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Transistor Fundamentals

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Transistor Modes and their Characteristics
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Dr Sanjai Misra

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 Bipolar Transistor (BJT)
The transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is used for
amplification. The three terminals are named Emitter, Collector and
Base. A transistor is formed when a p-type semi-conductor is
sandwiched between two n-type semi-conductors or vice-versa.
Therefore, the transistor is basically of two types-

(i) PNP Transistor

(ii) NPN Transistor

A PNP transistor is constituted by two p-type semi-conductors

separated by a thin section of a n-type semi-conductor. Similarly, a NPN
transistor is constituted by two n-type semi-conductors separated by a
thin section of a p-type semi-conductor. The thickness of middle part is
kept very small which is called as base.

Functions of terminals:
Emitter:-

(1) Emitter supplies majority carriers to the base of transistor. If

emitter is of p-type, it supplies holes and if emitter is of n-type,
it supplies electrons.
(2) It is heavily doped so that it can emit large number of majority
carriers.
 (3)The size of emitter is moderate i.e. smaller than collector and
larger than base.
(4)The emitter is always forward biased with respect to base.

Collector:-

(1) Collector is the terminal which collects those majority carriers,

which are supplied by emitter, from base.
(2) It is moderately doped (having doping less than that of emitter
and greater than base.
(3) Its size is kept largest as compared to emitter and base.
(4) It is always kept reverse biased with respect to base.

Base:-

(1) It is the section which lies between emitter and collector.

(2) It is lightly doped.
(3) Its size is kept smallest.
(4)The emitter-base junction is always forward biased hence
provides low resistance path to emitter current whereas the
collector-base junction is always revers biased hence provides
high output resistance.

Note:-
(a) Forward voltage across emitter-base junction is generally kept small
because of low input resistance while reverse voltage across collector-base
junction is kept large because of high output resistance.

(b) When the transistor is in operation, large amount of heat is generated

across the collector. If this heat is not radiated then the transistor may burn
out. Hence the area of the collector is made large so as to radiate heat
quickly.
 Current Flow Mechanism in Transistor
For studying the current flow mechanism in transistors, the emitter-
base junction should be forward biased with small forward voltage and
collector-base junction should be reverse biased with large reverse
voltage.

(a) PNP Transistor:-When E-B junction of the transistor is forward

biased, the holes (which are
majority carriers in p-type
emitter) move from emitter to
base (shown by solid arrows).
Most of them are attracted
towards the collector since C-B
junction is reverse biased. Such
motion of holes in PNP transistor,
from base to collector, constitutes the collector current ( 𝐼𝐶 ).
However, few holes (which are supplied by emitter)
combine with the electrons of base and constitute the base
current (𝐼𝐵 ). This base current is very small (≈ µ𝐴) as the base of
the transistor is lightly doped and also it is very thin.
Hence the convention current in PNP transistor flows
from emitter to collector (direction of motion of holes) i.e. inside
the transistor.

(b) NPN Transistor:-

Here emitter is of n-type material hence it supplies majority
carrier electrons to base (shown by dotted arrows). Most of these
electrons are attracted towards the collector since C-B junction is
 highly reverse biased. Such motion of electrons in NPN transistor,
from base to collector, constitutes the collector current (𝐼𝐶 ).
Hence in NPN transistor
majority carrier electrons of n-
type emitter enters the base,
few of them combine with the
holes of p-type base giving rise
to small base current(𝐼𝐵 ), while
most of them are collected by
collector.

Since conventional current flows opposite to the

direction of motion of electrons, therefore, when emitter emits
majority carrier electrons to base, the current (𝐼𝐸 ) comes out from
emitter.

So in the symbolic representation of

transistor an arrow is shown in the emitter
terminal. In PNP transistor, the arrow is
directed inside & towards the base of the (Symbol of PNP Transistor)
transistor while in NPN transistor, this
arrow is directed outwards from base to
emitter as shown in figures.

If 𝐼𝐸 , 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐶 are the emitter, base &

collector currents respectively, then (Symbol of NPN Transistor)

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
 Modes of Transistor Connections
A transistor can be connected in three ways:-
(i) Common Base Arrangement/Mode/Connection
(ii) Common Emitter Arrangement/Mode/Connection
(iii) Common Collector Arrangement/Mode/Connection

In C-B mode, the base of the transistor is kept common to I/P and O/P.
In C-E mode, the emitter is kept common to I/P and O/P.
In C-C mode, the collector is kept common to I/P and O/P.
Characteristics of the Transistor :- The curves, showing variation
of currents & voltages and which are used for the study of working and
applications of the transistor also, are called characteristics.

Characteristics of Transistor in C-B Arrangement:-

Experimental Circuit of transistor in C-B mode:-
In C-B connection of transistor, the collector current 𝐼𝐶 is the output
current and emitter current 𝐼𝐸 is the input current.

Three characteristics of transistor in C-B arrangement:-

(i) Input Characteristics:-
It is the curve between Input current 𝐼𝐸 and
𝑉𝐸𝐵 at constant𝑉𝐶𝐵 . This shows that 𝐼𝐸
increases rapidly with small increase in𝑉𝐸𝐵 ,
it means that the input resistance is very
small.

ΔVEB
input resistance(ri ) = ( )
ΔIE at constant V
CB
(ii) Output Characteristics:-
It is the curve between collector
current 𝐼𝐶 (i.e. output current) and
𝑉𝐶𝐵 at constant emitter current 𝐼𝐸 .
Initially 𝐼𝐶 increases with increase in
𝑉𝐶𝐵 and then it becomes constant for
a particular value of 𝐼𝐸 .
ΔVCB
Output resistance(rO ) = ( )
ΔIC at constant 𝐼E
Output resistance for C-B connection is very high.
(iii) Trans-Mutual Characteristics:-It is a curve between input
current 𝐼𝐸 and output current 𝐼𝐶 at constant
𝑉𝐶𝐵 which is a straight line. The slope of this
curve determines the current gain (𝛼) of
transistor in C-B mode.
 Characteristics of Transistor in C-E Arrangement:-
Experimental Circuit of transistor in C-E mode

The circuit diagram of PNP transistor in common emitter arrangement is as

shown in figure. Here 𝐼𝐵 & 𝐼𝐶 are the input and output currents respectively.

Three characteristics of transistor in C-E arrangement:-

(i) Input Characteristics:-
The curve showing variation of input current
𝐼𝐵 with 𝑉𝐵𝐸 at constant 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is called I/P
characteristic of transistor in C-E mode as
shown.
ΔVBE
input resistance(ri ) = ( )
ΔI𝐵 at constant VCE

(ii) Output Characteristics:- The curve

showing variation of output current 𝐼𝐶 with
𝑉𝐶𝐸 at constant 𝐼𝐵 is called output
characteristics in C-E mode of transistor.
Initially, the collector current increases with
increase in 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , after a particular value it gets
saturated.
ΔVCE
Output resistance(rO ) = ( )
ΔIC at constant 𝐼𝐵
Trans-Mutual Characteristics:- The curve showing
variation of 𝐼𝐶 with 𝐼𝐵 is called trans-mutual characteristics.
It is a straight line whose slope gives the current gain (𝛽) of
the transistor in C-E mode.