energies

Article
Effects of Injection Timing on Combustion and
Emission Performance of Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine
under Low to Medium Load Conditions
Hua Zhou 1,2 , Hong-Wei Zhao 1, *, Yu-Peng Huang 3 , Jian-Hui Wei 3 and Yu-Hui Peng 2,3, *
1 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China;
zhouhua@catarc.ac.cn
2 China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd., Tianjin 300300, China
3 School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China;
N160220071@fzu.edu.cn (Y.-P.H.); N180220069@fzu.edu.cn (J.-H.W.)
* Correspondence: hwzhao@jlu.edu.cn (H.-W.Z.); pengyuhui@fzu.edu.cn (Y.-H.P.)




Received: 15 May 2019; Accepted: 13 June 2019; Published: 19 June 2019


Abstract: A throttle can be installed on the intake pipe of a natural gas (NG)/diesel dual-fuel engine to
control the excess air ratio of the air-fuel mixture by adjusting the air intake. Building on a previously
proposed NG/diesel dual-fuel supply strategy using the adjustment of excess air ratio, this work
further studied the effects of different injection timing schemes on output power, fuel efficiency, and
pollutant emissions of a dual-fuel engine under low to medium load conditions. In the experiment,
the engine was operated at a speed of 1600 r/min, under either low (27.1 N·m) or medium (50.6 N·m)
loads, and the NG substitution rate was either 40%, 60%, or 80%. The effect of different injection
timing schemes on the combustion performance of the engine under low to medium load conditions
was studied based on in-cylinder pressure changes detected by a pressure sensor. Experimental
results showed that under medium-speed low-load conditions and a NG substitution rate of 40%,
setting the diesel injection timing to 27 ◦ CA BTDC increased the engine output power by 9.03%,
reduced the brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) by 13.33%, and effectively reduced CO, CO2 ,
and HC emissions. Under medium-speed medium-load conditions with a NG substitution rate of
80%, setting the diesel injection timing to 25 ◦ CA BTDC increased the engine output power by 14.62%,
reduced the BSEC by 11.73%, and significantly reduced CO, CO2 , and HC emissions.

Keywords: excess air ratio; dual-fuel engine; natural gas; substitution rate; injection timing; bench test

1. Introduction
Natural gas (NG) is widely regarded as one of the most promising clean alternative fuels for
internal combustion engines owing to its high hydrogen to carbon (H/C) ratio, high auto-ignition
temperature, and affordable price. To date, research on NG/diesel dual-fuel engines has mainly focused
on improving fuel economy and reducing pollutant emissions [1–3]. With the introduction of the
GB20891-2014 standard in China, diesel engines of non-road mobile machinery will be required to
comply with Grade III and Grade IV standards, which include more stringent pollutant emission
requirements. Building upon on a previously proposed NG/diesel dual-fuel supply strategy based on
adjustment of the excess air ratio, this study further examined the effect of diesel injection timing (DIT)
on the performance of a NG/diesel dual-fuel engine under low to medium load conditions.
As indicated by existing studies, NG/diesel dual-fuel engines can significantly reduce soot and
nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emissions compared to conventional diesel engines, while remaining on par
performance-wise, in terms of power output and fuel efficiency. However, under low to medium
load conditions, combustion efficiency of the dual-fuel engine is low, and more carbon monoxide

Energies 2019, 12, 2349; doi:10.3390/en12122349 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 2349 2 of 14

(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) are emitted. In particular, under the low load condition, the
small amount of fuel injected into the cylinder and abundant air supply results in an extremely lean
air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. It is well recognized that a lean air-fuel mixture leads to slow unstable
combustion, low combustion efficiencies, and high CO and HC emissions. Adjusting the degree of
throttle opening to better control the excess air ratio is examined to be an effective way to attain an
appropriate air-fuel ratio [4–7]. However, controlling the air intake flow by adjusting the throttle
valve can increase pumping losses, leading to a decrease in volumetric efficiency [8]. In the previous
study, the authors installed a throttle body on the original intake pipe of the diesel engine to control
the air flow and to study the effects of different NG substitution rates (SR) on the performance of an
engine working in the dual-fuel mode under low to medium load conditions [9]. Fuel supply strategies
based on excess air and air/fuel ratio control effectively reduce NOx emissions and work well with
SR reaching 40% under low-load conditions and 80% under medium-load conditions, which attained
an acceptable improvement of the SR since no more than 30% of NG mass percentage is suggested
by previous studies without throttle control at low load [10]. Nonetheless, this strategy is unable to
reduce CO and HC emissions in the dual-fuel mode.
To solve the aforementioned problem, Yang et al. proposed advancing the DIT of a retrofitted
NG/diesel dual-fuel engine when operating under low-load conditions and in this respect, achieved
a high thermal efficiency and reduced CO and HC emissions [11]. Ref. [12] showed that DIT had
a significant impact on the output power, maximum in-cylinder pressure, maximum combustion
temperature, and maximum instantaneous heat release rate of diesel engines operating in the dual-fuel
mode. Additionally, the usage of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and the air throttling strategy has
been reported [10], and the study of optimal operation strategy for EGR rate was studied to run the
engine with low emissions of CO2 and HC simultaneously under low load conditions [13]. Other
studies have also described the effects of DIT and in-cylinder turbulence ratio on the in-cylinder
combustion of engines working in the dual-fuel mode [14,15]. The work of Yousef et al. demonstrated
that increasing the DIT could effectively reduce emissions of unburned methane and greenhouse gases
when engines operate under low loads.
Under the requirement of minimum retrofit on the engine provided by the cooperative enterprise,
our previous work examined that it was possible for the target engine working under low to medium
load conditions to achieve a higher SR and to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emissions by controlling
the excess air ratio, without the support of EGR and turbocharger [9]. However, as the SR increases,
increasing CO and HC emissions become salient. In this study as a successive work, an experiment
was conducted to investigate the effect of DIT on the power output, fuel efficiency, and pollutant
emissions of the target engine working under low to medium load conditions at NG/diesel dual-fuel
mode. The experimental results demonstrated that proper DIT supported by a fuel supply strategy
based on adjusting the excess air ratio can improve performance and reduce NOx , CO, HC and soot
emissions. A high SR can be achieved for the dual-fuel engine working under low to medium load
conditions. Moreover, the findings of this study provide a basis for formulating effective fuel supply
strategies for the target engine working under low to medium load conditions at dual-fuel mode with
a minimum retrofit cost.

2. Design of Experiments

2.1. Dual-Fuel Supply System

The non-road SL2110DKT-3 diesel engine tested in this study uses an electronic pump unit for fuel
supply. The retrofitted NG/diesel dual-fuel supply system is shown in Figure 1. The dual-fuel supply
system was obtained by adding an NG supply system to the original diesel supply system. Specifically,
an NG mixer was installed in the intake manifold and multiple NG injection valves were mounted on
the NG rail, which together enabled multi-point NG injection. The NG supply system consisted of a
liquid NG storage tank, water bath vaporizer, NG filter, electromagnetic switch, pressure regulator,
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 3 of 14

bufferEnergies
tank, 2019,
and 12,
NG rail.PEER
x FOR TheREVIEW
buffer tank between the NG rail and flow meter could effectively3 stabilize of 14
the working pressure of the gas rail and the outlet pressure of the flow meter, thereby accurately
switch,the
controlling pressure
quantityregulator,
of NGbuffer tank,into
injected and the
NGcylinder.
rail. The buffer tank valves
Injection betweenmounted
the NG rail
onand
theflow
NG rail
meter could effectively stabilize the working pressure of the gas rail and the outlet pressure of the
injected NG into the intake manifold via connected hoses. A throttle valve was installed in the general
flow meter, thereby accurately controlling the quantity of NG injected into the cylinder. Injection
intake pipe to control the intake air volume of the engine, thus realizing precise control of the excess
valves mounted on the NG rail injected NG into the intake manifold via connected hoses. A throttle
air ratio.
valve was installed in the general intake pipe to control the intake air volume of the engine, thus
To reduceprecise
realizing the effects
controlof of
outlet pressure
the excess fluctuations of the NG injection valve on the NG injection
air ratio.
volume, a To secondary
reduce the pressure-regulating valve and
effects of outlet pressure a secondary
fluctuations of the buffer
NG tank werevalve
injection installed
on thein NG
front of
the NG rail [16].
injection The aNG
volume, injection
secondary valve queries the
pressure-regulating jet volume
valve manifold
and a secondary absolute
buffer pressure
tank were (MAP)
installed
in front of the
corresponding NG engine
to the rail [16].operating
The NG injection
condition,valve followed
queries theby jet the
volume manifold
injection absolute pressure
time-pulse width MAP
(MAP) corresponding
corresponding to the amount to theofengine operating
air supply. The condition, followed
latter is based by the
on the injection and
jet volume time-pulse
air railwidth
pressure.
This setup controls the injection valve by adjusting the duty ratio. The NG supply and
MAP corresponding to the amount of air supply. The latter is based on the jet volume air rail
system uses a
pressure. This setup controls the injection valve by adjusting the duty ratio. The NG supply system
normally open electronic throttle valve. The engine queries the target excess air ratio MAP according
uses a normally open electronic throttle valve. The engine queries the target excess air ratio MAP
to the operating condition, and then queries the throttle opening degree MAP according to the engine
according to the operating condition, and then queries the throttle opening degree MAP according
speedtoandthe target
engineexcess
speed and air ratio.
target excess air ratio.

Figure 1. Dual-fuel supply system.

Figure 1. Dual-fuel supply system.
2.2. Test System
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 4 of 14

2.2. Test System

The SL2110DKT-3 diesel engine is a four-stroke, inline water-cooled, naturally aspirated, and
electronically controlled direct-injection two-cylinder diesel engine, mainly used in machines like
tractors (T-type), harvesters, and construction machinery (K-type). Key technical parameters of the
engine are listed in Table 1. Minimum fuel consumption of the engine went below 248.0 g/kW·h and
the maximum torque was 120.7 N·m. With regards to emissions, the engine met the requirements of
the Chinese Phase III standard for diesel engines of non-road mobile machinery.

Table 1. Engine specifications.

Engine Specifications Value

Rated power (kW) 25.7
Rated speed (r·min−1 ) 2400
Compression ratio 17
Displacement (L) 2.224
Bore × Stroke (mm) 110 × 117
Connecting rod length (mm) 185
Inlet valve opening/closing (◦ CA) 12 BTDC/44 ABDC
Exhaust valve opening/closing (◦ CA) 52 BBDC/12 ATDC
Layout & cylinders Line 2
Combustion chamber type Direct injection ω type
Type of timing SEFI
Injection interval 180 ◦ CA
Injection pressure (MPa) 23~24

The framework of the test bench system for the dual-fuel engine is shown in Figure 2.
The Toceil-OMFGO25 air flowmeter was installed in front of the throttle valve to measure real
air flow. Diesel and NG were detected by a CMFD010 diesel mass flowmeter (Shanghai ToCeil Engine
Testing Equipment, Shanghai, China) and an M250S flow meter (Alicat Scientific, Tucson, AZ, USA),
respectively. The engine load and speed, pilot diesel injection timing, pilot diesel quantity, NG injection
quantity, and throttle opening were controlled with the assistance of the ECKA V2 engine calibration
software and a DW63 engine dynamometer. Additionally, a high-temperature pressure sensor (6052C,
Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland) was fitted inside the cylinder head of the first cylinder to obtain the
in-cylinder pressure. Smoke and gas emissions of CO, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), HCs, and NOx were
measured using a smoke meter (FTY-100 Opacimeter, Foshan Analytical Instruments, Foshan, China)
and an exhaust gas analyzer (Infralyt ELD V347, SAXON Junkalor GmbH, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany),
respectively. Specifications and precision of the main instruments used in the study are listed in Table 2.
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 5 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Figure 2. Dual-fuel engine test bench system.

Figure 2. Dual-fuel engine test bench system.

Table 2. 2.Main
Table Maininstruments usedininthis
instruments used thisstudy.
study.

Item
Item Specification
Specification Precision
Precision
Torque N·m ±0.4% F.s
Dynamometer Torque N·m ±0.4% F.s
Dynamometer Rotation Speed rpm 0.1% ± 1
Diesel flowmeter Rotation
Fuel massSpeed rpm
flow kg/h 0.1% ± 1
±0.12%
Airflowmeter
Diesel flowmeter Fuel
Fuel mass flow kg/h ±0.5%
±0.12%
Natural
Air flowmeter gas flowmeter Volumetric flow
Fuel mass flow kg/h rate SLPM ±0.8%
±0.5%
Pressure sensor In-cylinder pressure bar ≤±0.5 bar
Natural gas flowmeter Volumetric flow rate SLPM ±0.8%
Volume percent of CO ppm 10 ppm
Pressure sensor In-cylinder
Volume pressure
percent of CObar
2 ppm ≤±0.5 bar
±0.4%
Exhaust gas analyzer Volume percent of HC
Volume percent of CO ppm ppm ±10 ppm
10 ppm
Volume percent of NO ppm ±12 ppm
Volume percent of CO2 ppm ±0.4%
Volume percent of NO2 ppm ±5 ppm
Exhaust
Smoke gasmeter
analyzer Volumeopacity
Smoke percent%of HC ppm ±10
±0.1 ppm
Volume percent of NO ppm ±12 ppm
All instruments were calibrated Volume
before the experiment,
percent of NO2 ppm and the measurement
±5 ppm range and
accuracy of each measuring instrument were found to meet requirements. Standard gases (C 3H8, NO,
CO, andSmoke meterapplied to calibrateSmoke
CO2) were opacity
the exhaust gas%analyzer and the opacimeter±0.1 was calibrated
using standard test glass sheets with different degrees of opacity (10%, 30%, 50%, etc.). The
instantaneous
All instruments fuel consumption
were calibratedmeter,
beforeairthe
flow meter, NGand
experiment, flowthe
meter, and pressure
measurement sensor
range andwere
accuracy
regularly calibrated by the manufacturer.
of each measuring instrument were found to meet requirements. Standard gases (C3 H8 , NO, CO,
and CO2 ) were applied to calibrate the exhaust gas analyzer and the opacimeter was calibrated using
2.3. Test Procedure
standard test glass sheets with different degrees of opacity (10%, 30%, 50%, etc.). The instantaneous
The fuel supply
fuel consumption meter,strategy
air flowbased
meter,onNG
excess airmeter,
flow ratio control was previously
and pressure sensor described in detail
were regularly [9].
calibrated
In the pure
by the manufacturer.diesel mode, low (27.1 N·m) and medium (50.6 N·m) loads at the target speed were
selected as the target operating conditions. The target speed was selected as 1600 r/min according to
GB20891-2014
2.3. Test Procedure [17]. The rated torque for a speed of 1600 r/min is 120 N·m, therefore, torque values of
27.1 Nm and 50.6 Nm represent the low load (22.5%) and medium load (42.2%) conditions of the
The fuelTosupply
engine. strategy
study the based
effect of DIT ononthe
excess air ratioofcontrol
performance was previously
the NG/diesel described
dual-fuel engine underinlow
detail
to [9].
In themedium
pure diesel mode, low
load conditions, the(27.1 N·m)
DIT was and medium
adjusted (50.6 N·m)
by step increases loads at of
or decreases the2 target
°CA. Thespeed
pilotwere
diesel
selected as quantity
the target(md2 ), target airconditions.
operating supply quantity
The (m air), and
target target
speed wasNGselected
injectionas
quantity (mNG) according
1600 r/min for each to
GB20891-2014 [17]. The rated torque for a speed of 1600 r/min is 120 N·m, therefore, torque values
of 27.1 Nm and 50.6 Nm represent the low load (22.5%) and medium load (42.2%) conditions of the
engine. To study the effect of DIT on the performance of the NG/diesel dual-fuel engine under low
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 6 of 14

to medium load conditions, the DIT was adjusted by step increases or decreases of 2 ◦ CA. The pilot
diesel quantity (md2 ), target air supply quantity (mair ), and target NG injection quantity (mNG ) for each
experimental case is shown in Table 3, where md1 is the diesel injection quantity of the engine working
in the pure diesel mode and R is the NG substitution rate, defined as

md1 − md2
R= × 100% (1)
md1

Table 3. Parameter values used in dual-fuel experiments.

md1 md2 mair mNG Injection

Experiment
(Mg/Cylinder R% (Mg/Cylinder φa (Mg/Cylinder (Mg/Cylinder Timing
Case
Cycle) Cycle) Cycle) Cycle) (◦ CA BTDC)
1600 r/min 40 11.81 933.58 6.80
19.69 3.25
(4.54 kW) 60 7.88 936.80 10.09
15, 17, 19, 21, 23,
1600 r/min 60 12.42 1027.13 15.92 25, 27
31.04
(8.48 kW) 80 6.21 2.26 1030.67 21.11

The engine was fueled with commercial 0# diesel and natural gas obtained from a local filling
station in Fuzhou city. The detailed specifications of the two fuels are listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Physico-chemical properties of fuel and natural gas.

Item Unit Diesel Natural Gas

Chemical formula Cn Hm CH4
Component quality gC /kg 0.847 0.750
gH /kg 0.126 0.250
Molecular mass 180~200 16
Stoichiometric 14.3 17.4
Lower heat value MJ/kg 42.5 50.5
Heat value at φa = 1 kJ/m3 3750 3230

During bench tests, the dynamometer was used at a constant speed of 1600 r/min and the engine
was preheated in the pure diesel mode. The engine was deemed to have reached a stable operating
state when the coolant temperature reached 60 ◦ C, fluctuations in engine speed were less than 2 r/min,
and torque fluctuations were less than 0.1 Nm. All tests were performed when the coolant temperature
and lubricant temperature were about 85 ◦ C and 75 ◦ C, respectively. The engine output power, BSEC,
and pollutant emissions were analyzed under different operating conditions. At an engine speed of
1600 r/min, the DIT was 17 degrees before top dead centre (◦ CA BTDC) and the NG injection timing
was 300 ◦ CA BTDC.

3. Analysis of Test Results

3.1. Power Performance

The target power of the engine, working at pure diesel mode, at 1600 r/min and 22.5% load was
4.54 kW. Figure 3 shows the output power of the engine working in the dual-fuel mode under low
load (22.5%) for different DITs and SRs. Under the medium-speed (1600 r/min) low-load condition,
with either 40% or 60% SR, the output power increased with advancing DIT in the mass. The cylinder
pressure traces (see in Figure 4) reveals that advancing DIT generally helps to improve in-cylinder
pressure. When DIT has advanced from 17 ◦ CA BTDC to 27 ◦ CA BTDC, the ignition delay is prolonged
and combustion phasing is retarded, which may help to form more fuel-air mixture before the start
of combustion, which favors the formation of the ignition kernel [18]. However, with the increase of
SR combustion, phasing is retarded because of the smaller pilot diesel injection. In this case, most of
the NG-air mixture was burned during the expansion stroke, the peak pressure decreased (showed in
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  7 of 14 
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 7 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
displayed in Figure 3. Therefore, to achieve 40% SR under the medium‐speed low‐load condition it 
is feasible to advance DIT to 27 °CA BTDC and therefore the output power of the engine rose by 
Figure 4b) and
displayed the engine
in Figure power output
3. Therefore, fell below
to achieve theunder
40% SR red dotted line displayed in
the medium-speed Figure 3.condition
low-load Therefore,
it
9.03%. 
to
is achieve
feasible 40% SR under
to advance thetomedium-speed
DIT 27 °CA BTDClow-load condition
and therefore theitoutput
is feasible to advance
power 27 ◦ CA
DIT to rose
of the engine by
BTDC
9.03%.and therefore the output power of the engine rose by 9.03%.
5.0
5.0
4.54 kW
4.5
4.54 kW
4.5
[kW][kW]

4.0
Power

4.0
Power

3.5 Low load 1600 rpm

3.5 40% substitution rate
Low load 1600 rpm
60% substitution rate
40% substitution rate
3.0 60% substitution rate
15 17 19 21 23 25 27
3.0 Injection timing [° BTDC]  
15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Injection timing [°BTDC]
Figure 3. Comparison of power outputs with different diesel injection timings at low load. 
Figure 3. Comparison of power outputs with different diesel
diesel injection
injection timings
timings at
at low
low load.
load.
3.0
3.0 Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC
17°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC
19°CA BTDC 3.0
[MPa][MPa]
[MPa][MPa]

3.0 Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC Diesel injection timing: 19°CA
15° BTDC
CA BTDC
21°CA
17° BTDC
CA BTDC 2.5 21°CA BTDC
17°CA BTDC
2.5 23°CA BTDC
19°CA BTDC 23°CA BTDC
19°CA BTDC
pressure
pressure

25°CA BTDC
21°CA BTDC 25°CA BTDC
2.5 21°CA BTDC
2.5 27°CA
23° BTDC
CA BTDC 27°CA BTDC
23°CA BTDC
pressure
pressure

2.0 25°CA BTDC 2.0 25°CA BTDC

In-cylinder
In-cylinder

27°CA BTDC 27°CA BTDC

2.0 2.0
In-cylinder
In-cylinder

17°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC

1.5 1.5

17°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC

1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
-10 0 10 20 30 -10 0 10 20 30
Crank angle [°CA ATDC] Crank angle [°CA ATDC]  
1.0
-10 0 10 20 30
  1.0
-10 0 10 20 30
Crank angle [°CA ATDC] Crank angle [°CA ATDC]
(a)  (b) 
(a) of in-cylinder pressure with different diesel injection (b)timings at low load.
Figure 4. Comparison of in‐cylinder pressure with different diesel injection timings at low load. (a) 
Figure 4. Comparison
Cylinder 
(a)
Figure pressure 
Cylinder pressure traces 
4. Comparison traces under 
under
of in-cylinderdifferent 
different
pressure diesel 
diesel injection 
injection
with timing
different timing 
under
diesel under 
22.5%
injectionload22.5%  load 
and 40%
timings at and 
load.40% 
substitution
low (a)
Cylinder pressure traces under different diesel injection timing under 22.5% load and22.5% 
substitution 
rate. (b) rate. 
Cylinder (b)  Cylinder 
pressure pressure 
traces under traces 
differentunder  different 
diesel injectiondiesel 
timinginjection 
under timing 
22.5% under 
load and 60%
40%
load and 60% substation rate. 
substation
substitutionrate.
rate. (b) Cylinder pressure traces under different diesel injection timing under 22.5%
load and 60% substation rate.
The target output power of the engine at medium speed and medium load was 8.48 kW. Figures 5
The target output power of the engine at medium speed and medium load was 8.48 kW. Figures 
and 6
5  and  show the output
6  target
show  power
the  output  values and in-cylinder
power  pressure of the engine working in the dual-fuel
The output power of thevalues 
engine and  in‐cylinder 
at medium speedpressure 
and mediumof  the  engine 
load working 
was 8.48 in  the 
kW. Figures
mode with
dual‐fuel  medium
mode  load
with  obtained
medium  for
load  different
obtained  DITs,
for  respectively.
different  The
DITs,  output power
respectively.  increased
The  output  under
power 
5 and 6 show the output power values and in-cylinder pressure of the engine working in the
both 60% and 80% SRs with advancing DIT. Compared to the low load condition, more pilot diesel
increased under both 60% and 80% SRs with advancing DIT. Compared to the low load condition, 
dual-fuel mode with medium load obtained for different DITs, respectively. The output power
was provided
more  pilot  at medium
diesel  was  load, and the negative influence of prolonged combustion phasing caused
increased under both 60%provided 
and 80% at  SRsmedium  load,  and 
with advancing DIT.the  negative 
Compared toinfluence 
the low loadof  prolonged 
condition,
by insufficient pilot diesel was suppressed. Therefore, as high as 80% SR can be accepted at medium
combustion phasing caused by insufficient pilot diesel was suppressed. Therefore, as high as 80% SR 
more pilot diesel was provided at medium load, and the negative influence of prolonged
speed and medium load, increasing output power by 14.62% as the DIT advanced to 25 ◦ CA BTDC.
can be accepted at medium speed and medium load, increasing output power by 14.62% as the DIT 
combustion phasing caused by insufficient pilot diesel was suppressed. Therefore, as high as 80% SR
It should be noted that when advancing DIT to 27 ◦ CA BTDC under 80% SR, the output power had
advanced to 25 °CA BTDC. It should be noted that when advancing DIT to 27 °CA BTDC under 80% 
can be accepted at medium speed and medium load, increasing output power by 14.62% as the DIT
an
SR, abrupt drop as
the  output  shown
power  in an 
had  Figure 5. Since
abrupt  the retrofitted NG/diesel dual-fuel engine is aNG/diesel 
naturally
advanced to 25 °CA BTDC. It should bedrop 
notedas  shown 
that whenin  Figure 
advancing 5. DIT
Since 
to the  retrofitted 
27 °CA BTDC under 80%
aspirated engine, the combustible NG-air mixture forms during the intake stroke,
dual‐fuel engine is a naturally aspirated engine, the combustible NG‐air mixture forms during the  and temperature in
SR, the output power had an abrupt drop as shown in Figure 5. Since the retrofitted NG/diesel
the combustion chamber gradually drops as the SR increases. If advancing DIT
intake stroke, and temperature in the combustion chamber gradually drops as the SR increases. If  breaks through the
dual-fuel engine is a naturally aspirated engine, the combustible NG-air mixture forms during the
critical point, the temperature of the large volume of combustible mixture formed during the ignition
advancing DIT breaks through the critical point, the temperature of the large volume of combustible 
intake stroke, and temperature in the combustion chamber gradually drops as the SR increases. If
advancing DIT breaks through the critical point, the temperature of the large volume of combustible
Energies 2019, 12, 2349
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  8 8 of 14 
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Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
mixture  formed  during  the  ignition  delay  period  will  be  lower,  resulting  in  lower  combustion 
delay period
mixture will during
formed be lower,
theresulting
ignitionindelay
lowerperiod
combustion
reaction and the peak pressure drops (see Figure 6b).  reaction
will be lower,and the peak
resulting inpressure drops (see
lower combustion
Figure 6b).
reaction and the peak pressure drops (see Figure 6b).
10.5
10.5 Medium load 1600 rpm
Medium60%
loadsubstitution
1600 rpm rate
10.0 80%substitution
60% substitutionrate
rate
10.0 80% substitution rate

9.5
[kW]

9.5
[kW]
Power

9.0
Power

9.0
8.48kW
8.5
8.48kW
8.5

8.0
8.0 15
19 2117 23 25 27
Injection
15
19 timing
21 [° BTDC]
17 23 25 27  
Injection timing [°BTDC]
Figure 5. Comparison of power outputs with different diesel injection timings under medium load. 
Figure 5. Comparison
Figure 5. Comparison of
of power
power outputs
outputs with
with different
different diesel
diesel injection
injection timings
timings under
under medium
medium load.
load.

4.0 4.0
Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC
4.0 17°CA BTDC 4.0 17°CA BTDC
Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC
19°CA BTDC Diesel injection timing: 15°CA BTDC
[MPa]

[MPa]

3.5 3.5 19°CA BTDC

17°CA BTDC
21°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC
21°CA BTDC
[MPa]

[MPa]

19°CA BTDC
23°CA BTDC 19°CA BTDC
3.5 3.5 23°CA BTDC
pressure

pressure

21°CA BTDC
25°CA BTDC 21°CA BTDC
25°CA BTDC
3.0 23°CA BTDC
27°CA BTDC 3.0 23°CA BTDC
27°CA BTDC
pressure

pressure

25°CA BTDC 25°CA BTDC

3.0 27°CA BTDC 3.0
27°CA BTDC
In-cylinder

In-cylinder

2.5 2.5
In-cylinder

In-cylinder

2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
17°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC
2.0 2.0
17°CA BTDC 17°CA BTDC
1.5 1.5
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1.5 Crank 1.5
-10 -5 0 5 angle 10[°CA ATDC]
15 20 25 30   -10 -5 0 Crank
5 angle 10[°CA ATDC]
15 20 25 30  
Crank angle [°CA ATDC] Crank angle [°CA ATDC]
(a)  (b) 
(a) (b)
Figure 6.6. Comparison
Figure Comparison ofof in-cylinder
in‐cylinder pressure
pressure with
with different
different  diesel 
diesel injection 
injection timings. (a)
timings. (a) Cylinder
Cylinder 
Figure 6.traces
Comparison of in-cylinder pressure timing
with different dieselload
injection timings.
pressure traces under different diesel injection timing under 42.2% load and 60% substitution rate. 
pressure under different diesel injection under 42.2% and 60% (a) Cylinder
substitution rate.
pressure traces
(b) Cylinder
(b) under
Cylinder pressure different
pressure traces diesel
traces under injection
under different timing
different diesel under
diesel injection42.2%
injection timingload and
timing under 60%
under 42.2% substitution
42.2% load
load and rate.
and 80%
80% 
(b) Cylinderrate.
pressure traces under different diesel injection timing under 42.2% load and 80%
substitution rate 
substitution
substitution rate
InIn general, advancing
general,  advancing  thethe 
DITDIT 
cancan 
effectively increase
effectively  engine
increase  output
engine  powerpower 
output  in the dual-fuel mode.
in  the  dual‐fuel 
UnderInmedium-speed low-load
general, advancing theoperating conditions with
DIT can effectively a 40%
increase SR, advancing
engine the DIT
output power
mode. Under medium‐speed low‐load operating conditions with a 40% SR, advancing the DIT can  incan
theeffectively
dual-fuel
avoid
mode. the decline
Under
effectively  in output
medium-speed
avoid  power often
the  decline low-load experienced
in  output operating by diesel
conditions
power  often  engines
with aby 
experienced  working
40% in the
SR, engines 
diesel  advancing dual-fuel
the DIT
working  mode
in can
the 
under low
effectively load
dual‐fuel  avoid conditions.
mode the decline
under  Under
low  medium-speed
in load 
output power often
conditions.  medium-load
experienced
Under  operating conditions,
by diesel medium‐load 
medium‐speed  advancing
engines working in the
the
operating 
DIT within mode
dual-fuel
conditions,  a advancing 
reasonable range
underthe low can
DIT load effectively increase
conditions.
within  engine
Under
a  reasonable  output
medium-speed
range  can  powermedium-load
effectively even if theengine 
increase  SR is asoutput 
high
operating
as 80%.
conditions, advancing the DIT within a reasonable range can effectively increase engine output
power even if the SR is as high as 80%. 
power even if the SR is as high as 80%.
3.2. Brake Specific Energy Consumption
3.2. Brake Specific Energy Consumption 
3.2. Brake Specific Energy
The indicator Consumption
of brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) is calculated as the reciprocal of the
The indicator of brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) is calculated as the reciprocal of the 
fuel conversion efficiency in units ofenergy
The indicator of brake specific MJ/kWh. The varying
consumption BSECisfor
(BSEC) various operating
calculated conditions
as the reciprocal at
of the
fuel conversion efficiency in units of MJ/kWh. The varying BSEC for various operating conditions at 
low
fuel load and medium load are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. Under
conversion efficiency in units of MJ/kWh. The varying BSEC for various operating the low-load condition
conditions at
low load and medium load are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. Under the low‐load condition 
◦ CA BTDC, which
and
low 40% SR, the engineload
BSECare
dropped to
in 16.34 MJ/kWh when the DIT shifted tothe
27low-load
and load
40% and
SR, medium
the  engine  BSEC shown
dropped  Figures 7 and
to  16.34  8, respectively.
MJ/kWh  when  the  Under
DIT  shifted  condition
to  27  °CA  BTDC, 
and 40% SR, the engine BSEC dropped to 16.34 MJ/kWh when the DIT shifted to
which was 13.33% lower than the BSEC value measured in the pure diesel mode with the DIT of 17  27 °CA BTDC,
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 9 of 14
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Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

which
was was lower
13.33% 13.33%than
lower than
thethan
BSEC the BSECmeasured
value measured in the pure diesel mode with the17DIT
◦ of
which was 13.33% lower thevalue in the pure
BSEC value measured diesel
in the puremode
dieselwith
mode thewith
DIT the
of DITCAof
17
BTDC°CA BTDC
[9]. [9].
Similarly,Similarly, the
the BSECthe BSEC
reduced reduced by 11.73% when the DIT increased
◦ to 25 °CA BTDC
17 °CA BTDC [9]. Similarly, BSEC by 11.73%by
reduced when the when
11.73% DIT increased
the DIT to 25 CA BTDC
increased under
to 25 °CA the
BTDC
under the medium-load
medium-load condition and condition
80% SRandand 80% SR compared
compared to the corresponding BSEC value in the
under the medium-load condition 80% SRtocompared
the corresponding BSEC value BSEC
to the corresponding in the value
pure diesel
in the
pure diesel
working working
condition. condition. Lower BSEC implies an efficiency promotion in the dual-fuel mode
pure diesel workingLower BSECLower
condition. implies an efficiency
BSEC implies anpromotion
efficiency in the dual-fuel
promotion in themode due to
dual-fuel the
mode
due to theignition
prolonged prolonged ignition
delay and delay flame
higher and higher flame
velocity velocity
owing to owing
the DIT to the DIT[14].
advancing advancing [14].
due to the prolonged ignition delay and higher flame velocity owing to the DIT advancing [14].

26 Low load 1600 rpm

26 Low load
40%1600 rpm
Substitution rate
40%
60% Substitution rate
Substitution rate
24 60% Substitution rate
24
[MJ/kWh]
[MJ/kWh]

22
22
BSEC

20
BSEC

20
18
18
16
16
15 17 19 21 23 25 27
15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Figure 7. Comparison of BSEC with different diesel injection timings under low load.
Figure
Figure7.7. Comparison
Comparison of
of BSEC
BSEC with
with different
differentdiesel
dieselinjection
injectiontimings
timingsunder
underlow
lowload.
load.

10.0 Medium load 1600 rpm

10.0 Medium load
60% 1600 rpm rate
Substitution
60%
80% Substitution
Substitution rate
rate
9.5 80% Substitution rate
[MJ/kWh]

9.5
[MJ/kWh]

9.0
9.0
BSEC
BSEC

8.5
8.5

8.0
8.0

7.5
197.5 15
21 17 23 25 27
19 15
21 17 23 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Figure 8. Comparison of BSEC fordifferent
Figure 8. Comparison of BSEC for differentdiesel
dieselinjection
injectiontimings
timingsunder
undermedium
mediumload.
load.
Figure 8. Comparison of BSEC for different diesel injection timings under medium load.
3.3. Pollutant Emissions
3.3. Pollutant Emissions
3.3. Pollutant Emissions
To compare pollutant emission levels under different operating conditions, the volume
To compare pollutant emission levels under different operating conditions, the volume
To compare
concentrations pollutant
of each emission
discharged levelswere
pollutant under different
converted operating
to specific conditions,
emissions the volume
according to the
concentrations of each discharged pollutant were converted to specific emissions according to the
concentrations
provisions of each discharged
of GB20891-2014. pollutant
The engine were
specific converted
emissions areto specific
mainly emissionsby
determined according
the volume to the
of
provisions of GB20891-2014. The engine specific emissions are mainly determined by the volume of
provisions of GB20891-2014. The engine specific emissions are mainly determined
exhaust pollutant generated and the engine output power. Under the same target operating conditions,by the volume of
exhaust pollutant generated and the engine output power. Under the same target operating
exhaust
as well aspollutant
the samegenerated
quantity ofand the engine
injected NG and output power.variation
pilot diesel, Under the same target
of exhaust operating
pollutants was
conditions, as well as the same quantity of injected NG and pilot diesel, variation of exhaust
conditions,
mainly owing as towell
the as the same
variable power quantity
output of injected
under NG DITs.
different and pilot
As adiesel,
criticalvariation
parameterofaffecting
exhaust
pollutants was mainly owing to the variable power output under different DITs. As a critical
pollutants combustion,
in-cylinder was mainly the owing to the
DIT had variable
a large impactpower
on theoutput under
formation different
of the DITs. As
NG-air-diesel a critical
mixture and
parameter affecting in-cylinder combustion, the DIT had a large impact on the formation of the
parameter
the premixed affecting in-cylinder
combustion process.combustion,
The premixed thecombustion
DIT had a process
large impact
affectson
thethe formation
quality of the
of diffusion
NG-air-diesel mixture and the premixed combustion process. The premixed combustion process
NG-air-dieselwhich
combustion, mixture andaffects
in turn the premixed combustion
the chemical reactionsprocess.
that takeThe premixed
place combustion
in the cylinder. process
The quality
affects the quality of diffusion combustion, which in turn affects the chemical reactions that take
affects
of the quality
in-cylinder of diffusion
combustion combustion,
not only affects thewhich
amount in of
turn affects
each the chemical
pollutant reactions
in the exhaust, butthat
alsotake
the
place in the cylinder. The quality of in-cylinder combustion not only affects the amount of each
place in
output the cylinder.
power The quality of in-cylinder combustion not only affects the amount of each
of the engine.
pollutant in the exhaust, but also the output power of the engine.
pollutant
Figurein9the exhaust,
shows butCO
specific alsoemissions
the output of power of the
the engine engine.in the dual-fuel mode obtained for
working
Figure 9 shows specific CO emissions of the engine working in the dual-fuel mode obtained for
Figure
different 9 shows
DITs. Underspecific CO emissions
the low-load and mediumof theload
engine working
condition, inspecific
the the dual-fuel mode obtained
CO emissions gradually for
different DITs. Under the low-load and medium load condition, the specific CO emissions gradually
different DITs. Under the low-load and medium load condition, the specific CO emissions gradually
decreased in the general trend as the DIT increased. It is well recognized that three key factors are
decreased in the general trend as the DIT increased. It is well recognized that three key factors are
Energies 2019, 12, 2349 10 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

decreased
involved in in the
the general
formation trend as the
of CO, DIT increased.
comprising It is welltemperature
of a sudden recognized that dropthree keycombustible
of the factors are
involved in the formation of CO, comprising of a sudden temperature drop
mixture in the cylinder, a sudden lack of oxidant and the too short reaction time of the combustibleof the combustible mixture
in the cylinder,
mixture a sudden
[19]. Under the lack of oxidant
low-load and the
condition andtoo short
40% SR,reaction time of the
CO emissions combustible
decreased mixture
by 18% when[19].
the
Under the low-load condition and 40% SR, CO emissions decreased
DIT increased from 17 °CA BDTC to 27 °CA BTDC. The improvement in specific CO emissions was by 18% when the DIT increased
from ◦ CA BDTC to 27 ◦ CA BTDC. The improvement in specific CO emissions was mainly due
17 due
mainly to a reduction of incomplete combustion zones in the engine [19,20]. The improvement
to
in aengine
reduction of incomplete
in-cylinder combustion combustion
led to anzones in the
increase in engine
engine [19,20]. The improvement
output power, which in turn in led
engine
to a
in-cylinder combustion led to an increase in engine output power, which
decrease in CO emissions. Under the low-load condition and 60% SR, the CO emissions were lower, in turn led to a decrease in
CO emissions.
compared Under
to the 40% the
SR, low-load
when thecondition
DIT was 23 and°CA60%BTDC,
SR, the 25CO
°CA emissions
BTDC, and were 27lower, compared to
°CA BTDC.
the 40% SR, when the DIT was 23 ◦ CA BTDC, 25 ◦ CA BTDC, and 27 ◦ CA BTDC.
It should be noted that the engine output power cannot reach the target of 4.54 kW under the
It
low-load should be noted
condition withthat the SR.
a 60% engine output even
Therefore, power cannotslightly
though reach the target
lower of 4.54emission
pollutant kW under the
levels
low-load condition
can be achieved with the
under a 60% SR. Therefore,
low-load condition even
and though
60% SR, slightly lower optimization
DIT-based pollutant emission levels
cannot can
be used
be
as the fuel supply strategy because the engine output power cannot meet the target requirementthe
achieved under the low-load condition and 60% SR, DIT-based optimization cannot be used as at
fuel supply strategy because the engine output power cannot meet the
this SR. For medium load conditions with an 80% SR, in-cylinder combustion occurs close to the target requirement at this SR.
For medium loadcharge
homogeneous conditions with an 80%
compression SR, in-cylinder
ignition, combustion
which reduces theoccurs close toofthethe
possibility homogeneous
in-cylinder
charge compression ignition, which reduces the possibility of the
combustible mixture being too rich or too lean. When the DIT is properly advanced (25 °CA in-cylinder combustible mixture
BTDC,
being too rich or too lean. When the DIT is properly advanced (25 ◦ CA BTDC, 27 ◦ CA BTDC), specific
27 °CA BTDC), specific CO emissions can be improved and a relatively low level of emissions can be
CO emissions can be improved and a relatively low level of emissions can be maintained.
maintained.

25
CO Low load and 40% substitution rate
CO Low load and 60% substitution rate
20 CO Medium load and 60% substitution rate
CO Medium load and 80% substitution rate

15
CO [g/kWh]

10

15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Comparison of CO emissions
emissions with
with different
different diesel
dieselinjection
injectiontimings.
timings.

The
The generation
generation of of HC
HC emissions
emissions were were similar
similar toto CO
CO generation
generation [20–23].
[20–23]. Figure
Figure 10
10 shows
shows the
the
specific
specific HC
HC emissions
emissions of of the
the engine
engine working in the dual-fuel mode, obtained obtained forfor different DITs.
Under
Under the
the low-load
low-load and and medium-load
medium-load condition,
condition, specific
specific HCHC emissions
emissions gradually
gradually decreased
decreased asas the
the
DIT increased in the overall trend. With advancing DIT, more premixed natural
DIT increased in the overall trend. With advancing DIT, more premixed natural gas-air and diesel gas-air and diesel
mixture
mixture forms
forms before
before the
the start
start of
of combustion,
combustion, whichwhich shifts
shifts the
the combustion
combustion phasing
phasing towards
towards thethe TDC
TDC
and
and the
the in-cylinder
in-cylinder temperature
temperature is is increased
increased during
during the
the combustion
combustion phasing.
phasing. Then,
Then, HC
HC emission
emission isis
decreased
decreasedinevitably.
inevitably.Under
Underthe the
medium-speed
medium-speed low-load condition
low-load and 40%
condition andSR,40%
specific
SR,HC emissions
specific HC
were maintained
emissions were at around 6.10
maintained at g/kWh.
around Also,
6.10 specific
g/kWh. HC Also,emissions
specific under these conditions
HC emissions under were
these
significantly
conditions were lower than thoselower
significantly produced than with
thoseaproduced
60% SR, due withtoathe
60%more
SR, unburned
due to the methane which
more unburned
resulted
methanefromwhich theresulted
low combustion
from thetemperature.
low combustion For the medium-load
temperature. condition
For the with 80%condition
medium-load SR, whenwiththe
DIT
80%wasSR, advanced
when thetoDIT 19 ◦was
CA BTDC
advanced or later,
to 19the°CA
average
BTDC specific HCthe
or later, emissions
averagewere 2.37 g/kWh,
specific which
HC emissions
was
wereon2.37
parg/kWh,
with those
which produced
was on by parthe 60%
with SR. produced
those Though more natural
by the gasThough
60% SR. is fueled, highnatural
more combustion
gas is
temperature and a combustion
fueled, high combustion reaction
temperature andcan make the natural
a combustion reactiongascanburn
makewell, and thegas
the natural influence of
burn well,
unburned methaneofisunburned
and the influence very slight.methane is very slight.
Energies 2019, 12,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
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14
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18
18 HC Low load and 40% substitution rate
16 HC Low
HC Low load
load and
and 60%
40% substitution
substitution rate
rate
16 HC Medium
HC Low loadload
andand
60%60%
substitution raterate
substitution
14 HC Medium
HC Medium load
load and
and 80%
60% substitution
substitution rate
rate
14 HC Medium load and 80% substitution rate
12

[g/kWh]
12

[g/kWh]
10
10
HCHC 8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
15 17Injection
19 timing
21 [°CA 23
BTDC] 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Figure 10. Comparison of hydrocarbons emissions with different diesel injection timings.
Figure 10. Comparison of hydrocarbons emissions with different
different diesel
diesel injection
injection timings.
timings.
Figure 11 shows the NOx emission of the engine working in the dual-fuel mode obtained for
Figure
different 11 shows
DITs. Under the
shows the NO
the NO xx emission
low-load of the engine
and medium load working
condition,inspecific
the dual-fuel mode
mode obtained
NO x emissions obtained
graduallyfor
different DITs.
DITs. Under the
the low-load
low-load and
and medium
medium load
load condition,
condition,
increased with increasing DIT. It is generally believed that the formation of NO x is favored by thespecific
specific NO
NO xx emissions
emissions gradually
gradually
increased oxygen
abundant with increasing
level, theDIT. It
highestIt is generally
generally believed
is temperature believed that
that the
in the cylinder the formation
formationfrom
resulting of
of NO
NO xx is favoredand
combustion, by the
the
abundant
long reactionoxygentime.level,
If the theDIT
highest temperature
advances, the rapidin the cylinder resulting
combustion period starts fromearlier;
combustion, and the
consequently,
long reaction
reaction time.
time. If
If the DIT advances,
advances, the
the rapid combustion
combustion
pressure increases at a higher rate during the rapid combustion period, leading to a higher period starts earlier; consequently,
pressure
pressureincreases
combustion increases at at
temperature, a higher
a higher rate during
which rate
decreases the rapid
during thethe combustion
sootrapid period,
combustion
emissions (see leading toleading
period,12),
Figure a higher combustion
to
especially a for
higher
the
temperature,
combustion which
temperature, decreases which the soot emissions
decreases the (see
soot Figure
emissions 12),
relative high SR cases. Since the rapid combustion period ends earlier, the post-combustion period especially
(see Figure for
12),the relative
especially high
for SR
the
cases.
relativeSince
high theSR rapid
cases. combustion
Since the period
rapid ends
combustion earlier, the
period post-combustion
ends
and the continual combustion period are extended, leaving more time for the NO x-generation earlier, the period and
post-combustion the continual
period
combustion
reactions—hence,period increased
and the continual are extended,
combustion leaving
period
specific NO more
are time for theleaving
extended,
x emissions. Similar
NOx -generation
more time
findings reactions—hence,
have foralsothebeen increased
NO xexplored
-generation in
specific NO
reactions—hence,
x emissions.increasedSimilar findings
specific NO have also
x emissions.been explored
Similar
previous research [24–28]. On the other hand, the in-cylinder combustion temperature decreased in
findingsprevious
have research
also [24–28].
been On the
explored in
as
other
the hand,
previous the in-cylinder
researchand
SR increased [24–28]. combustion
On the
injecting more other temperature
NGhand, decreased
the in-cylinder
effectively as
reduced combustionthe SR increased
specific NO xtemperature and injecting more
decreased to
emissions. Therefore, as
NG
the effectively
SR increased reduced
and specific
injecting NO
more x emissions.
NG Therefore,
effectively reduced to control
specific
control specific NOx emissions, it is not advisable to advance the DIT too much. The DIT can be specific
NO NO
x emissions.
x emissions, it
Therefore, is not
to
advisable
control to advance
specific NO x the DIT
emissions, too much.
it is not The DIT
advisable can tobe decreased
advance
decreased moderately as long as the output power meets the target requirement. This approach can the moderately
DIT too as
much. longThe as the
DIT output
can be
power
help meets
decreased
achieve the
moderatelytargetbalance
a good requirement.
as as theThis
long between outputapproach
CO, power
HC, and can help
meets
NO theachieve
target arequirement.
good balanceThis
x emissions. As far as soot emission was
between CO, HC,
approach can
and
help NO emissions.
achieve
x a good As far
balance as soot emission
between CO, was
HC, concerned,
and NO x under
emissions.
concerned, under the same speed and load condition with the same DIT, the soot increased with the the same
As speed
far as and
soot load condition
emission was
with the same
concerned,
increase under
of SR. DIT,
This the
the soot
issame
likely increased
speed
a resultandwithload
of thethe increase
condition
lower of SR.
with
initial theThis
charge same is likely
DIT, the
temperatures,a result
sootwhichof thealso
increased lowerwithinitial
leads the
to
charge
increase temperatures,
of SR. This which
is
relatively higher soot levels [29]. likely also
a leads
result to
of relatively
the lower higher
initial soot
charge levels [29].
temperatures, which also leads to
relatively higher soot levels [29].
7
7 NOx
NOand
Low load x 40% substitution rate
NOxand 40% substitution rate
Low load
6
NOand
Low load 60% substitution rate
6 x
Low load and 60% substitution rate
[g/kWh]
[g/kWh]

5
5
x x
NONO

4
4 NOx
Medium load and 60% substitution NO
ratex
3 Medium load and 60% substitutionNO
ratex
3 Medium load and 80% substitution NO
ratex
Medium load and 80% substitution rate
17 19 15 21 23 25 27
17 Injection
19 timing
15 21 [°CA BTDC]
23 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]
Figure 11. Comparison of NOxx emissions
emissions with
with different
different diesel injection timings.
Figure 11. Comparison of NOx emissions with different diesel injection timings.
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0.425
0.400 Soot Low load and 40% substitution rate
0.375 Soot Low load and 60% substitution rate
0.350 Soot Medium load and 60% substitution rate

Soot emission [g/kWh]

0.325 Soot Medium load and 80% substitution rate
0.300
0.275
0.250
0.225
0.200
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Injection timing [°CA BTDC]

Figure 12. Comparison

Figure 12. Comparison of
of soot
soot emissions
emissions with
with different
different diesel
diesel injection
injection timings.
timings.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
For the target engine without EGR and turbocharger, working in NG/diesel dual-fuel mode
For the target engine without EGR and turbocharger, working in NG/diesel dual-fuel mode
with excess air ratio control, advancing the DIT under medium-speed low-load operating conditions
with excess air ratio control, advancing the DIT under medium-speed low-load operating conditions
could increase the output power to meet the target requirement of 4.54 kW achieving 40% SR. Under
could increase the output power to meet the target requirement of 4.54 kW achieving 40% SR. Under
medium-speed medium-load conditions, it was feasible to increase the output power when a relatively
medium-speed medium-load conditions, it was feasible to increase the output power when a
high (80%) SR was obtained. Meanwhile, advancing the DIT could effectively improve fuel economy.
relatively high (80%) SR was obtained. Meanwhile, advancing the DIT could effectively improve fuel
Under medium-speed low-load conditions, along with a 40% SR, the engine BSEC could be effectively
economy. Under medium-speed low-load conditions, along with a 40% SR, the engine BSEC could
improved by 13.33% increasing the DIT to 27 ◦ CA BTDC. Under medium-speed medium-load
be effectively improved by 13.33% increasing the DIT to 27 °CA BTDC. Under medium-speed
conditions with an 80% SR and DIT ≤ 25 ◦ CA BTDC, the engine BSEC decreased with increasing DIT,
medium-load conditions with an 80% SR and DIT ≤ 25 °CA BTDC, the engine BSEC decreased with
which improved fuel efficiency. Moreover, under the medium-speed low-load conditions and 40%
increasing DIT, which improved fuel efficiency. Moreover, under the medium-speed low-load
SR, specific CO, CO2 , HC and soot emissions were effectively reduced as the DIT increased, however,
conditions and 40% SR, specific CO, CO2, HC and soot emissions were effectively reduced as the DIT
specific NOx emissions increased. Under the medium-speed medium-load condition with an 80%
increased, however, specific NOx emissions increased. Under the medium-speed medium-load
SR, specific CO, CO2 , HC and soot emissions were also effectively reduced as the DIT increased but
condition with an 80% SR, specific CO, CO2, HC and soot emissions were also effectively reduced as
accompanied by a dramatic increase in specific NOx emissions. Therefore, advancing DIT before the
the DIT increased but accompanied by a dramatic increase in specific NOx emissions. Therefore,
critical point might be an advisable way to balance the requirements of power output, fuel efficiency
advancing DIT before the critical point might be an advisable way to balance the requirements of
and emissions.
power output, fuel efficiency and emissions.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-H.P.; data curation, Y.-P.H. and J.-H.W.; funding acquisition, Y.-H.P.;
Author Contributions:
investigation, Conceptualization,
H.Z. and Y.-P.H.; methodology, Y.-H.P.; data curation,
H.Z., H.-W.Z. Y.-P.H.
and Y.-H.P.; and J.-H.W.;
project fundingH.-W.Z.
administration, acquisition,
and
Y.-H.P.;
Y.-H.P.;supervision, H.-W.Z.;
investigation, H.Z. writing—original draft, H.Z. and
and Y.-P.H.; methodology, H.Z.,Y.-H.P.
H.-W.Z. and Y.-H.P.; project administration,
H.-W.Z. and
Funding: Y.-H.P.;
This supervision,
research H.-W.Z.;
was supported bywriting—original draft, H.Z.
the Fujian Provincial and Y.-H.P.
Research Program of Industry-University
Partnership (grant No. 2017H6007).
Funding: This research was supported by the Fujian Provincial Research Program of Industry-University
Conflicts of Interest:
Partnership (grant No.The authors declare no conflict of interest.
2017H6007).

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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