibility.

6. After curing of benchmark, paint it but ensure that the paint doesn’t affect

the extension of the peg

2.4 ROUTE SURVEY

A route survey supplies the data necessary to determine alignment, grading, and

earthwork quantities for the design and construction of various engineering

projects such as roads, railroads, pipelines, and utilities. When accuracy matters,

your choice of land surveying companies. It is the process of marking out

carriageways, drainages, walkways, and other necessary alignments for the

construction of a road project.

2.4.1 Personnel Involved in Road/Route survey are:

1. The chief surveyor

13
 2. Assistant surveyor

3. The chainmen

4. General labour

2.5 SATGES OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION.

i. Setting out clearing limits.

ii. Clearing and grubbing: this the process of removing all bushes, trees, stumps, etc.

along the area of desired roadway.

iii. Taking Ordinary Ground Level: after the clearing and top soil removal is

completed for a reasonable distance say one kilometer (1km). the survey section

returns to take the Original Ground Level

iv. The top soil is removed from the proposed carriageway. The depth of the removal

of top soil or stripping should not be less than 100mm or above 150mm. this is as

stated in the specification for road and bridges of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

clause 6163.

v. The surveyor returns to take the stripped level, after the removal of topsoil. This is

usually done in conjunction or joint with the engineers' hence it is called the joint

stripped level representative.

vi. The surveyor section returns to give the level of formation either to cut or fill.

14
vii. Formation level is the next to achieve. From the stripped level, the site operators

fill or cut to attain the formation level. Formation level is the foundation of the

road.

viii. The surveyor returns again to take the level of formation as built or constructed.

ix. The surveyor gives the level of sub-base, and an approved material is used to fill

and compact to sub-base level marked out by the surveyor.

x. The surveyor returns to take the sub-base level as filled and compacted

xi. The surveyor marks out the level of base-course to be filled to and the level as

filled and compacted.

xii. The surveyor marks out the level of binder course to reach and after the binder

course is done the surveyor returns to take the binder level as built.

xiii. Surveyor returns to gives level to wearing course and after the wearing course is

done he returns to take the final as built level.

a. Setting out clearing limits: these are limits or width at which clearing and top soil

removal should stop. This implies that the machine operators should not exceed

this limit while clearing. Pegs are usually planted at both width end of the

proposed road, including shoulders, drain and an excess of two meters (2m). This

is important because it directs the operators where to and not to clear. It also

indicates areas with curves. It is at this stage the clearing of bushes, trees, stumps,

15
 and top soil is done. The top soil usually contains organic, dexterous materials.

This layer is usually fertile hence used for cultivation of crops. It has very poor

bearing capacity; it is usually black in color and about 15cm – 60cm deep. The

width of clearing for this project is twenty meters (20m); this includes the

roadway, shoulders, drainage, pedestrian way, and 1m meter excess to both ends.

How to set out clearing limits.

i. An assistant surveyor uses the total station to set out the centre lines. The chainman

holding the reflector pole is directed to the center point and marks it with the

pointed end of the pole. An offset it made from the center point already marked; a

chainman hold the zero of the measuring tape at the center point and another drags

the tape to eleven meter (11m), then a labourer plants a peg (wooden bush peg) at

the eleven meter reading of the tape. From the same center point, another eleven

meter is offset to the other side of the road and a peg is planted just as previously

done.

This process is repeated for all required chainages. The bulldozer operators

responsible for the clearing and grubbing limits their clearing operation to about a

meter (1m) behind the surveyors’ pegs.

16
2.5.1 Original Ground level

The original ground level is the ground level along the path of the road before any

road construction process is begun, especially those aimed at getting to formation

level.

Procedure for Taking Original or Exiting Ground Level.

The following are the procedures for taking the Existing Ground Level.

First, the total station is used to set out the centerlines in accordance with

chainages say 25m intervals along the length of the road; the total station is

positioned at a point with known coordinates, elevation etc. orientation is taken.

An assistant surveyor targets the total station to a center point at a chainage and

directs the chainman (person holding the reflector pole) to align to the center point

where the instrument is targeted. He confirms the position using the total station

and signal him to mark the point and proceed to the next chainage.

Another assistant surveyor operates the auto level instrument and a staff man is

attached to him. The assistant surveyor begins by setting up his instrument at any

desired point, and reads from the staff placed on the closest benchmark. He records

this reading as his back sight and proceed to taking other readings; for the next

reading, the staff man places the staff at the already established (marked out)

center point. The assistant surveyor using the level instrument reads and records

17
the staff reading. The staff man offsets three meter (3m) to the left from the center

point, the staff is read from the level. He offsets another three meters (3m) to the

left and the assistant surveyor takes the level of the point from the staff. He returns

to the center mark and offsets three metres to the right, the reading is recorded

from the staff and another offset of three metres is taken to the right, read and

recorded. The readings to the left is labelled is indicated in the field book with a

negative sign, under the remarks column, whereas those to the right positive under

the same column in the field book.

Example of OGL field book.

18
The record developed by repeating these procedures for every chainage is

called the Ordinary Ground Level.

19
 Reasons for Taking Original Ground Level (OGL)

1. This level is used as guide for all other levels. In other words, the depth of either

cut of fill is relative to this level.

2. It serves as backup for claims of work done and payments.

3. For purpose of documentation

4. This level helps in the design process.

b. 2.5.2 Clearing and Topsoil Removal.

This Refers to the Process of removing the top soil along the proposed roadway.

These materials are usually loamy and good for crop cultivation but possess very

low and un-desirable engineering properties. The bearing capacity of these

materials are usually very low hence, would lead to failure if used in construction

of the road, hence these materials are cut and cart away. In rare cases, if the

material is suitable for construction they are removed and stored. The reason for

removal in this case is to create room for building the road from below the

formation level. The formation level is the foundation of the road hence materials

used must meet the approved standard for sub-grade materials as stipulated in the

Federal Government of Nigeria Specifications for construction of roads and other

approved standards. The level or limit of cut or removal of top soil typically

ranges from 15cm – 60cm, but there is no standard limit stated in the Nigeria

20
 Road Construction specification as its left to the discretion of the Engineer. The

removal of top soil is generally guided by the road design level.

CUT TO SPOIL AT KM 48

c. 2.5.3 Strip Ground Level:

Strip ground level: this ordinarily/literally means the removal unsuitable

materials/soil along the roadway. The removal of these materials not suitable for

subgrade is guide by the design level for that project/road. It is at this stage that

the cut and fill is carried to get to the desired or designed subgrade/formation

level.

i. Materials from areas determined unsuitable by laboratory tests results are removed

this is referred to as cut. In other words, cut is the removal of unsuitable materials

21
 from roadway. This (cut) is guide by the surveyors’ peg. At every chainage, pegs

are planted at the edges of the road, on these pegs the reduced level to cut to is

written with a negative sign. E.g. -0.78.

ii. Fill: this might come before or after the cut. It refers to replacement of unsuitable

materials with suitable ones. Just like the cut, the level of fill is also guide by the

surveyors’ level. On pegs planted at the edges of the road the positive numbers are

written on the pegs e.g. +0.91. In either the cut and fill cases the operators’

supervisor or site engineer interprets what is written on the peg and directs the

machine operators when to stop cutting or filling.

d. 2.5.4 Formation/Subgrade Level

Formation/subgrade level: this is the foundation level of the road. All loads

coming on the road are transferred to this layer; it is usually high than the natural

ground level. All activities of the strip aims at getting to this level. After the fill

and cut as required to attain this level compaction follow immediately, the

compaction is carried out with machines, such as sheep foot rollers, smooth rollers

etc. the approved soil is hauled from an approved borrow pit, and spread across

the proposed road and an approved volume of water is spread across the soil

(mostly laterite). The approval of both water content and materials (laterite) to

apply is generated from laboratory tests results. The level of subgrade is usually

22
 higher than the natural surrounding ground level. The volume of water to apply is

the same as the Optimum water Content derived from laboratory tests.

e. 2.5.5 Sub-base: this layer follow the subgrade. Once the level of subgrade is

satisfactorily attained, the surveyor returns to give the level of sub-base. This layer

is usually 150mm – 250mm thick, it is made of laterite with a relatively high

bearing capacity. The sub-base bears some of the load imposed on the road and

transmits the remaining equally to the sub-grade.

SUB-BASE AT KM 45

Procedure of Giving Sub-Base Level:

23
Using the total station as a guide, the centerlines are first staked out and marked.

The surveyor using the total station directs his chainman until the reflector pole is

correctly placed at the centerline of the road. The chainman marks the point while

the labourer drives a steel peg into the ground with a hammer. Another chainman

offsets from the center peg to both edges of the road. In the case of the Nasarawa

Loko Road Project ten meters (10m) is offset to both sides from the center peg. To

do this a chainman holds the zero end of the tape against the center peg and

another drag the other end and plants a peg at 10m reading of the tape. Another peg

is planted one meter from the last peg (peg placed at 10m offset from center, i.e. at

9m from center peg). This is to protect the main peg from the operators’ machine

or resulting vibration.

The assistant surveyor reduces the level of sub-base at each chainage in line with

the design level.

The assistant surveyor mounts the level conveniently while his staff man locates

the center peg and puts the staff beside the peg. The assistant surveyor guided by

the design level directs the staff man on how high or low he take the staff along

peg. When the desired level is reached a laborer marks the level of the base of the

staff against the center peg. That peg is painted red and above it white. The

operator is to fill and compact with approved sub-base material to the red mark.

24
f. 2.5.6 Base-Course: This is the layer directly above the sub-base, it is usually made

of boulders, hence it is also called stone base layer. The survey unit/team

undergoes the same procedure as sub-base level to give or mark out the level of

base-course and other subsequent layers including wearing course, binder course,

etc.

g. 2.5.7 Setting-Out Pile Location: this is another operation carried out by the

survey unit. It is done only if construction of bridges is required along the road.

The main purpose of this operation is to mark the exact point where the pile is

buried. This is to direct the excavator operator where exactly to excavate and not

waste time and resources excavating all environs in search of piles. More detail

about pile and pile foundation is given in the concrete section of this report work.

The following procedures are encored in setting out pile locations

h. 2.5.8 Setting-Out Blinding Perimeter: the survey team make use of the existing

bridge location data to set out the blinding perimeter for excavation.

2.6 CONCRETE SECTION.

The following personnel make up the concrete section

i. The engineer:

25
 ii. The foremen

iii. Carpenters

iv. Mason

v. Iron benders

vi. General labor

The Engineer: he is the head and oversea of the concrete section. He instructs and

directs all other members of the section on what operation to carry out at a time

and the method. He possess the highest educational qualification in the section; a

bachelors’ or Masters, degree in structural Engineering, he studies the given

drawing and decide the safest, most economical approach to implement the

structure on paper on site.

The Foremen: the foremen are the most skilled labour in the midst apart from the

engineer. He may possess technical education in construction or are just much

more experienced than other artisans. In the absence of the engineer he directs

other artisans on how to carry out construction activities or operation in their fields

in line with the engineers direction. Many a times the engineer gives direct

instruction to him.

26
Artisans: the artisans include carpenters, masons and iron benders they carry out

direct labour on site.

2.6.1 Operations Delivered by Concrete Section:

a. Culverts: culverts are necessary features of road construction. These

structures allow water to flow under the road, railways, or similar

obstruction from one side to the other. They are usually made from pipes,

reinforced concrete or other materials. A culvert is a bridge like structure

that allows traffic and pedestrians to pass above it and water through it

beneath. They are could be of various shapes but the most common are the

box and ring culverts, if a culvert exceeds 3.7m it is called a bridge. The

process of removing a culvert is known as daylighting or deculverting.

Culverts constructed in the course of the project are cast-in place concrete.

Precast concrete culverts are also possible.

Factors that affect choice and design of culverts includes:

a. Load capacities

b. Water flow capacity

c. Life span

d. Bedding and backfill requirements

27
 Sudden failures of culverts could be catastrophic as it might lead to

accidents, loss of lives and properties, extra cost, failure of roadway,

2.6.1.2 TYPES of CULVERT

i. Pipe Culvert (Single or Multiple)

Pipe culverts are widely used culverts and rounded in shape. The culverts may be

of single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is used then larger diameter

culvert is installed.

ii. Pipe Arch Culvert (Single or Multiple)

Pipe arch culverts means nothing but they looks like half circle shaped culverts.

Pipe arch culverts are suitable for larger water flows but the flow should be stable.

Because of arch shape fishes or sewage in the drainage easily carried to the outlet

without stocking at the inlet or bottom of channel.

iii. Box culvert (single or multiple)

Box culverts are in rectangular shape and generally constructed by concrete.

Reinforcement is also provided in the construction of box culvert. These are used

to dispose rain water. So, these are not useful in the dry period.

iv. Arch culverts

28
 Arch culvert is similar to pipe arch culvert but in this case an artificial floor is

provided below the arch.

v. Bridge Culvert

Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road bridges for

vehicles. For this culverts a foundation is laid under the ground surface.

b. Bridge Construction:

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way

underneath such a body of water, valley, or road, for purpose of providing passage

over the obstacle, usually something that is detrimental to cross otherwise. There

are many designs of bridges for different purposes. The design of bridge depends

on the function or need of the bridge, fund available and nature of terrain where

the bridge is to be situated. There are many types of bridges, some are:

a. Suspension bridge

b. Truss bridge

c. Beam bridge

d. Arch brigde

e. Cantilever bridge

For the purpose of this report, I shall consider only Beam Bridge and girder as this

is the type I witnessed in the cause of my training.

29
Beam Bridge: beam bridges are horizontal bridges support at each end by

substructure units and can be either simply supported or continuous. When the

beams connect across connect only across a single span, (usually supported by

only the abutments at both ends) it’s said to be simply supported. When there are

multiple spans, the intermediate supports are known as piers. The vertical forces

on the bridge (shear) and the flexural load on the beam is transferred down

through its length to the substructures on either sides and to the foundation and

soil ultimately. Two common types of beam bridges in modern times are the

girder bridge and the plate girder bridges.

Girder Bridge: the box girder bridge was under construction during the period of

my I.T. it is a three hundred and seventy five meter (375m) span bridge, with

twenty meter (20m) from one pier to the other. A box girder bride is a bridge in

which the main beams comprise girders in shape of a hollow box. It could be

totally precast or cast-in place or both.

The concrete section of Gitto Constructioni Nigeria Limited directly carry out all

relevant day to day operations to bringing paper bridge design to the light of the

day, for practical usage by vehicles and pedestrians.

30
2.6.1.3 PARTS OF BRIDGE:

31
 There are three main pasts of a bridge structure, these are:

a. Foundation: this part of the bridge that is closest to the soil and sends all load it

has received to the soil strata. The piles and pile cap make up the foundation of

the bridge as illustrated in fig. above.

i. Pile: these usually provide the major and basic support for the bridge as it

makes up the initial foundation. The reinforced concrete post driven into the

ground to serve as leg or support for the bridge. The piles help the weight and

32
stresses applied by the bridge to be transmitted evenly through the ground

making it strong and stable. The material and design of a pile depend upon soil

type, soil stability, load bearing capacity, proximity of other pile foundations,

and others. They usually consist of a bunch of evenly spaced thick steel bars

driven beyond the soft layers of the soil and into the hard soil strata. Any of the

following methods could be used in casting piles.

Cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles type "b"

Cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles type "c"

Cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles of type "D"

Prestressed concrete cylinder piles type "E"

Prestressed concrete cylinder piles type "F"

Sheet piles

33
 PILE ON GOING

ii. Pile caps: caps provide additional load transferring capacity to the piles. They are

called pile caps because they are right on top of the pile foundation. Caps are

often made of very heavy concrete to give maximum strength to the upper part of

the bridge.

iii. Bents: this is the combination of pile and cap. Multiple bents forms the

substructure.

b. Substructure:

i. Abutments: this refers to as the vertical supports at the ends of the bridge. They

are sufficiently reinforced to endure intense lateral pressures they also function

as retaining walls for the ground.

34
 Section View of Abutments Formwork For Nasarawa Bridge Project

ii. Piers: these are necessary in long span bridges, they are vertical supports in

between the abutments and they are mounted at successive distances they also

resist vibrational effects.

35
 iii. Pier Caps: pier caps are also known as headstock. This functions as a space for

girders to transfer loads on bearings (they distribute the loads evenly among all

piers), from the superstructure components on the top.

c. Super-structure: the following components make up the superstructure part of

the bridge.

i. Girders/Beams: girders joins all the pile caps together by extending over them.

Girders are also referred to as beams, and give supports to the deck. This can be

a single span, or even multiple spans joining all the bents, dependent on the

length o the bridge. Girders usually have a truss design to improve the stress and

36
 load resistibility. Hence, pressure is passed towards the foundation. Girders are

mostly made from metal or concrete.

ii. Bearings: bearing are structural members capable of transferring loads from the

decks to the substructure. These displaces stresses and load to the piers through

the girders to allow movement between the parts of the bridge. The movement

can be linear as well as torsional. Bearings provide allowance between these

parts.

iii. Trusses: trusses are made by joining triangular components to divide loads and

bending moments through the bridge. Some types are simple trusses, suspension,

and cantilever trusses. The truss network provides a surface for transportation,

which can be built as a deck truss, pony truss, or through truss. Each truss differs

in how the traffic will move on the bridge.

37
iv. Decks: decks get the direct traffic load. Some basic decks can be made of concrete

and also from metal. These include travel or pedestrian ways, drainage systems,

curbs, expansion components, sidewalks and approach slabs.

v. Barriers: these are mainly safety and protection features, they are put on the sides

of the decks. They come I various designs and forms, for better aesthetics they are

made of concrete.

vi. Arches: the usage of this feature in modern bridges are less common nevertheless,

bridges with arcs possess lots of strength. Arches can help control the safety and

38
load bearing ability of the bridge. The quantity of arches and materials used for

construction is very important.

2.6.1.4 Bridge Drawings:

This engineering drawing shows in details all components and their corresponding

arrangements needed for the construction of a bridge. All reinforcements i.e. steel

bars, shapes, sizes, diameter, spacing, concrete cover, and others required are

shown in a clear manner to avoid misconceptions and mistakes as much as

possible. To produce a correct and constructible bridge drawing all forces and

loads to bridge is to carry must be correctly predicted and sufficient measure to

resist and balance them up put in place. The designer must first envision the total

bridge as though it has been completed in his mind hence he can predict all forces

that should act on the structure. These predicted loads and forces suggest the sizes,

length, spacing, shape, and type of reinforcement to use. Safety and economy are

the two major factors that a bridge designer considers while designing. To be safe

the designer uses the present and future load for designing. Aesthetic is also a key

factor put into consideration in modern day bridge design and construction, to

users and lame men the beauty of the structure is what they see hence it matters.

The following professionals are involved in the bridge construction process:

39
 1. The bridge engineer or designer

2. The construction engineer

3. The laborers.

In Gitto Construzioni Company where I did my I.T. all units were involved in the

bridge construction process, directly or indirectly.

2.6.1.5 PARTS OF BRIDGE DRAWING

i. Formworks: this part of the formwork gives details shuttering works of various

components of the bridge.

This aspect of the bridge drawing shows the finished details of various

components of the bridge; including abutments, piles, piers, pier cap, pile caps,

beams, sidewalks and parapets. It shows the all and encompassing dimension of

the final stage of a component in question.

ii. Reinforcements: these give details of all reinforcement to be used. Shapes, size,

length, number, position of all steel bars to be used are shown.

2.7 SETTING OUT AND INSTALLATION OF REINFORCEMENTS

Setting out of reinforcement: is the process of marking out the various points

where different reinforcing steel bars should seat or be positioned.

40
Installation of reinforcements is the process placing the already bent

reinforcements in the manner represented in the approved work drawing.

Setting out/installation of structural reinforcements is a duty primarily carried out

by the concrete section. The steel bars are placed on site as detailed in

corresponding drawings. The Engineer studies the drawing, understands, interprets

it and directs all other personnel including the foremen and others in his section on

how to place various reinforcement on site.

During this phase (installation of reinforcements) of the construction process he

must to present on site to oversee the operation as this a critical phase of the

construction. Any uncorrected error in this stage is usually disastrous, as it might

lead to loss of lives and properties not just failure of the structure.

Reinforcements used were high yield steel bars of various diameters including

25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12mm, and 8mm.

The pile foundation contributes majorly to the strength of the structures because all

loads on the bridge are transmitted through the pile soil. The piles are reinforced

heavily to carry all loads on the bridge, in the case of the bridge construction at

Gada Hudu along Loko road in Nasarawa State, Nigeria by Gitto Construction

Company during my I.T. twenty (20 no.) number of 25mm high yield steel bar at a

1000mm diameter. Each pile perimeter contain six (6) piles of length 3000m.
41
INSTALLATION OF REINFORCEMENT

2.8 Supervision

Representatives of the clients do the general supervision and approval at various

stages, the representatives for the project underway at the time of this report is the

Engineer from the Federal Ministry of Works Power and Housing and his team of

assistants. At least an engineer is assigned to represent the General Engineer. He

42
 supervises and reports daily activities of the concrete section in the bridge

construction to the general engineer.

Various stages of approval are:

i. Piling: a pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven

or drilled deep into the ground on site. There are various methods of piling, the

method used according to Nigeria Specification for roads and bridges construction

is type G-steel sheet pile. Once the engineer and his representative satisfies the

work done is ok, they give a written document of approval, then the prepared piles

are driven into the ground and cast.

ii. Reinforcement installation: once the reinforcements for any given stage (example

pile cap) is completed, the engineer gives an approval and casting can commence.

iii. Casting pile caps: before the casting the engineer and his representatives satisfies

that the grade, aggregate, size used for concrete meets all required standards and

specifications before they are used for casting. He also ensures that the shuttering

is correct. After casting, the engineer ensures there are no honeycombs and the

concrete finishing satisfactory.

43
iv. Casting of precast beams: the beams used in the construction of the Gada Hudu

Bridge was precast. The engineers’ representative reports to the engineer the

situation of the reinforcement installation, if it is satisfactory then approval for

casting is given and casting begins.

v. Installation of precast beams: after the casting, the precast beams are installed on

the plinth of the pier cap. I did not witness stage of the bridge construction because

my I.T. duration was over before it commenced.

2.9 CASTING

Casting is the process of pouring fresh concrete into the prepared reinforcement. It

is the solidified part that is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the

process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that

cure after mixing two or more components together. In the case of concrete casting

used on site the combined materials are cement, aggregate and water. These

materials are combined in ratio to achieve required grade of concrete. Casting can

be carried out mechanically using machines or manually by hands. The casting of

pile caps were done mechanically using a boom concrete pump. The casting was

done in layers and compacted using vibrators. The vibration was carried out to

ensure that there are no voids or honeycomb. Voids and honeycombs in cast

concrete reduces strength of concrete and may led to failure of structures.

44
Concrete Pump

A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping.

There are two types of concrete pumps.

1. Boom Concrete Pump: This type of concrete pump is attached to a truck or

longer units are on semi-trailers. It is known as a boom concrete pump

because it uses a remote-controlled articulating robotic arm (called a boom)

to place concrete accurately. Boom pumps are used on most of the larger

construction projects as they are capable of pumping at very high volumes

and because of the labour saving nature of the placing boom. They are a

revolutionary alternative to line-concrete pumps.

Boom Concrete Pump Image.

45
2. Line Concrete Pump or Trailer-Mounted Concrete Pump: This is the

second main type of concrete pump. It is either mounted on a truck or placed

on a trailer. This pump requires steel or flexible concrete placing hoses to be

manually attached to the outlet of the machine. Those hoses are linked

together and lead to wherever the concrete needs to be placed. Line pumps

normally pump concrete at lower volumes than boom pumps and are used

for smaller volume concrete placing applications such as swimming pools,

sidewalks and single-family home concrete slabs and most ground slabs.

46
2.9.1 BATCHING

Batching of concrete means measuring different ingredients of concrete (i.e.

cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water) before mixing it. When this

measurement is on basis of volume, we call it Volume Batching but when it is on

basis of weight, it is Weight Batching.

Limitations to Volume Batching.

 Volume batching is not a good method for measuring concrete materials.

 It is not applicable in case of reinforced concrete structure.

 This method of concrete batching may not be economical.

 Used for unimportant concrete or for small concrete works.

 Seasonality affects the volume hence is inaccurate. The volume of soil taken

in wet season vary from that in dry season.

 It is impossible to achieve accuracy using volume batching.

Because of these limitations, this method is not used on site and in Gitto

Construzioni Company specifically, rather batching is done by weight using a

concrete batching plant. Concrete batching plant is a device that combines various

47
ingredients to form concrete. Various ingredients include sand, water, aggregate

(rocks, gravel, etc.), fly ash, potash, and cement.

The weighing method is simpler, more flexible and accurate for batching concrete

ingredients. The weighing is done in batching plants or mixing plants.

There are two modes of operation of weigh batchers:

1. Electronic weigh batcher: the electronic weigh batchers are more trending

nowadays. They have electronic scale, which are suspended by load cells,

which converts force into measurable electric quantity. Load cell is

supported by hoppers, tanks, or other vessels that convert strain into

electrical signal. Electronic scales measures accurately and does not need to

repair frequently.

2. Mechanical weigh batcher: they have dial type scales, which use spring to

measure the weight of concrete ingredients.

TYPES of BATCHING PLANTS

There are two types of concrete batching plants:

48
Ready mix plants: A ready mix plant combines all ingredients except for water at

the concrete plant. Then discharge the mixture into a ready mix truck. Then we can

add some water to the mix truck, transport mixed material to the job site.

Central mix plants: A central mix plant combines sand, water, aggregate (rocks,

gravel, etc.), fly ash, potash, and cement at a central location. Then the final

product is transported to the job site. Central mix plants are different from ready

mix plants, it can provide more consistent product for the end user, In addition, it

need the help of computer-aided to complete the work, because all the ingredient

mixing is done in a central location.

Importance of Batching

 To improve the workability of the concrete

 To achieve a smooth surface of concrete

 Increase the speed of construction

 Reduce waste of concrete ingredients

49
IMAGE CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT

50
Approved Batching Weight for Gitto Constructioni Nigeria Limited.

2.9.2 CONCRETE HAULAGE AND PLACING.

Concrete Haulage
51
Concrete Haulage is the movement or transportation of concrete from one place to

place. The concrete was mixed in the concrete batching plant and transferred to in-

transit concrete mixer the later conveys the fresh concrete to site; where it is

needed. On arrival, the fresh concrete is transferred to the boom concrete pump

truck, which eases placement of concrete. Three (3) concrete mixers; two of 8.5m 3

and a 7.5m3 were used in the casting of the pile cap.

A concrete mixer (often colloquially called a cement mixer) is a device that

homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to

form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the

components.

In-transit Mixers: are Special concrete transport trucks (in-transit mixers) are

made to mix concrete and transport it to the construction site. They can be charged

with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during transport. They can

also be loaded from a "central mix" plant; with this process, the material has

already been mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains

the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery.

Image In-Transist Mixer

52
2.9.3 ADMIXTURES:

Admixtures are natural or manufactured chemicals added to concrete before or

during mixing to improve or add specific properties to the concrete. In the case of

the bridge project, the admixture used was a plasticizer; the plasticizer increases

the workability of concrete and enable it to flow easily through any channel

without obstructions.

53
Diagram of Admixture Used In Gitto Bridge Construction Company.

2.9.4 MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT USED BY CONCRETE SECTION.

Carpenter Pincer tool: are hand tool that require mechanical advantage to pinch,

tie, cut or pull an object. For the bridge project, iron benders for tying and cutting

binding wires primarily use it.

Diagram of Carpenter Pincers

54
Binding Wire: the binding wire is a type of tying wire used to bind reinforcement

in construction. It is made from mild steel inker, which takes place in form of

thermal processing annealing. Binding wire is also annealed wire.

Diagram Binding Wire.

Shovels: A shovel is a tool for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials, such as

soil, coal, gravel, sand. It is use also to mix concrete, cement or mortar manually

55
for small jobs. It consists of the blade and handle. The blade is commonly made of

steel and the handle wood or steel.

Diagram of Shovel.

Safety Boots: are protective feet wears meant to prevent unnecessary injury or

casualty on site.

Diagrams of Rubber Safety Boot

Hammer: this is driving tool typically used in various stages of construction. It

delivers blow to an object in direction of force input and breaks, drives or beats

objects to shape. Commonly it is made of a steel head and a handle. There are

various types of hammer including; carpenters hammer (claw hammer), sledge

56
hammer, mallet, masons’ hammer. In the course of the bridge project the

carpenters hammer commonly called claw hammer and the masons hammer was

used, the former for driving while the later for breaking.

Diagram of Hammer.

Trowels

It is a hand tool, which has a handle and a steel plate. It is like a short version of

shovel, it is used in carrying out masonry operations like chalking, minor mixing,

plastering, minor digging, smoothing and others.

Diagram Trowel

57
2.9.5 Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of cement, aggregate (fine and coarse),

water and admixtures in some cases. It is used commonly in reinforced structures

because of its complimentary compressive strength to steels’ tensile ability. The

engineering properties and quantity of its constituents affects it strength. If it is not

used with steel it is called plain concrete otherwise it known as reinforced

concrete. It is plastic in fresh state and is capable of flowing but when set and

58
hardened takes the shape of its container or formwork. The nature of the formwork

affects the finishing.

Nail tool: Nail is a pin like object used in construction. One of its end is pointed

and the other flat the later receives direct impact from hammers whereas the former

aids easy access in material. It is used to fasten a one material to another.

2.9.6 LABORATORY SECTION

This is a very important section in construction industry and as well as in Gitto

Construction Company. All materials to be used on site for every stage of

constructions are tested and approved in the Lab. before bulk usage on field/site.

Some materials tested by the laboratory are soil, steel reinforcements, aggregate

and cement. Tested materials are approved if they (tested materials) conform to

accepted standards (in Nigeria). All acceptable and abducted standards for roads

and bridge construction are contained in the Government of the Federal Republic

of Nigeria general specifications (roads and bridges) document.

Below are some tests carried out by the laboratory during my I.T. or attachment

period with them.

<

Atterberg Limits

59
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-

grained soil: its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

The liquid limits, plastic limits, and plasticity index of soils aare used to correlate

with engineering behaviors such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, shrink-

swell, and shear strength. Atterberg defines four stages of consistency of soil

i. Liquid limits

ii. Semi-solid state

iii. Plastic and

iv. solid state

the liquid limit divides the plastic and liquid state and is defined as the water

content at which soil flows to close a standard size groove when shaken in a

standardized device. At this water, content below the plastic limit the soil has an

approximate shear strength of 2.5kpa. the plastic limit separates the plastic and the

semi-solid state. At water content below the plastic limit state the soil cannot be

molded without cracking. The standard reference for this test is ASTM D4318.

Required materials for determining the liquid limit of soil sample

 liquid limit device cup

 grooving tool

60
  200-250g of soil passing sieve no. 40 (425um)

 Scale with accuracy of 0.001g.

 Water content cup

 Spatula and mixing tools.

Procedure

Soils should be tested starting from the natural water content to ensure that the

results are more representative of the actual field conditions.

The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which a standard groove cut in

the remolded soil sample by a grooving tool closes over a length of 13mm (0.5in)

at exactly 25blows of the liquid limit cup falling from a height of 10mm on a hard

rubber base.

LL= value of water content where the line crosses the 25 blow mark.

1. Mix the soil thoroughly with enough distilled water to reach a consistency

requiring about 25 to 35 blows of the liquid limit device to close the groove.

Make the consistency creamy.

2. Using a spatula, place an portion of the prepared soil in the cup of the liquid

limit device at the point where the cup rests on the base, squeeze it down,

61
 and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10mm at its deepest point,

tapering it from an approximately horizontal surface.

3. Form a groove in the soil by drawing the tool, beveled edge forward through

the soil on a line joining the highest point to the lowest point in the rim of

the cup. When cutting the groove hold the grooving tool against the surface

of the cup draw an arc, maintain the tool perpendicular to the surface of the

cup thorough out its movement.

4. Verify the no crumbs of soil are present on the base or underside of the cup.

Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank at a rate approximately 2 drops

per second until the two halves of the soil pat come in contact at the bottom

of the groove along a distance of 13mm (1/2in)

5. Record the no. of drops, N, required to close the groove.

6. Quickly remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, along

the groove.

7. Return the soil remaining in cup to the mixing cup. Wash and dry the cup an

grooving tool and reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next

trial.

8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to increase

the water content of the soil and decrease the no. of blows required to close

the groove.

62
 9. Repeat the steps 1-8 for at least two additional trials producing successively

lower no of blows to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure

requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for closure between 20 and 30 blows, and one

trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 blows.

Calculation

 Plot the relationship between the water content, and the corresponding

number of drops (blows) on the graph provided. Draw the best straight line

through three or more plotted points.

 Take the water content corresponding to the intersection of the line with the

25-drop abscissa as the required liquid limit of the soil and round to the

nearest whole number.

Determination of plastic limit

Required materials and equipment.

 Ground glass plate

 Metal rod, 3.2mm diameter

 Balance

 Water content cup

Procedure

63
1. Select about 20g of the material prepared for the liquid limit test.

2. Reduce the water content to a consistency that it can be rolled without

sticking to the hands by spreading or mixing on the glass plate.

3. From this plastic limit specimen, select a 1.5 to 2.0g portion. Form the

selected portion into a ball.

4. Roll the mass between the palm or fingers and the glass plate to form a

thread of uniform diameter throughout its length. Keeping rolling until the

thread reaches 3.2mm (1/8in) diameter. Compare with 3.2mm metal rod.

5. When the thread has reached a 3.2mm diameter break it into piece and knead

together in a ball. Repeat the rolling and kneading until thread crumbles and

the soil can no longer be rolled into 3.2mm thread.

6. Collect the broken pieces in a water content cup and cover to percent further

drying while rolling the next 20g of soil.

7. Elect another 20g portion of soil from the plastic limit specimen and repeat

the operation step 3 to 6 until the container has at least 6g of soil.

8. Use the 6g of soil to obtain the water content according to procedure for

water content

9. Go through the step 1-8 until you obtained two 6g samples and water

content values. The water content should have a difference not more than

1.4%. The plastic limit is the average of the two water content values.

64
 The plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and plastic

limit

Mathematically

P.I. = LL – PL

Sample copy of atterberg limit test result carry out by Gitto constructioni

Company in course of my I.T.

2.9.9.1 COMPACTION

COMPACTION TEST

The compaction is necessary to determine the maximum dry density (MDD) of the

soil and optimum moisture content (OMC). The MDD and OMC as determined by

laboratory tests are applied on the required layer during the construction. Beyond

the OMC the weights of the soil begins to drop.

Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The

degree of compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density. The

dry density is maximum at the optimum water content. A curve is drawn between

the water content and the dry density to obtain the maximum dry density and the

optimum water content.

65
Dry density of soil:

Where M = total mass of the soil, V= volume of soil, w= water content.

Equipment for soil compaction test

1. Compaction mould, capacity 1000ml.

2. Rammer, mass 2.6 kg

3. Detachable base plate

4. Collar, 60mm high

5. Sieve, 4.75 mm

6. Oven

7. Desiccator

8. Weighing balance, accuracy 1g

9. Large mixing pan

10.Straight edge

11.Spatula

12.Graduated jar

13.Mixing tools, spoons, trowels, etc.

66
PROCEDURE

1. About 50kg of the sample is air-dried for 8hours under the sun, or oven dried

for 4hours.

2. The sample is removed from the oven and allowed to cool to room

temperature.

3. About 20kg of the dried sample is put in a large tray.

4. Excess crumps are broken down using the mallets or fingers where

applicable.

5. The mould is weighed and recorded without the collar.

6. Using a pan a net weight of 3kg of the sample is measured and put In a

mixing tray.

7. 4% of the 3kg of water; that is 120ml is measured and poured into the

sample in the mixing tray

8. The 3kg sample is mixed with the 4% water and compacted in the mould +

collar. The compaction is done in three layers with 11blows from a 4.5kg

weight rammer, or 25 blows from a 2.5kg rammer.

9. Remove the collar and scrap off the excess to the limit or height of the

mould.

10.The weight of the sample plus mould is recorded.

11.Remove the weighed sample

67
 12.Steps 6 – 10 are repeated four more times with 6%, 8%, 12%, and 16% of

water. Note when the weight of the soil and mould begins to drop stop.

(a)

(b) Rammer

68
 GITTO COSTRUZIONI GENERALI NIGERIA LTD

Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship

Test Method:ASTM D 698

5/3/201

Project: NASARAWA - LOKO ROAD PROJECT Date: 8

Project:

69
Location: CH 50+500

Description CUMMULATIVE WASC

Depth:

No. of Layer: 5 Blows/Layer: 11 Wt of Hammer : 4.5

105
Dia. of Mould:
mm Height: 115 mm Volume: 1000

DENSITY DETERMINATION

Wt of Soil + Mould

(gm) 5636 5811 5894 5842

Wt of Mould (gm) 3707 3707 3707 3707

Wt of Soil in Mould

(gm) 1929 2104 2187 2135

Wet Density

gm/cm3 1.93 2.10 2.19 2.14

Dry Density

gm/cm3 1.82 1.94 2.00 1.92

WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

Moisture Can No. 8 11 5 13 2 33 37 38

70
Wt of Can + Wet

Soil (gm) 92.5 93.4 90.6 86.8 86.0 92.1 85.2 78.7

Wt of Can + Dry

Soil (gm) 88.8 89.6 86.0 82.3 80.9 86.5 79.3 73.2

Wt of Water (gm) 3.7 3.8 4.6 4.5 5.1 5.6 5.9 5.5

Wt of Can (gm) 25.0 25.1 27.3 27.5 27.5 25.0 27.6 25.1

Wt of Dry Soil (gm) 63.8 64.5 58.7 54.8 53.4 61.5 51.7 48.1

Water Content % 5.8 5.9 7.8 8.2 9.6 9.1 11.4 11.4

Average Water

Content % 5.8 8.0 9.3 11.4

2.08

2.05

2.02

1.99
Dry Density gm/cm3

1.96

1.93

1.90

1.87

1.84

1.81

1.78

1.75
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0
Water Content %

71
Optimum Moisture

Content (%) : 9.5 Maximum Dry Density gm/cm3 : 2.00

CONTRACTOR-GITTO CONSULTANT FMPWH

2.9.9.2 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)

72
This is short for California bearing ratio. The process is aimed at determining the

bearing capacity of the soil sample. The California bearing ratio (CBR) is a

penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of natural ground,

subgrades and base courses beneath new carriageway construction. The soil

samples that undergoes these tests are used for subgrade, sub-base, and base course

in road projects. The basic site test is performed by measuring the pressure

required to penetrate soil or aggregate with a plunger of standard area. The

measured pressure is then divided by the pressure required to achieve an equal

penetration on a standard crushed rock material. The CBR test is described in

ASTM Standards D1883-05 (for laboratory-prepared samples) and D4429 (for

soils in place in field), and AASHTO T193. The CBR test is fully described in BS

1377: Soils for civil engineering purposes : Part 4, Compaction related tests, and in

Part 9: In-situ tests.

The CBR rating was developed for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils

used for building roads. The CBR can also be used for measuring the load-bearing

capacity of unimproved airstrips or for soils under paved airstrips. The harder the

surface, the higher the CBR rating. A CBR of 3 equates to tilled farmland, a CBR

of 4.75 equates to turf or moist clay, while moist sand may have a CBR of 10.

High quality crushed rock has a CBR over 80. The standard material for this test is

73
crushed California limestone which has a value of 100, meaning that it is not

unusual to see CBR values of over 100 in well-compacted areas.

Types of CBR Test

There are two types of CBR tests,

i. Wet/Soaked C.B.R. test

ii. Dry/Unsoaked Cbr test.

The procedure for carrying out both are similar except that for the wet Cbr after

compaction is soaked for a day, two or three. While the dry is not.

During the course of my I.T. I witnessed only the soaked CBR.

Materials and equipment for C.B.R.

 C.B.R. machine tester

 Cylindrical Mould and collar

 Compaction rammer

 Filter paper

 Weighing balance

 Sieve

 Hand trowels
74
  Scope

Procedure for carrying out wet CBR test

1. The sample from the field is air dried for three days.

2. 3000g of sample passing 4.25um sieve is put in a tray

3. Water is added to the sample till the Optimum moisture content and

Maximum Dry density is reached

4. The soil is then mixed with the water uniformly and all crumps formed are

broken.

5. The weight of the empty mold is taken and recorded.

6. The moist soil is now filled to about a third of the mold

7. And compacted with the compacting rod. If the 2.5kg compacting rod is

used then 25 blows are given per layer otherwise if 4.5kg then the 11 blows

are issued

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 sequentially until the mold and collar is filled and

compacted.

9. The collar is removed and the soil is leveled to the mold.

10.The mold containing soil is weighed and recorded.

11.Take the weight of two empty moisture cans.

12.Some mixed samples are put in the two moisture cans and weighed.

75
 13.The compacted sample in mold is put in the curing tank for 72 hours if the

sample is meant to be used as subgrade, or 24 hours if it desired for sub-base

or base course

14.After the required duration of soaking, the sample is taken to the CBR

testing machine. The plunger of the machine is made to penetrate the from

top of the mold and readings are taking from the dial in the process at

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Of plungers penetration.

15.Procedure 14 is repeated for the bottom of the sample and result is

computed.

76
Sample of CBR Test Result

77
78
2.9.9.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS/GRADATION

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly

used in civil engineering to assess the particle size distribution (also called

gradation) of a granular material by allowing the material to pass through a series

of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount of material

that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass.

The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material

performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic or

organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite, feldspars,

coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a

minimum size depending on the exact method. Being such a simple technique of

particle sizing, it is probably the most common

Procedure

1. Get about 2000g of sample passing sieve no. 200 (0.075 micrometer).

2. Wash in the no. 200 sieve the sample until all clay property is gone.

3. Oven dry the washed sample at about 1050c for at least 24 hours.

79
 4. Arrange the set of sieve to be used in descending order of opening; say –

sieve No. 4 (4.75mm) to No. 10 (2.00mm), to No. 40 (0.425mm), to No. 80

(0.180), to No. 100 (0.150mm), to No. 200 (0.075).

5. Take 500g of oven dried sample and place in the arranged sieve.

6. Shake manually (using hands), or mechanically (using electronic mechanical

shaker) for five minutes. Ensure that none (no grain) is lost during shaking.

7. Measure and record the mass retained on each sieve.

8. Compute the result.

Sample of Gradation result for Gitto.

GITTO COSTRUZIONI GENERALI NIGERIA LIMITED

Geotechnical Laboratory

NASARAWA ROAD PROJECT

Grain size analysis - ASTM D 422

Date 16/1/20

Client: : 18

80
Project

Location: CH. 62+000 TP2

CONTR

Reference: CONFIRMATORY TEST OL

Sample No:

Depth(m):1.3-

Initial weight of the sample (g) 500 2.5

Retaine
Particle weight
Diametr d Passing
Description (g)
e (mm) % %

Cobbles

75

50
coarse
25
Gravel

19.0 100.0

12.5 0.0 100.0

fine 9.50 0 0.0 100.0

4.75 7.9 1.6 98.4

81
 coarse 2.36 19.9 4.0 96.0

1.18 88.1 17.6 82.4

mediu
0.600 273.2 54.6 45.4
m
0.425 345.0 69.0 31.0
Sand

0.300 375.6 75.1 24.9

fine 0.150 413.0 82.6 17.4

0.075 438.4 87.7 12.3

Grading curve
100

90

80

70

60

50
% passing

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 particle size (mm) 100

82
 CONTRACTOR CONSULTANT FMPWH

2.9.9.4 AGGREGATE CRUSHING TESTS

One of the test in which concrete material can fail is due to crushing under

compressive stress. Aggregate crushing test is standardized by BS 410 and used to

verify the crushing strength of aggregates. The aggregates should be oven dried,

which can passes through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve.

Apparatus

1. Steel Cylinder

2. Tampering rod

3. A balance weighing 3kg

4. Test sieves

5. A well ventilated oven

6. Compression testing machine

7. A cylindrical metal measure

8. Rubber mallet

9. Metal tray

Procedure

83
1 Place the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the baseplate and add the

test specimen in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being

subjected to 25 strokes from the tamping rod distributed evenly over the surface of

the layer and dropping from a height approximately 50 mm above the surface of

the aggregate. Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the plunger

so that it rests horizontally on this surface. Take care to ensure that the plunger

does not jam in the cylinder.

2 Place the apparatus, with the test specimen prepared as described in 6.3 and

plunger in position, between the platens of the testing machine and load it at as

uniform a rate as possible (see note) so that the required force of 400 kN is reached

in 10 min ± 30 s. NOTE: When, during the early stages of the test, there is a

significant deformation, it may not be possible to maintain the required loading

rate and variations in the loading rate may occur especially at the beginning of the

test. These variations should be kept to a minimum with the principal object of

completing the test in the overall time of 10 min ± 30 s.

3 Release the load and remove the crushed material by holding the cylinder over a

clean tray of known mass and hammering on the outside of the cylinder with the

rubber mallet until the particles are sufficiently disturbed to enable the mass of the

specimen to fall freely on to the tray.

NOTE if this fails to remove the compacted aggregate other methods may be used

but take care not to cause further crushing of the particles. Transfer any particles

84
adhering to the inside of the cylinder, to the baseplate and the underside of the

plunger, to the tray by means of a stiff bristle brush. Weigh the tray and the

aggregate and determine the mass of aggregate used (M1) to the nearest gram.

4 Sieve the whole of the test specimen on the tray on the 2.36 mm test sieve until

no further significant amount passes during a further period of 1 min. Weigh and

record the masses of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve to the nearest

gram (M2 and M3 respectively). If the total mass of the two individual fractions

(M2 plus M3) differs from the initial mass (M1) by more than 10 g, discard the

result and repeat the complete procedure using a new test specimen.

NOTE 1 In all of the procedures described in 3 and 4 take care to avoid loss of

fines and overloading the sieves.

NOTE 2 Mechanical sieving should only be used for aggregates which do not

degrade under its action.

5 Repeat the whole procedure described in 1 to 4 with a second test specimen.

Calculation and expression of results

1 Calculate the aggregate crushing value (ACV) expressed as a percentage to the

first decimal place, of the mass of fines formed to the total mass of the test

specimen from the following equation: (M1/M2)*100

Where M1 is the mass of the test specimen (in g);

M2 is the mass of the material passing

85
 the 2.36 mm test sieve (in g).

2 Calculate the mean of the two results to the nearest whole number. Report the

mean as the aggregate crushing value, unless the individual results differ by more

than 0.07 times the mean value. In this case, repeat the test on two further

specimens, calculate the median of the four results to the nearest whole number,

and report the median as the aggregate crushing value.

NOTE The median of four results is calculated by excluding the highest and the

lowest result and calculating the mean of the two middle results.

2.9.9.5 Aggregate Impact Test

The aggregates play an important role in the construction industry. There are many

test, which are performed to check the quality of aggregates. Aggregates are a very

important component of concrete, so the quality really matters when it comes to

aggregates.

The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to the

movement of vehicles on the road, the aggregates are subjected to impact. It results

in their breaking down into smaller pieces. Therefore, the aggregates should have

sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to the impact. This distinctive

property is measured by impact value test. The aggregate impact test value is a

86
measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may vary from its

resistance to gradually applied compressive load.

The Procedure of Impact Test on Aggregates:

The following procedure is applied, to find out the impact value of aggregate:

 Aggregates for the test sample can be decided by passing it through 12.5 mm

sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve.

 The sieved aggregates should be dried in an oven and then filled in a

cylindrical steel cup and tamped with 25 strokes by temping rod.

 The test sample is filled in 3 layers and each layer is tamped for 25 numbers

of blows.

 Metal hammer (weighing approx. 14 kg) is pre-arranged to drop with a free

fall of 380mm. The test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows each

at not less than 1 second.

 The crushed aggregate is removed from the test specimen and sieve it

through the 2.36 mm IS sieve.

 An impact value is measured as % of aggregates passed through the 2.36mm

sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).

Aggregate impact value (The value of aggregate impact test) = (W1/W2)*100

87
The value of aggregate impact test should not be more than 45% by weight of

aggregates, used for concrete other than wearing surface. An impact value 35% is

permissible for the bituminous macadam. Maximum permissible impact value for

the water bound macadam is 40%.

2.9.9.6 FLAKINESS AND ELONGATION TESTS.

Flakiness Index and Elongation Index Test on Coarse Aggregates

Shape tests on coarse aggregates such as flakiness index and elongation Index, its

importance in concrete construction, methods of determination is discussed.

Principle:

Aggregate particles are classified as flaky when they have a thickness (smallest

dimension) of less than 0.6 of their mean test sieve size, this size being taken as the

mean of the limiting sieve apertures used for determining the size fraction in which

the particles occur. The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is determined by

separating the flaky particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass

of the sample tested. The test is inapplicable to material passing a 6.3 mm test

sieve or retained on a 63 mm test sieve.

Shape Tests on Coarse Aggregates:

Following tests are conducted on coarse aggregates under shape tests:

88
  The elongation index of the given aggregates

 The flakiness index of the given aggregates

Apparatus for Shape Tests

The apparatus for the shape tests consists of the following:

1. A standard thickness gauge

2. A standard length gauge

3. Test sieves of sizes 63, 50 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5,10 and 6.3mm

4. A balance of capacity 5kg, readable and accurate up to 1 gm.

Theory of Flakiness Index and Elongation Index Tests

The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of flaky and

elongated particles contained in it. For base course and construction of bituminous

and cement concrete types, the presence of flaky and elongated particles are

considered undesirable as these cause inherent weakness with possibilities of

breaking down under heavy loads.

Thus, evaluation of shape of the particles, particularly with reference to flakiness

and elongation is necessary.

89
The Flakiness index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles whose

least dimension (thickness) is less than three- fifths (0.6times) of their mean

dimension. This test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm.

The Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles

whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than nine-fifths (1.8times) their mean

dimension. This test is not applicable for sizes smaller than 6.3mm.

Apparatus

1. Steel Cylinder

2. Tampering rod

3. A balance weighing 3kg

4. Test sieves

5. A well ventilated oven

6. Compression testing machine

7. A cylindrical metal measure

8. Rubber mallet

9. Metal tray

Preparation Sample for Test

The material passing a particular sieve is determined by the aim or requirement of

the operation to be used for. Say it is required to use materials retained on sieve
90
63mm, the material is then heated to a consistent dry temperature for about four

hours at 1050c.

Procedure of Shape Tests on Coarse Aggregates

1. Sieve the sample through the required test sieves (as specified in the table).

2. Take a minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested and weigh them.

3. To separate the flaky materials, gauge each fraction for thickness on a

thickness gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions

specified in column (4) of the table for the appropriate size of the material.

4. Weigh the flaky material passing the gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1 per

cent of the test sample.

5. To separate the elongated materials, gauge each fraction for length on a

length gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions

specified in column (6) of the table for the appropriate size of the material.

6. Weigh the elongated material retained on the gauge to an accuracy of at least

0.1 per cent of the test sample.

2.9.9.7 CONCRETE CUBES

In a reinforced concrete structure or member, concrete caters for compression

stress on the member. Aggregate strength, water-cement ratio, and grade of

concrete determines the strength of the concrete. To determine the compressive

91
strength and get a standard mix ration to target a compressive strength for

application in a construction phase with available materials we use the cube test.

The application of the concrete determines the grade; for nominal blinding grade

10/15N/mm2, concrete is used, whereas for serious structural works such as casting

of foundation for bridges grade 25/30N/mm2, might be used. The bridge designer

in the drawing and other project specifications gives the grade. The crushing test is

carried out after 7, 14, 21, 28 days of casting and curing. But in the construction

project the cubes where often tested in 7 and 28 days. The method used to get the

mix ratios are usually trial mixes, in this method various sets of concrete cubes are

cast and cured. After 7 and 28 days they are crushed and the strength determined

by computation. The mix ratio for each set is recorded. There are six cubes in each

set of concrete cube cast.

APPARATUS FOR CONCRETE TUBE TEST

1. 150mm x 150mm x 150mm cube mould manufactured in accordance with

BS EN 12390-1:2000

2. Tampering rod manufactured in accordance with BS EN 12390-2:2009

3. Concrete components; cement, water, aggregates

4. Lubricant

5. Compressive strength machine

92
 6. Curing tank

7. Brush

8. Trowel

Procedure for Concrete Cube Tests

1. Batching: individual weights of concrete constituent are recorded and mixed

to together to form fresh concrete.

2. The cubes are cleaned, dried and lubricated.

3. The fresh concrete is put into each cube in three layers each and compacted

with the tamping rod. Each layer receives 35 tamps to remove voids.

4. Levelling with trowel to give smooth surface.

5. Label each cube while concrete contained is still fresh

6. The concrete are removed from the cubes once they are finally set. The final

setting time for most concrete is 16 – 72 hours. But the removal is usually

after 24 hours.

7. The concrete cubes are transferred to curing tank for curing. The curing tank

usually maintains a temperature range of 20 ± 2 degrees centigrade.

8. After 7 days 3 cube are weighed and tested with the compression machine

and its properties recorded.

9. Compute the strength.

10.Repeat steps 8 and after 28 days.

93
Example of Cube test I witnessed

Cube no Date Date Cube Cube Cube Load Cube

cast tested age weight density reading strength

(gm) (kg/m3) (KN) (N/mm2)

1 7/9/18 4/10/18 28 8246 2.443 705 31.3

2 7/9/18 4/10/18 28 8179 2.423 725 32.2

3 7/9/18 4/10/18 28 8105 2.401 689 30.6

AV= = 2.422 = 31.4

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Problems and Challenges:

During my 6-months training, I encountered some challenges and, below were the

most significant challenges I encountered during training:

Had less time to interact with my supervisor due to his busy schedule. There are

times when my Boss would be very busy with work and would not want to be

disturbed.

At site, safety was not adequately provided, for training students, we go to site

without safety boots, helmets and other relevant safety gadgets.

94
No formal orientation for training students on site on how works are carried out,

scheduled, or how roles while working with them.

Transportation to site of work was not easy. There wasn’t any proper arrangement

on how to be conveyed to site/yard, as result we had to walk kilometers to get to

site or spend how personal money on transportation. Because of the location of site

it was difficult to get means of mobility like bikes, motor etc.

Lack of willingness of some staff to answer questions. Some staff in the

organization are very reluctant to answer questions, some feel we have the

potential of stealing there jobs and hence they cannot assist us in doing so. Never

the less there were also a few who showed concerns on our intellectual progress.

Taking-off of complex drawings which I have not done before was challenging.

Being very new to practical application of road and bridges works, it was

challenging to give out certain information from the road and bridge drawings

when required.

Accommodation was also a major challenge. The company did not provide any

form of accommodation for us; the available little houses were not convenient

because most of them were so small and did not have hygienic rest room.

95
High cost of living. The cost of feeding and other necessities for survival was high

because the supply was retail based and monopolistic in nature.

<

Light/electricity: In the locality, power supply was poor. We receive electricity

supply five times in a month on average; in fact, we were paying for darkness in

the name of electricity bills.

Lack of security in locality. We suffered from various severe security threats and

weekly reports of murder, kidnaps and robbery. This affects the activities of people

in the area negatively. Example just by the knowledge that one had anything to do

with the company one becomes a target and one’s life is threatened.

Adapting to the various sections I was assigned to work with. It was not very easy

for me leaving a section I was getting more familiar and free with it members for

another. This meant stating all over again to make acquaintances and building a

free relationship for easier flow of knowledge and questioning which takes some

time.

96
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

4.0.1 Conclusion

At the end of my 6-months training, I have gained an invaluable experience both

professionally and socially. The industrial training was very important to me in

building of professional working ethics in civil engineering especially in aspects of

roads and bridge constructions, understanding more the road construction industry,

shaping my career path, and understanding of the society at large having related

with both professionals and non-professionals within and outside the construction

industry.

97
My industrial training was very useful to me because I worked in a field strongly

related to my course of study. Having completed my training in a construction

company and working under different sections of the technical units and

supervisors, I was opportune to see the application of some theories I learnt in

school and appreciated how the industry works in real life.

The training enhanced so much my knowledge in road and bridge drawing and its

construction works and processes and also helped me understand how construction

process is controlled and all materials are tested before use. I learned new skills in

measurement and raising bills, valuation and pricing which was not taught in

school. The training exposed me to how a construction project is managed. How to

manage human and material resources in production sites.

The training generally was interesting, educating, challenging and experiences

gained are enormous. Am very happy to have completed the training.

4.0.2 RECOMENDATION

98
After having an appreciation of the industrial experience, I would like to urge the

Department of Civil Engineering to keep on sending students to such industrial

attachments as it helps a lot to build up students’ confidence on the practical aspect

of their profession since the profession is of technical nature.

I am also of the opinion that the period of attachment should be made one year

rather than six months, this will give students more time to learn all the necessary

skills they needed to learn. For instance in my case, had it been that the training is

one year I would have had more chance to learn how to prepare longitudinal

beams, bearing seats, placing plinth and how asphalt or coal tar is tested.

The department should also arrange with the industry so that students do not have

hassles finding an attachment place.

The money provided to training students by ITF should be increased and given

within period of training, not after training, because expenses and running cost is

too much during training.

Finally, the industrial attachment is very vital to the performance of students both

in class and in the industry after completion of their studies. The students on their

own should take the training very serious and school should encourage the training

maximally.

99
100