C4 Female sexual anatomy

● Vulva: external female genitalia

○ Labia: two pairs of skin that fold down and around the vulva
■ Outer labia (or labia majora) are filled with mostly fatty tissue and contain hair
on their surface; less sensitive and usually darker in appearance
■ Inner labia (or labia minora) are thin, hairless and are only fully visible after
parting the outer labia; contain more glands, blood vessels, and nerve endings;
vary in length
○ Mons: covered with a thin layer of fat, which functions primarily as cushioning during
sex; pubic hair primarily exists to trap bacteria in the region and to prevent the bacteria
from entering the introitus of the vagina; also vaporizes odors from sweat glands around
the pubic area that are thought to contain pheromones
○ Clitoris: the glans, is located directly under the clitoral hood, which resides at the front
of the vestibule where the inner labia meet; the glans and shaft becomes engorged with
blood and erect during sexual arousal
■ Shaft: connects to glans to the more internal structures of clitoris
■ Corpus spongiosum: erectile tissue inside the glans;responsible for making the
size of the clitoris expand during sexual arousal.
■ The erectile tissue within the shaft of the clitoris is composed of two corpora
cavernosa, which operate to make the clitoris erect during sexual arousal
■ Crura (singular "crus"), which are approximately three inches long and give the
clitoris a wishbone-like structure; wrap partially around the urethra
■ Vestibular bulbs are curved masses residing beneath the crura; are composed
of corpus spongiosum tissue that becomes erect during sexual arousal; erection
helps to lengthen and stiffen the vagina during sexual arousal
*Whereas the clitoral glans, hood, and shaft are all external, the crura and vestibular
bulbs are considered to be the internal structures of the clitoris
● Vaginal Introitus (opening)
○ Hymen: membranous fold of skin; variety of shapes and sizes; at least one opening that
allows for the exit of menstrual blood after the onset of menses
■ Imperforate hymen: completely covers the opening of the vagina and will have
to be surgically opened at puberty
○ Urethra: resides between the vaginal opening and the clitoris; excrete urine from the
bladder. It is a separate opening in the vulva exclusively for urine
■ Urethral opening connects to the urethra and bladder
■ Vaginal opening: the connecting point between the interior and exterior female
genitalia; leads to the vaginal canal
○ Cystitis(urinary tract infection): occurs when E. coli bacteria invade the urethra and
bladder, causing frequent, painful urination; often caused by irritation of the urinary
meatus due to prolonged or frequent intercourse and by the use of spermicides which
 can alter the vaginal flora, causing the proliferation of E. coli. Anal intercourse followed
by vaginal intercourse can also cause UTIs
○ Perineum: resides between the vagina and anus; can be erotically sensitive; can also
enable the transport of bacteria from the anus to the vagina
○ Bartholin's gland: located on either side of the vaginal introitus; anatomically
homologous to the bulbourethral glands in males and are responsible for secreting
minute amounts of alkaline fluid into the vagina immediately prior to orgasm. This fluid
is not the basis for vaginal lubrication, however, and its exact function is not known.
○ Pubococcygeus (PC) muscle is an especially important pelvic floor muscle (sling
supports the pelvic organs) that steadily contracts during sex and helps to stiffen the
walls of the vagina, making them more erotically sensitive. During orgasm, the
pubococcygeus muscle rhythmically contracts; contractions help to keep semen in the
vagina. Preventing urine from escaping (incontinence)-Kegel exercises
● Vaginal canal
○ Layers of vagina
■ Mucosa(innermost layer):responsible for producing lubrication during sexual
arousal
■ Intermediate muscular layer: tightens in order to wrap more tightly around the
penis during coitus
■ Outermost layer is more tough and elastic
■ Vasocongestion: swell with blood during sexual arousal
■ Vagina contains millions of "good" bacteria that help maintain its slightly acidic
environment. During the most fertile time in cycle, the vagina becomes less
acidic so as to not damage sperm
■ The vagina is naturally self-cleaning and does so via an odorless discharge that
changes in color and texture depending on where a female is in her cycle.
Douching can allow the naturally occurring microbes in the vagina to overgrow,
leading to candidiasis, which causes inflammation of the vaginal walls, itching
and sometimes a thick, whitish discharge. Other factors that can throw off the
PH level and cause candidiasis include stress, hormone changes related to
pregnancy or birth control pills, diabetes and antibiotics
○ G (Grafenberg)-spot: resides on the front wall of vagina
■ Paraurethral glands (Skene's gland): anatomically comparable to the prostate
gland in men; sometimes release a fluid that is secreted from the glands into the
urethra during an orgasm via stimulation of her G-spot. Fluid combined with
some urine, are then pushed out of the urethral opening during orgasm known
as female ejaculation
● Anus: located behind the vagina; made up of internal and external sphincter muscles that
control excretion. It is important to note that for sexual purposes
○ The inner sphincter is not under voluntary control and needs time to open and relax
during anal intercourse/ The exterior sphincter is voluntary
○ Rectum: located posterior to the vagina; lined with mucosa, the inner cellular lining does
not produce any lubrication, making the area susceptible to tearing. Like the vagina, the
outer portion of the anus has more nerves and blood vessels than the inner portion,
making it more sexually erotic/ transport fecal matter (stored in colon) out of the body
● Uterus: suspended by a broad ligament in the abdominal cavity in a horizontal position, slanted
slightly forward/ A tipped uterus is one which slants instead toward the spine, usually as a
result of genetics
○ Layer of uterus
■ Endometrium (innermost): help transport sperm up toward the site of
fertilization and a source of nourishment for an implanted embryo; the inner
lining changes during a female's menstrual cycle. During the first part of a cycle,
it tends to change from being thin and slippery to becoming thicker and richer. A
portion is then shed during menstruation, exiting the body through the cervix
and vagina
■ Myometrium (middle): consists of a powerful muscular wall; contracts during
labor, orgasm, menstruation and occasionally ovulation
■ Perimetrium: (outer) separates uterus from the pelvic cavity
○ Cervix: During the fertile times of menstrual cycle, feel soft and gently parted; During all
other times, feels more firm and closed
○ Cervical os: the portion of the cervix that connects the vagina with the cervical canal,
which runs through the center of the cervix into the uterus; contains numerous mucous
glands, which excrete different types of mucus depending on where a female is in her
menstrual cycle. This mucus is slightly acidic, preserving the sterile uterine environment.
Immediately prior to ovulation, the cervical os excretes muscin ("fertile mucus"),
facilitates the rapid transport of sperm into the uterus and oviducts, and allows
pregnancy to occur even when sperm is deposited near the vagina
○ Cervical cancer: 100% caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually
transmitted infection (STI); Gardasil: vaccine that completely protects against HPV
○ Endometrial cancer: most common cancer of female reproductive organs
○ Non-cancerous conditions of uterus
■ Fibroids: tumors of smooth muscle that tend to grow on the endometrium, in
the myometrium or near the outer surface of the uterus; symptoms usually
include pain and bleeding in the area
■ Endometriosis: involves the growing of endometrial tissue in abnormal places
causes pain, bleeding, and irritation to surrounding tissue
■ Prolapse: involves the downward sagging of the uterus into the vagina and is
caused by the weakening of the ligaments that support both it and the pelvic
floor
● Oviducts: (fallopian tubes) a pathway between the uterus and ovaries; usual location of
fertilization; lined with cells called cilia, tiny, hairlike structures that function to push the ovum
(egg) toward the uterus. As the oviducts approach the ovaries, each widens into a flared
opening with fingerlike extensions, fimbria, lined with cilia that sweep the ovum into the
oviducts
○ Ectopic pregnancy: embryo implant in the lining of the oviduct
○ Site of tubal ligation (sterilization)
● Ovaries: gonads produce ova amd sex hormones; sex hormones include estrogens, androgens,
and progestins and are secreted in a complex sequence which guides the stages of the
menstrual cycle; contains a number of follicles, and inside each is an ovum, surrounded by fluids
and supporting cells. Each individual ovum bears an X chromosome/ contain theca and
granulosa cells, both of which produce sex steroids
 ○ Ovulation: one (usually) follicle ripens fully and releases its ovum into the oviducts;
after discharging its ova, the remaining follicle then becomes a corpus luteum (黃體)
and assumes sex steroid production, then disintegrate and are reabsorbed by the body.
● Breasts (mammary glands): secondary sex characteristic; breast tissue resides between the
skin and muscle of the chest wall and in some cases, expands up toward the armpits
○ Lobes (lobules): contain clusters of alveoli, lined with glandular cells, whose chief
function is to produce milk
○ Areola: circular patch of darker skin around nipple
 ○ Breast cancer: The lump (tumor) is malignant (causing cancer) if the cells invade
surrounding tissues or metastasize to distant areas of the body; typically begin in the
ducts that carry milk to the nipple; however, some start in the lobes/ Symptoms usually
include a lump in the breast, discharge from the nipple, and/or reddened, wrinkled skin

C5 Male sexual anatomy

● Penis
○ Glans, corona, frenulum: glans is the head of the penis, resides on top of the penile
shaft; partially covered by a loose fold of skin called the foreskin (removal-
circumcision). Encircling the glans is a rim of tissue, corona. On the underside of the
penis, the corona moves in closer to the tip of the penis, creating a strip of looser skin,
frenulum. The corona and frenulum tend to be the most erotically sensitive areas
○ Penile shaft: contains three structures all bound together by connective tissue. A pair of
corpora cavernosa, harden during arousal, control the angle of erection while allowing
for penetration. The center of the penis and into the glans is the corpus spongiosum
which enlarges during erection. At the end of the penis, it forms a rounded mass of
erectile tissue called the penile bulb. Within this structure, the two corpora cavernosa
diverge into two crura
■ Pelvic floor muscles play an important role in sexual function. In particular, the
ischiocavernosus muscle affects the angle of erection and allows for voluntary
movement of the penis. The bulbospongiosus and pubococcygeu muscle are
involved in the process of orgasm and ejaculation
■ Urethra: runs through the center of the shaft of the penis, which serves the
double function of discharging both semen and urine. Urine naturally makes the
urethra acidic, which helps to control bacteria growth
○ Mechanics of erection
■ genital end-bulbs: highly concentrated sensory nerve endings responsive to
tactile stimulation; dense around the corona and in the frenulum. All of the
genital receptors relevant to erection are triggered by a spinal reflex and part of
the autonomic nervous system. Males who have suffered spinal injuries are still
often able to develop erections; erections triggered by mental imagery or erotic
thoughts is not possible for males with severe spinal injuries because brain
directly involved
■ Erections involve display of hydraulics. Within the corpora cavernosa are tiny
spaces called sinusoids that fill with blood during erection. During an erection's
formative stage, these arteries open in order to pool blood into the corpora
cavernosa. Meanwhile, the veins of the penis that carry blood out close,
allowing for the penis to vasocongest and grow erect. The neurotransmitter
involved is nitric oxide. Priapism, an erection sustained for a long period in the
absence of stimulation, can cause damage because the erectile tissue has no
blood flow.
■ Erections accompany the REM phase of sleep, regardless of dream content
○ Penile disorders
 ■ Balanitis: inflammation of the glans and occurs most frequently in
uncircumcised males. Between the foreskin and head of the penis are the
Tyson's glands, which secrete smegma, a mucus-like substance. If not cleaned
properly, this substance can cause irritation or an infection
■ Phimosis: inability to retract foreskin to expose the glans; only a serious
problem when it prevents the flow of urine. Balanitis may cause phimosis in
adult males; can be painful and require medical attention
■ Paraphimosis: is the opposite of phimosis—foreskin becoming trapped behind
the glans; more dangerous because it can limit the blood supply to the glans
and cause tissue death
■ Peyronie's disease: unnatural curvature of the penis, caused by scar tissue in
the corpus cavernosa. Usually this scar tissue is a result of trauma and can
cause pain and in extreme cases, prevent penetrative sex
● Scrotum: testicle connects to important internal organs via spermatic cord(精索). Within it a
tube called the vas deferens (輸精管) carries mature sperm up from the testicles and nourishes
the testicles via a vast supply of arteries and veins. Testicular torsion, which causes crunching
or twisting of these areas, can result in significant damage/ spermatic cord connects via inguinal
canal, through the abdominal wall and into the groin. Wrapped around spermatic cord is
cremaster muscle, contracts involuntarily at orgasm, keeping sperm at their ideal temperature
○ Testicles(睪丸): produce sperm (spermatogenesis) and sex steroids; spermatogenesis
begins in the walls of seminiferous tubules. As sperm mature, they migrate into lumen.
In between seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells: responsible for making sex
steroids, primarily testosterone
■ Sperm that are not ejaculated simply break down and are reabsorbed into the
body; require an alkaline (nonacid) environment to survive
○ Epididymis(副睪): Once mature, sperm migrate from the lumen into the epididymis, a
curved structure that attaches to the bottom and top surface of the testicle; Sperm
remain in convoluted tubule, becoming more concentrated with other sperm until they
form a paste-like mass. Sperm also mature during this period until they are partially
able to move
○ Disorders of testicles
■ Testicular cancer occurs when cancer cells begin to grow uncontrollably into a
tumor in testes; can eventually invade the bloodstream and lymph system,
enabling the cancer to spread to other parts of body; usually detected as a
painless lump; may also feel a dull ache or heavy sensation in their lower
abdomen; highly curable
■ Epididymitis: inflammation of the epididymis due to infection from bacteria
■ Orchitis: inflammation of the testicle due to infection. Epididymitis and orchitis
often co-occur. The virus that causes mumps also can cause orchitis.
■ Hydrocele: usually harmless swelling of the testicle that occurs in reaction to
fluid becoming trapped around the testicle membranes
■ Varicocele: enlargement of the veins around the testicle
 ● Accessory glands: After about a week, sperm move from the epididymis up into the base of the
vas deferens, where they remain in storage until immediately prior to ejaculation
○ Seminal vesicle(精囊): reside behind the bladder; combine with vas deferens to form
ejaculatory ducts; secrete a fluid that contains fructose and prostaglandins, which
enable the motility and viability of the sperm/ Semen contains a high concentration of
prostaglandins: chemical messengers, for motility and viability for sperm
○ Prostate gland(前列腺): (equivalent of the Skene's gland) controls its coagulation to
ensure that clots do not form. The alkaline fluid serves to maintain sperm's viability and
helps to counteract the naturally acidic environments of the urethra and vagina. The
ducts from the prostate and the seminal vesicles do not open during urination
■ Prostate cancer: typically include difficulty urinating, blood in urine or semen
and pain in the lower back or hips; highly treatable
■ Prostatitis: non-cancerous condition; inflammation of the prostate and usually
causes pain during ejaculation or urination and can lead to ongoing pain in the
lower back or pelvis; frequently caused by a urinary tract infection.
■ Benign prostatic hyperplasia ("enlarged prostate"): affecting old men; constrict
the urethra as it passes through the prostate causing weak urine flow, urgency
and high frequency; non-cancerous
○ Semen (ejaculate): 30% prostatic fluid, 70% seminal fluids, and less than 1% (about
300M) sperm. Each sperm consists of a head, which contains the nucleus, and a tail
flagellum, which propels it forward. Surrounding the top of the head is an acrosome,
which contains important receptors and enzymes that facilitate fertilization. At the part
of the flagellum closest to the head is the midpiece, tightly wound with mitochondria
that supply energy for the sperm.
○ Bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands): located below the prostate gland; “pre-cum”;
secretions are not part of semen; lubricant; neutralize acidic environments of the male's
urethra and vagina in order to ensure the viability of sperm; no sperm, but easily absorbs
sperm left in the urethra from recent prior ejaculations->can still cause pregnancy if it
comes into contact with female genitals or cervical mucus
● Ejaculation (emission): caused by a series of rhythmic contractions of the muscles surrounding
the urethra and pelvic floor. Immediately prior to emission, fluids from the vas deferens, seminal
vesicles and prostate gland are expelled into the urethra creating semen; urethral sphincter at
the base of the bladder constricts, forcing semen out of the body

C6 Sex, gender, and gender identity

● Sexual development
○ Reproductive tract: At about six weeks after conception, both XX and XY embryos have
undifferentiated gonads (ovotestes/bipotential gonads) and Mullerian ducts (precursor
to the female reproductive tract) and Wolffian duct (male). These ducts run from the
gonads to the site of the external genitalia. Gonads may develop into ovaries or testes
 ■ In a male embryo at approximately 7w after conception, the sex-determining
region of the Y chromosome (SRY gene) with many other genes, directs the
initial differentiation of the bipotential gonads into male testes. In a female
embryo, the bipotential gonads begin developing into ovaries/ the "default"
pathway for sex development is female
■ Male: at about 8-12 w, the developing testes begin secreting anti-Mullerian
hormone (AMH) causing the Mullerian ducts to begin degenerating. At about
12-14 w, testes begin secreting testosterone, triggering the Wolffian ducts to
each develop into epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and the prostate
gland to begin development/ Female: the absence of testosterone allows the
Mullerian ducts to remain intact, progressing to develop into the oviducts,
uterus, cervix, upper part of the vagina, but causes the Wolffian ducts to
degenerate
■ Cryptorchidism: testicles not fully descended
○ External genitalia
■ At 4w after conception, the external genitalia of both genders look the same
and consists of an anogenital area with a slit, cloaca: closed by a membrane and
enveloped by two urethral folds: genital swelling to the side. At the top in the
midline of the cloaca is a protrusion, genital tubercle. At about six weeks, the
urethral folds fuse together at the rear, creating a urogenital sinus in front of
the fusion point: serves as the precursor for the external genitalia in both
genders. Behind the fusion point an anal fold forms that will become the anus.
The area between the anal fold and the urogenital sinus will become the
perineum.
■ Females: at about five months, the absence of testosterone causes the genital
swelling to develop into the outer labia; urethral folds develop into the inner
labia, the outer third of the vagina, and the crura; genital tubercle develops into
the glans of the clitoris; cloacal membrane left becomes the hymen
■ Male: genital swelling fuses at the midline, creating the scrotum; urethral folds
fuse and elongate, forming the shaft of the penis; genital tubercle expands to
form the glans of the penis; prostate develops from urethra primordia that
becomes the paraurethral glands (Skene's gland) in females
○ Brain: hypothalamus is a gland that is central to sex differentiation. Males: estradiol,
formed from testosterone, suppresses the potential for cyclic hormone production by
altering the sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) in the hypothalamus->potential for a
menstrual cycle lost. Females: the hypothalamus is protected from estrogens by
fetonatal binding protein (FNBP)->potential for cycling hormone production and
menstrual cycle
○ Puberty: hormone leptin, secreted by fat cells, triggers hypothalamic neurons to begin
secreting a signaling molecule-kisspeptin, triggers the release of another hormone-
GnRH, causes the pituitary to release gonadotropins, cause the gonads in both genders
to begin producing massive amounts of sex steroids, including androgens and
estrogens-interact with the genetic code for the secondary sex characteristics/ male sex
steroid production: non-cyclic; females: cyclic (menstrual cycle)
● Intersexuality
 ○ Atypical sex chromosomes: happens when early cell division of ova or sperm, or first
cell division after fertilization, produces embryos with atypical numbers or combinations
of sex chromosomes.
■ Klinefelter syndrome: XXY or XXXY; tend to have smaller penises and testicles,
lower testosterone levels, sparse body hair, and gynecomastia (breast
development); lower sperm count, decreased fertility, delayed or absent
puberty. Sometimes slow motor development and/or delayed speech also
occurs. Testosterone administered during adolescence often causes body shape
to become more typically masculine and can improve sex drive.
■ Turner Syndrome : possesses one X chromosome and no Y chromosome (XO);
happens when an ovum containing no sex chromosome is fertilized by an X
sperm; short/webbed neck, lowered ears, low neck hairline, shortened height,
and swollen hands or feet at birth; most are infertile and often only develop
menstrual cycles with hormonal therapies; typically don't have ovaries and don't
enter puberty without medical assistance/ Androgens can increase height;
estrogen can promote breast development and menstruation
■ XYY Syndrome: genital irregularities and decreased fertility, often accompanied
by slight mental retardation and autism
■ Triple X Syndrome: mild cognitive deficits and fertility is usually low
○ Respond differently to hormones
■ Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): lacks an enzyme in the adrenal glands,
releasing atypically large amounts of androgens in the latter part of fetal
development; usually causes partial masculinization of the genitals in XX,
leading to enlarged clitoris and partially fused labia and infertility/ treatments
possible
■ Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): occurs when the tissues in the XY
fetus do not respond to testosterone->do not develop into typical male and
female; shallow vaginal pouch, a clitoris, a non-cyclic hormone status, and
testes that never descend; usually detected when a seemingly typical
adolescent female does not start menstruating->genetic male
■ 5-Alpha Reductase Deficiency: occurs when a child is born as a female but
naturally develops into a male at puberty; caused by a genetic mutation in which the
body doesn’t convert testosterone to 5α-reductase
● Negative impact of gender stereotypes: sexism/ misogyny: hatred or dislike of women
○ Gender gaps
■ boys historically have tended to perform higher on math achievement tests than
girls->stereotype threat
■ vast differences in pay and job opportunities
● Transgender: trans man/ trans woman/ gender non-binary (gender queer)
○ Gender dysphoria: distress experienced because of the discordance between bodies and
gender identity

C7 Sexual orientation
● Defining sexual orientation
○ Pansexual: attraction toward persons of all gender identities and biological sexes/
polyamorous: attracted toward having multiple, consensually non-monogamous
relationships/ queer is used by people who are not heteronormative or gender-binary
and aim to transcend traditional gender roles
○ Models of sexual orientation
■ Kinsey scale (<->dichotomous categories model)->continuum/ vectors model
■ Klein's Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG): sexual orientation is fluid, measured in
terms of "past", "present" and "idealized future" states; many aspects, ex:
romantically, sexually
○ Cultural variants of same-sex behavior
■ Transgenerational vs. intragenerational ("Rite of Passage"). (SSB between
people of different ages vs. SSB between peers.)
■ Gender-conforming vs. nonconforming- both partners have the same gender
and one partner expresses traits typically associated with a different gender.
■ Extramarital vs. contramarital. Extramarital: a person maintains a heterosexual
marriage and engages in SSB in outside relationships/ Contramarital: an
individual is not expected (or refuses) to maintain a heterosexual marriage and
instead enters into an informal or formal same-sex marriage
■ Fixed role vs. fluid sexual role. Fixed: partners who assume permanent
top/bottom (insertive/receptive) roles ("straight" vs non-heterosexual status)/
Fluid roles: both partners engage in the full range of sexual behavior and one's
role during sex does not influence one's status (both "gay”)
● Etiology of sexual orientation
○ Hormones, Brain Structure, and Genes Predict Sexual Orientation
■ Prenatal hormone theory: sexual orientation reflects brain differentiation that
occurs in response to circulating levels of androgens in the prenatal
environment; when androgen levels are present beyond a certain threshold,
fetuses become gynephilic (sexually attracted to females)->adults primarily
heterosexual men and lesbian women)\/ below the threshold (most females,
some males), androphilic (sexually attracted to males)->gay males and straight
females
■ Females: hypothalamus regulates sex hormones and the menstrual cycle
Males: medial preoptic area(in the front of hypothalamus), responsible for
sexual behavior and selection of sexual partners; cell group INAH3, the size
determined by circulating androgen levels during the prenatal period, volume
significantly larger in males than in females->size to gay men is similar to
women
○ The Maternal Immune Response and Sexual Orientation
■ Fraternal birth order (FBO) effect: gay men have more older brothers than do
heterosexual men; may be due to a maternal immune response to XY
pregnancy, triggered specifically in reaction to the protein H-Y antigen, which is
coded for by the Y chromosome; as a result of the mother's allergic response,
maternal antibodies remain in the mother that alter the development of the
 anterior hypothalamus offuture male offspring, causing a de-masculinization of
the brain
○ Exotic becomes erotic (EBE): homosexuality occurs when genes, hormones, and
neuroanatomy cause a child to have a temperament that is sex-atypical and more like
that of their opposite-sex peers (bem model)
● History of gay rights movement
○ Stonewall Riots are viewed by many historians as the official start of the Gay Rights
Movement
○ Important legal decisions
■ Lawrence vs. Texas (2002): The Supreme Court says that state laws banning
gay sex were unconstitutional (overruled Bowers and Hardwick (1986), which
upheld the constitutionality of sodomy law.)
■ Obergefell vs. Hodges (2016): The Supreme Court legalized gay marriage
● Social prejudice
○ Stereotyped belief : "lesbians are all man-haters."
○ Negative attitude: "gays/lesbians should not be allowed to be teachers/nurses/adoptive
parents"
○ Discriminatory actions: denied employment, housing, medical care, military
○ Verbal abuse: anti-gay graffiti, name-calling, harassment
○ Hate crime: gay bashing, physical assault, sexual assault
○ There is no federal law that bans discrimination against LGBTQ people