OC Unit 2 Solved

Regulation 2013 Academic Year 2017-2018
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GANGARAMPALAYAM, VILLUPURAM-605108
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
QUESTION BANK
SUBJECT CODE : EC6702 SEM : VII
SUBJECT NAME : Optical Communication and Networking YEAR: IV
UNIT II SIGNAL DEGRADATION OPTICAL FIBERS
(100% THEORY)
Syllabus: Attenuation - Absorption losses, Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding
losses, Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group Delay-
Material Dispersion, Wave guide Dispersion, Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode
dispersion, Intermodal dispersion, Pulse Broadening in GI fibers-Mode Coupling -Design Optimization
of SM fibers-RI profile and cut-off wavelength.
PART-A
Attenuation
1. What is the Significance of Attenuation? (K) (C402.2)
Signal attenuation is one of the most important properties of an optical fiber, because it
largely determines the maximum repeaterless separation between a transmitter and a
receiver. Since repeaters are expensive to fabricate, install, and maintain, the degree
attenuation in a fiber has a large influence on system cost. The distortion mechanisms in a
fiber cause optical signal pulse to broaden as they travel along a fiber.
2. Write about the Radiation attenuation coefficient expression. (K) (C402.2)
The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient which has
the form. αr = c 1 exp ( -c2 R )
Where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend and c 1 and c2 are constants which are
independent of R. Furthermore, large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a
critical radius of curvature R, which may be estimated from:
Rc = 3n1 2 λ /4π (n1 2 - n2 2 )
3. Define signal attenuation. (K) (C402.2) (Apr/May’15)
Attenuation of light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in
the design of an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining
the maximum transmission distance between a transmitter and receiver. The basic
attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are absorption, scattering, and radiative losses of the
optical energy.
4. What is the Mechanism responsible for signal attenuation? (S) (C402.2)
The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are absorption, scattering, and radiative
losses of the optical energy. Absorption is related to the fiber material, whereas scattering is
associated both with the fiber material and with structural imperfections in the optical
IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

waveguide. Attenuation owing to radiative effects originates from perturbations (both

microscopic and macroscopic) of the fiber geometry.
5. Write the expression for fiber attenuation. (K) (C402.2)
It is the ratio of the optical output power from a fiber length L to the optical input power.
This power ratio is a function of wavelength. The symbol α is commonly used to express
attenuation in decibels per kilometer. The expression for fiber attenuation is,
10  P 
 log  in 
L  Pout 
Where Pin – input power
Pout – output power
6. An optical signal at a specific wavelength has lost 55 percent of its power after
traversing 3.5km of fiber. What is the attenuation in dB/km of this fiber? (S) (C402.2)
Solution:
From given information Pout =0.45Pin
10  P 
 log  in 
L  Pout 
10  1 
 log  
3.5km  0.45 
 1 db / km
7. A fiber has an attenuation of 0.5dB/km at 1500nm. If 0.5mW of optical power is
initially launched into the fiber, what is the power level in after 25km? (A) (C402.2)
(Nov/Dec’15)
Solution:
10  P 
 log  in 
L  Pout 
10  0.5mW 
0.5db / km  log  
25km  0.45 
0.5
0.5mW
10 10 
Pout
 4.45mW
Absorption losses
8. Name three different mechanism caused by absorption. (K) (C402.2)
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:
1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material
The dominant absorption factor in fibers prepared by the direct melt method is the
presence of impurities in the fiber material.
9. Mention the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers. (K) (C402.2)
There are three losses in the optical fibers due to attenuation. They are
 Absorption losses – The dominant absorption factor in fibers prepared by the direct melt
method is the presence of impurities in the fiber material. Absorption of light may be
intrinsic or extrinsic.
 Scattering losses - Microscopic variation in the material density.
 Bending losses - If any bending present in the fiber while cabling, the optical power get
radiated.
10. Write the different types of absorption. (K) (C402.2)
Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-material properties. If an
optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption
would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.
Extrinsic absorption: Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber
material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the
fiber during fabrication.
11. What are the causes of absorption? (K) (C402.2) (Nov/Dec’16)
Absorption is caused by two different mechanisms.
 Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-material properties. If
an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all
absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.
 Extrinsic absorption: Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the
fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced
into the fiber during fabrication.
12. What are atomic defects? (K) (C402.2)
Atomic defects are imperfections of the atomic structure of the fiber material such as
missing molecules, high-density clusters of atom groups, or oxygen defects in the glass
structure. Usually absorption losses arising from these defects are negligible compared to
intrinsic and impurity absorption effects. However, they can be significant if the fiber is
exposed to intense nuclear radiation.
13. What is the measure of information capacity in optical wave guide? (S) (C402.2)
It is usually specified by bandwidth distance product in MHz. For a step index fiber the
various distortion effects tend to limit the bandwidth distance product to 20MHz. The term
dispersion refers to spreading of light pulse as it propagates through fiber. It introduces ISI.
It limits the information carrying capacity of the fiber. In addition multimode fibers are
subject to higher order mode losses owing to perturbations at core cladding interface.
14. What is the significance of absorption band? (S) (C402.2)
Only significant absorption band in the region below a wavelength of 1 µ m is the
second overtone at 0.95 µ m which causes attenuation of about I dB km - 1 for one part per
million (ppm) of hydroxyl. It may be observed that the lowest attenuation for this fiber

occurs at a wavelength of 1.55 µ m and is 0.2 dB km-1 is (i.e., approaching the minimum
possible attenuation of around 0. 18 dB km-1 at this wavelength).
15. Write about Major extrinsic loss mechanism. (K) (C402.2)
It is caused by absorption due to water (as the hydroxyl or OH ion) dissolved in the
glass. These hydroxyl groups are bonded into the glass structure and have fundamental
stretching vibrations which occur at wavelengths between 2.7 and 4.2 µm depending on
group position in the glass network. Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions
(OH-) are introduced into the fiber.
16. Write the Procedure to minimize absorption loss. (K) (C402.2)
The effects of both these processes may be minimized by suitable choice of both core
and cladding compositions. For instance, in some non-oxide glasses such as fluorides and
chlorides, the infrared absorption peaks occur at much longer wavelengths which are well
into the far-infrared (up to 50 µm), giving less attenuation to longer wavelength
transmission compared with oxide glasses.
17. In which type of absorption material is in pure state? Justify. (A) (C402.2)
An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption phenomena due to its
basic material structure in the near infra-red region. Intrinsic absorption occurs when
material is in absolutely pure state with no density variations, impurities and material in
homogeneities. It sets the fundamental lower limit on absorption for any particular material.
It results from electronic absorption bands.
18. Define extrinsic absorption. (K) (C402.2)
Absorption is due to impurities in the fiber material.
Transition metal impurities- This loss occurs either because of electronic transitions
between energy levels associated with the incompletely filled inner sub shell of these ions or
because of charge transitions from one ion to another. OH (water) ions- This loss occurs due
to water dissolved in the glass.
Scattering losses
19. Identify the causes of scattering losses? (K) (C402.2) (May/June’14)
Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the material density, from
compositional fluctuations, and from structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during
fiber manufacture. Glass is composed of a randomly connected network of molecules. Such a
structure naturally contains regions in which the molecular density is either higher or lower
than the average density in the glass. In addition, since glass is made up of several oxides, such
as SiO 2 , GeO 2 , and P2 O5 , compositional fluctuations can occur.
20. What is Rayleigh scattering? (K) (C402.2) (May/June’13)
The index variation causes a Rayleigh type of scattering of light. Rayleigh Scattering in
glass in the same phenomenon that scatters light from sun in the atmosphere, giving rise to
blue sky. The expression for scattering induced attenuation is fairly complex owing to the
random molecular nature and the various oxide constitutes of glass. For single component
glass the scattering loss at a wavelength λ resulting from density fluctuations.

21. Write the expression for Rayleigh scattering. (K) (C402.2)

For a single component glass this is given by:
 
2
8 3 n2  1 k BT f T
 scat 
3 4
Where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the
refractive index of the medium, p is the average photoelastic coefficient, βc is thermal
compressibility at a fictive temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann's constant.
22. Why scattering loss is more in multimode fiber than single mode fiber? (S) (C402.2)
The losses of multimode fibers are generally higher than those of single mode fibers.
This is a result of higher dopant concentrations and the accompanying larger scattering loss
due to greater compositional fluctuations in multimode fibers. In addition, multimode fibers
are subject to higher order mode losses owing to perturbations at the core-cladding interface.
Bending losses
23. What are bending loss? Name any two types. (Apr/May’15)
Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of
curvature. Fibers can be subject to two types of bends: (a) macroscopic bends having radii
that are large compared to the fiber diameter, for example, such as occur when b fiber cable
turns a corner, and (b) random microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise when the
fibers are incorporated into cables.
24. Write about two types of bend a fiber can subject to. (K) (C402.2)
Fibers can be subject to two types of bends:
 Macrobending
Large-curvature radiation losses, which are known as macrobending losses
 Microbending
Repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.
25. What do you mean by macro bending losses? (K) (C402.2)
Macrobending losses, is also known as the large-curvature radiation losses, or simply
bending losses. For slight bends the excess loss is extremely small and is essentially
unobservable. As the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at
a certain critical radius the curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a
bit smaller once
26. Sketch the fundamental mode field in a curved optical waveguide. (K) (C402.2)

27. Write the expression for the effective number of modes N eff that are guided by a curved
multimode fiber of radius a. (K) (C402.2)
The expression for effective number of modes N eff that are guided by a curved
multimode fiber of radius a,
  2
3 
   2  2a  3   
N eff  N  1    
 2   R  2n2 kR   
 
Where α – graded index profile, Δ – core cladding index difference, n2 – cladding refractive
2
index, k  is the wave propagation constant.

28. Find the radius of curvature R at which the number of modes decreases by 50 percent
in a graded index fiber. For this fiber let α=2, n2 =1.5, Δ=0.01, a=25µm and let the
wavelength of the guided light be 1.3µm.
Solution:
We know that
  2
3 
   2  2a  3   
N eff  N  1    
 2  R  2n2 kR   
  2
3 
2
 
2  2 6  

2  2  2  25 106  3   
0.2  1.5   25 10  1  
  
22 1.3 106   2  2  0.01  R 2 

 2 1.5  6
 R  
   1.3 10  

R  1cm

29. Define microbends in fiber. (K) (C402.2)

Another form of radiation loss in optical waveguides results from mode coupling caused
by random microbends of the optical fiber. Microbends are repetitive small-scale
fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis. They are caused either by non-
uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created
during the cabling of the fiber. The latter effect is often referred to as cabling or packaging
losses.
30. Sketch the diagram of small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber
axis leads to micro bending losses. (K) (C402.2)
31. How to reduce the micro bending losses? (S) (C402.2)

One method of minimizing microbending losses is by extruding a compressible jacket
over the fiber. When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be
deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.
Core cladding losses

32. How to measure the core cladding losses? (S) (C402.2)
Upon measuring the propagation losses in an actual fiber, all the dissipative and
scattering losses will be manifested simultaneously. Since the core and cladding have
different indices of refraction and therefore differ in composition, the core and cladding
generally have different attenuation coefficients denoted α1 and α2 respectively. If the
influence of modal coupling is ignored then we can calculate the core cladding losses.

33. Write the expression for core and cladding losses for step index waveguide. (K)
(C402.2)
If the influence of modal coupling is ignored the expression for core cladding losses for
a mode of order (v,m) for a step index waveguide is
P P
 vm  1 core   2 clad
P P
P P
Where core and clad are the fractional powers. The total loss of the wavelength can be
P P
found by summing over all modes weighted by the fractional power in that mode.
Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides
34. How to understand the signal distortion mechanism in optical fiber as it travels along
the fiber? (U) (C402.2)
An optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber. This distortion
is a consequence of intramodal dispersion and intermodal delay effects. These distortion effects
can be explained by examining the behavior of the group velocities of the guided modes,
where the group velocity is the speed at which energy in a particular mode travels along the
fiber.
35. What is meant by intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion? (K) (C402.2)
Intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a
single mode. The spreading arises from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source.
This is known as (GVD) since the dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function
of the wavelength. Since intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect on signal
distortion increases with the spectral width of the optical source.
36. What is meant by material dispersion? (K) (C402.2)
Material dispersion, which arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core
material as a function of wavelength. (Material dispersion is sometimes referred to as
chromatic dispersion or spectral dispersion, since this is the same effect by which a prism
spreads out a spectrum.) This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any
given mode; that is, pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the same
path.
37. What is meant by waveguide dispersion? (K) (C402.2)
Waveguide dispersion, which occurs because a single-mode fiber only confines about 80
percent of the optical power to the core. Dispersion thus arises, since the 20 percent of the
light propagating in the cladding travels taste: than the light confined to the core. The
amount of waveguide dispersion depends on the fiber design, since the modal propagation
constant β is a function of a/λ.
38. Define group velocity dispersion. (K) (C402.2)
Pulse spreading arises from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. The
dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function of the wavelength. Since intramodal
dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect on signal distortion increases with the spectral
width of the optical source. This spectral width is the band of wavelengths over which the
source emits light.

39. Define intermodal delay. (K) (C402.2)

The other factor giving rise to pulse spreading is intermodal delay, which is a result of
each mode having a different value of the group velocity at a single frequency. Of these
three, waveguide dispersion usually can be ignored in multimode fibers. However, this
offed can be significant in single-mode fibers. The full effects of these three distortion
mechanism are seldom observed in practice.
Information Capacity determination
40. How the dispersive properties limit the information of fiber? (S) (C402.2)
A result of the dispersion-induced signal distortion is that a light pulse will broaden as it
travels along the fiber. This pulse broadening will eventually cause a pulse to overlap with
neighboring pulses. After a certain amount of overlap has occurred, adjacent pulses can no
longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and errors will occur.
41. Draw the broadening and attenuation of two adjacent pulses as they travel along a
fiber. (K) (C402.2)
42. Which parameter is used to measure the information capacity of optical waveguide?
What is its value for step index and graded index fibers? (U) (C402.2)
A measure of the information capacity of an optical waveguide is usually speci6ed by
the bandwidth-distance product in MHz.km. For a step-index 6ber the various distortion
effects tend to limit the bandwidth-distance product to about 20 MHz.km. In graded-index
fibers the radial refractive-index profile can be carefully selected so that pulse broadening is
minimized at a speci6c operating wavelength.

Group Delay
43. Write the equation for group delay. (K) (C402.2)
The group delay per unit length in the direction of propagation delay is given by
g 1 1 d 2 d
  
L Vg c dk 2 c d 
Where L – distance travelled by the pulse
β – Propagation constant along the fiber axis
44. Define group velocity. (K) (C402.2)
It is defined as the velocity at which the energy in a pulse travels along a fiber.
1 1
 d    
Vg  c    
 dk    
Since the group delay depends on the wavelength each spectral component of any particular
mode takes a different amount of time to travel a certain distance. As a result of this
difference in time delays the optical signal pulse spreads out with time as it is transmitted
over the fiber.
45. Define dispersion. (K) (C402.2)
It defines the pulse spread as a function of wavelength and is measured in picoseconds
per kilometer per nanometer [ps/nm.km]. It is a result of material and waveguide dispersion.
1 d g d  1  2 c
D      2  2
L d  d   Vg  
46. Define dispersion in multimode fibers. What is its effect? (K) (C402.2) (Nov/Dec’13)
The other factor giving rise to pulse spreading is intermodal delay, which is a result of
each mode having a different value of the group velocity at a single frequency. Of these
three, waveguide dispersion usually can be ignored in multimode fibers. However, this
offed can be significant in single-mode fibers. The full effects of these three distortion
mechanism are seldom observed in practice.
Material dispersion
47. Sketch the variation of index of refraction as a function of optical wavelength for silica.
(K) (C402.2)

48. Write the expression for material dispersion. (K) (C402.2)

The expression for material dispersion is given by,
d mat L d 2n
g       2 2    L Dmat ( )
d c d
Where L – material dispersion for unit length
σmat - pulse spread
49. A manufacturer data sheet lists the material dispersion D mat of a GeO2 doped fiber to
be 110ps/(nm.km) at a wavelength of 860nm. Find the rms pulse broadening per
kilometer due to material dispersion if the optical source is a GaAlAs LED that has a
spectral width σλ of 40nm at an output wavelength of 860nm. (S) (C402.2)
We can find the rms material dispersion from the following expression,
 mat    L Dmat   
 mat
   Dmat   
L
 (40nm)  110 ps /  nm.km  
 4.4ns / km
Waveguide dispersion
50. Write the expression for group delay in terms of normalized propagation constant b.
(K) (C402.2)
The group delay in terms of the normalized propagation constant b is defined as
2
2  n2
2 2
 ua  k
b  1    2
V  n1  n22
For small values of the index difference    n1  n2  / n2 can be approximated by
  n2
b k
n1  n2
Signal distortion in single mode fibers
51. Write the expression for pulse spread. (K) (C402.2)
The pulse spread occurring over a distribution of wavelength is obtained by derivative of
group delay with respect to wavelength.
d wg
g       L Dmat ( )
d
V d wg n L  d 2 (Vb)
   2
 d c dV 2

52. Calculate the waveguide dispersion for single mode fibers given that n2 =1.48, Δ=0.2
percent, V=2.4, λ=1320nm, HE11 mode. (S) (C402.2)
We know that,
n2 L  d 2 (Vb)
Dwg    
c dV 2
1.48  0.2
Dwg      0.26
c 1320 109
 1.9 ps /  nm.km 
53. Plot the waveguide parameter b and its derivatives as a function of V number for HE11
mode. (K) (C402.2)
Polarization mode dispersion

54. What are the effects of fiber birefringence? (K) (C402.2)
The polarization state of the light input is not maintained constant after a few meters.
The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization States of an optical signal are another
source of pulse broadening. This particularly critical for high rate long haul transmission
links (10Gb/s over tens of kilometers) that are designed to operate near the zero dispersion
wavelength of the fiber.
55. Define Polarization. (K) (C402.2)
A fundamental property of an optical signal is its polarization state. Polarization refers to
the electric field orientation of a light signal which can vary significantly along the length of
a fiber. The signal energy at a given wavelength occupies two orthogonal polarization
modes. A varying birefringence along its length will cause each polarization mode to travel
at slightly different velocity.
56. What is pulse broadening? (K) (C402.2)

The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization states of an optical signal are
another source of pulse broadening. Dispersion induced signal distortion is that a light pulse
will broaden as it travels along the fiber. This pulse broadening causes a pulse to overlap
with neighboring pulses. After a time period (t), the adjacent pulses can no longer be
individually distinguished at the receiver and error will occur.
57. What is Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)? (K) (C402.2) (N/D’07, N/D’16)
. The difference in propagation times between the two orthogonal polarization modes
will result in pulse spreading. This is called as polarization Mode Dispersion. The
orthogonal fundamental modes have different phase propagation constants β x and βy . Hence
the two modes exhibit different specific delays of τgx and τgy . This delay difference is said to
be PMD.
58. Write the expression for differential time delay between two polarization components.
(K) (C402.2)
The two polarization components during propagation of the pulse over a distance L is
given by
L L
 pol  
vgx vgy
Where vgx and vgy are the two orthogonal polarization.
59. Sketch the variation of polarization states of an optical pulse as it passes through a
fiber with varying birefringence along its length. (K) (C402.2)
Intermodal distortion
60. Define intermodal distortion. (K) (C402.2)
The intermodal distortion is a result of different values of the group delay for each
individual mode at a single frequency. Consider the meridional ray picture for step index
fiber. The steeper the angle of propagation of the ray congruence, the higher is the mode

number and consequently the slower the axial group velocity. This variation in the group
velocity of the different modes results in a group delay spread of intermodal distortion.
Pulse broadening in graded index waveguides
61. What kind of analysis is taken in understanding of pulse broadening in graded index
waveguides and why? (U) (C402.2)
The analysis of pulse broadening in graded index waveguides is more involved owing to
the radial variation in core refractive index. The feature of this grading of the refractive
index profile is that it offers multimode propagation in a relatively large core together with
the possibility of very low intermodal delay distortion. This combination allows the
transmission of high data rates over long distance.
62. Write the expression for rms pulse broadening in graded index fiber. (K) (C402.2)
The rms pulse broadening σ in a graded index fiber can be obtained from the sum
   inter
2
modal   intra modal 
2
Where  inter
2
modal - rms pulse width resulting from intermodal delay distortion
 intra
2
modal - rms pulse width resulting from pulse broadening with each mode.
63. Write the expression for intermodal delay distortion. (K) (C402.2)
The expression for intermodal delay distortion is from the relationship connecting the
intermodal delay to pulse broadening,
 
1
2 2
 intermodal   2
g  g
64. What is meant by Profile Dispersion? (K) (C402.2)
A simple model of graded index fiber structure is to consider the core to be composed of
concentric cylindrical layers of glass, each of which has a different material composition.
For each layer the refractive index has a different variation with wavelength λ, since the
glass composition is different in each layer. A fiber with a given index profile α will exhibit
different pulse spreading according to the source wavelength used.
Mode coupling
65. Write about mode coupling. (K) (C402.2)
In real systems pulse distortion will increase less rapidly after a certain initial length of
fiber because of mode coupling and differential mode loss. In this initial length of fiber,
coupling of energy form one mode to another arises because of structural imperfections,
fiber diameter, and refractive index variations and cabling induced microbends. The
coupling tends to average out the propagation delays associated with the modes thereby
reducing intermodal dispersion.

66. Sketch the mode coupling effects on pulse distortion in long fibers for various coupling
losses. (K) (C402.2)
Design optimization of single mode fibers

67. What kind of fiber is used in telecommunication companies? What are the attributes
of single mode fiber? (A) (C402.2)
Telecommunication companies use single mode fibers as the principal optical
transmission medium in their networks and because of the importance of single mode fibers
in microwave speed localized applications. Some of the attributes of single mode fibers
include a long expected installation lifetime, very low attenuation, high quality signal
transfer because of the absence of modal noise and large bandwidth-distance product.
Refractive index profiles
68. How to achieve maximum transmission distance of a high capacity link? (U) (C402.2)
To achieve maximum transmission distance of a high capacity link the dispersion null
should be at the wavelength of minimum attenuation. To achieve this, one can adjust the
basic fiber parameters to shift the zero dispersion minimum to longer wavelength. The basic
material dispersion is hard to alter significantly but it is possible to modify the waveguide
dispersion by changing from step index to complicated index profile.
69. Which single mode fiber is most popular in telecommunication network? (A) (C402.2)
The most popular single mode fibers used in telecommunication networks are near step
index fibers which are dispersion optimized for operation at 1300nm. These 1300nm
optimized single mode fibers are of either the matched cladding or the depressed cladding
design. Matched cladding fibers have a uniform refractive index throughout the cladding in
the optical fiber.
70. “Pulse spreading occurs within a single mode”. Justify. (A) (C402.2)
Intermodal dispersion is a pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The
spreading arises from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. it is called group
velocity dispersion or intermodal dispersion or modal delay. The modes in a given optical
pulse arrive at the fiber end at slightly different time’s causes pulse to spread out in time as
it travels along the fiber.

71. Write the types of polarization maintaining fibers. (K) (C402.2)

Types of polarization maintaining fibers:
 High birefringence – The maximization of the modal birefringence, by reducing the
beat length LB to around 1 mm or less.
 Small birefringence – The minimization of the modal birefringence, by setting the
beat length LB to around 50 m or more.
72. What is meant by dispersion shifted fibers? (K) (C402.2)
The waveguide dispersion can vary dramatically with the fiber design parameters. By
creating a fiber with larger negative waveguide dispersion and assuming the same values for
material dispersion as in a standard single mode fiber, the addition of waveguide and
material dispersion can then shift the zero dispersion point to longer wavelengths. The
resulting optical fibers are known as dispersion shifted fibers.
73. Define dispersion flattening. (K) (C402.2)

An alternative is to reduce fiber dispersion by spreading the dispersion minimum out
over a wide range. This approach is known as dispersion flattening. Dispersion flattened
fibers are more complex to design than dispersion shifted fibers because must be considered
over a much broader range of wavelengths. However they offer desirable characteristics
over a wide span of wavelengths.
74. Draw the cross section of index profile for 1300-nm optimized fiber. (K) (C402.2)

75. Draw the cross section of index profile for dispersion shifted fiber. (K) (C402.2)
76. Draw the cross section of index profile for dispersion flattened fiber. (K) (C402.2)
77. Draw the cross section of index profile for large effective core area fiber. (K) (C402.2)
Cutoff wavelength
78. Why cutoff wavelength of first higher-order mode is important? (U) (C402.2)
The cutoff wavelength of the first higher order mode (LP 11 ) is an important transmission
parameter for single mode fibers, since it separates the single mode from the multimode regions.
The theoretical value of the cutoff wavelength can be determined from the fiber refractive index
profile. The effective cutoff wavelength for a cabled single-mode fiber will generally be smaller
than that of the uncabled fiber because of bend effects

79. Write the expression for cutoff wavelength for single mode operation. (K) (C402.2)
The single mode operation occurs above the theoretical cutoff wavelength is given by
2 a 2
 n1  n22  2
1
c;th 
V
With V=2.405 for step fibers. At this wavelength only the LP 11 mode should propagate
in the fiber.
80. Write the expression for logarithmic ratio R(λ). (K) (C402.2)
The output power P1 (λ) is measured as a function of wavelength in a sufficiently wide
rage around the expected cutoff wavelength. The output power P 2 (λ) is measured over the
same wavelength range when a loop of sufficiently small radius. The logarithmic ratio
between R(λ) between the two transmitted powers P 1 (λ) and P2 (λ) is calculated as
 P   
R     10 log  1 
 P2    

PART-B
Attenuation
1. Explain about the loss or signal attenuation mechanism in a fiber. N/D’07 & M/J’14
(16) (S) (C402.2)
(Or)
Explain in detail with necessary mathematical expression the various attenuation
mechanisms in optical fiber. (16) (May/jun’16) (S) (C402.2)
Signal attenuation is one of the most important properties of an optical fiber, because it
largely determines the maximum repeaterless separation between a transmitter and a
receiver. Since repeaters are expensive to fabricate, install, and maintain, the degree
attenuation in a fiber has a large influence on system cost. The distortion mechanisms in a
fiber cause optical signal pulse to broaden as they travel along a fiber.
Attenuation of light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in
the design of an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining
the maximum transmission distance between a transmitter and receiver. The basic
attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are absorption, scattering, and radiative losses of the
optical energy. Absorption is related to the fiber material, whereas scattering is associated
both with the fiber material and with structural imperfections in the optical waveguide.
The expression for fiber attenuation is,
10  P 
 log  in 
L  Pout 
The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are absorption, scattering, and radiative
losses of the optical energy. Absorption is related to the fiber material, whereas scattering is
associated both with the fiber material and with structural imperfections in the optical
waveguide. Attenuation owing to radiative effects originates from perturbations (both
microscopic and macroscopic) of the fiber geometry.
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:
 Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
 Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material
 Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material
Absorption losses – Absorption of light may be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Scattering losses - Microscopic variation in the material density.
Bending losses - If any bending present in the fiber while cabling, the optical power get
radiated.
2. When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 m W, the
mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 m W.
Determine:(A) The overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber
assuming there are no connectors or splices; (b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for
the fiber.(c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber

with splices at I km intervals, each giving an attenuation of I dB; (d) the numerical
input/output power ratio in (c). (10) (S) (C402.2)
Solution:
(a) Overall signal attenuation in decibels through the fiber is:
Signal attenuation = 10 log Pi/Po
= 10 log 120 X 10-6 / 3 X 10-6
= 10 log 40
= 16.0 dB
(b) The signal attenuation per kilornetre for the fiber may be simply obtained by dividing the
result in (a) by the fiber length which corresponds to it using (3)
P
α dB L = 10 log i
P0
α dB - signal attenuation per unit length in decibels
L - fiber length
where, α dB L = 16.0 dB
hence, α dB = 16.0 / 8 = 2.0 dBkm-1
(c) As α dB = 2 dB km-1 the loss incurred along 10 km of the fiber is given by
α dB L = 2x10 = 20 dB
However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals) each with an attenuation of 1 dB.
Therefore, the loss due to the splices is 9 dB.
Hence, the overall signal attenuation for the link = 20 + 9 = 29 dB
(d) To obtain a numerical value for the input/output power ratio,
Pi/Po = 10(dB/10)
Pi/Po = 1029/10 = 794.3
(ii) Consider a 30-km long optical fiber that has an attenuation of 0.8dB/km at 1300 nm.
Suppose we want to find the optical output power Pout if 200 µW of optical power is
launched into the fiber. Find the input and output power in dBm units. (6) (S) (C402.2)
Solution:
The input power in dBm units is
 P (W ) 
Pin  dBm   10log  in 
 1mW 
 P (W ) 
Pout  dBm   10 log  in   z
 1mW 
 7dBm  (0.8dB / km)(30km)
 31dBm
In units of watts the output power is
P  30km   1031/10 1mW 

 0.79 103 mW
 0.79W
Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding losses
3. Discuss the attenuation encountered in optical fiber communication due to
a. Bending losses (16) (K) (C402.2) Nov/Dec’13
Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of
curvature. Fibers can be subject to two types of bends: (a) macroscopic bends having radii
that are large compared to the fiber diameter, for example, such as occur when b fiber cable
turns a corner, and (b) random microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise when the
fibers are incorporated into cables.
Fibers can be subject to two types of bends:
 Macrobending
Large-curvature radiation losses, which are known as macrobending losses
 Microbending
Repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.
b. Scattering losses
Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variations in the material density, from
compositional fluctuations, and from structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during
fiber manufacture. Glass is composed of a randomly connected network of molecules. Such a
structure naturally contains regions in which the molecular density is either higher or lower than
the average density in the glass. In addition, since glass is made up of several oxides, such as
SiO 2 , GeO 2 , and P2 O5 , compositional fluctuations can occur.
For a single component glass this is given by:
 
2
8 3 n2  1 k BT f T
 scat 
3 4
Where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the
refractive index of the medium, p is the average photo elastic coefficient, β c is thermal
compressibility at a fictive temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann's constant.
c. Core cladding losses
Upon measuring the propagation losses in an actual fiber, all the dissipative scattering
losses will be manifested simultaneously. Since the core and cladding have different indices
of refraction and therefore differ in composition, the core and cladding generally have
different attenuation coefficients denoted α1 and α2 respectively.
The expression for core cladding losses for a mode of order (v,m) for a step index
waveguide is
P P
 vm  1 core   2 clad
P P

Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group

Delay-Material Dispersion
4. (i) How group velocity helps to explain the dispersion phenomenon in fiber? Explain the
two main causes of intramodal dispersion. (8) (K) (C402.2)
can be explained by examining the behavior of the group velocities of the guided modes, where
the group velocity is the speed at which energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber.
Intramodal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This is known as (GVD)
since the dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function of the wavelength. Since
intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect on signal distortion increases with
the spectral width of the optical source.
path.
(ii) Explain in detail about information capacity determination of optical fiber. (8) (K)
(C402.2)
A result of the dispersion-induced signal distortion is that a light pulse will broaden as it
travels along the fiber. This pulse broadening will eventually cause a pulse to overlap with
neighboring pulses. After a certain amount of overlap has occurred, adjacent pulses can no
longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and errors will occur.

A measure of the information capacity of an optical waveguide is usually speci6ed by

the bandwidth-distance product in MHz.km. For a step-index 6ber the various distortion
effects tend to limit the bandwidth-distance product to about 20 MHz.km. In graded-index
fibers the radial refractive-index profile can be carefully selected so that pulse broadening is
minimized at a speci6c operating wavelength.
5. (i) Derive the expression for group delay and explain them. (8) (K) (C402.2)
Let us examine a signal that modulates an optical source. We shall assume the
modulated optical signal excites all modes equally at the input end of fiber. Each mode thus
carries an equal amount of energy through the fiber. Furthermore, each mode contains all of
the spectral components in the wavelength band over which the source emits. The signal may
be considered modulating each of these spectral components in the same way. As the signal
propagates along the fiber, each spectral component can be assumed to travel independently,
and to undergo a time delay or group delay per unit length if direction of `propagation given
The group delay per unit length in the direction of propagation delay is given by
g 1 1 d 2 d
  
L Vg c dk 2 c d 
Where L – distance travelled by the pulse
β – Propagation constant along the fiber axis
It is defined as the velocity at which the energy in a pulse travels along a fiber.
1 1
 d    
Vg  c    
 dk    
It defines the pulse spread as a function of wavelength and is measured in picoseconds
per kilometer per nanometer [ps/nm.km]. It is a result of material and waveguide dispersion.
1 d g d  1  2 c
D      2  2
L d  d   Vg  
(ii) Derive the expression for material dispersion and explain them. (8) (May/June’13)
(K) (C402.2)
Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as a function of the
optical wavelength. As a consequence, since the group velocity Vg of a mode is a function of
the index of refraction, the various spectral components of a given mode will travel at
different speeds, depending on the wavelength.
To calculate material-induced dispersion, we consider a plane wave propagating in an
infinitely extended dielectric medium that has a refractive index n(λ) equal to that of the fiber
core. The propagation constant β is thus given by
2 n   


The group delay resulting from material dispersion is
L dn 
 mat  n 
c d 

The expression for material dispersion is given by,

d mat L d 2n
g       2 2    L Dmat ( )
d c d
Where L – material dispersion for unit length
σmat - pulse spread
Wave guide Dispersion
6. What is waveguide dispersion? Derive an expression for time delay produced due to
waveguide dispersion. (16) (Nov/Dec’16) (S) (C402.2)
The effect of waveguide dispersion on pulse spreading can be approximated by
assuming that the refractive index of the material is independent of wavelength. Let us first
consider the group delay, that is, the time required for a mode to travel along a fiber of length
L. To make the results independent of fiber configuration we shall express the group delay in
terms of the normalized propagation constant b defines as
The group delay in terms of the normalized propagation constant b is defined as
2
2  n2
2 2
 ua 
b  1     2k 2
V  n1  n2
For small values of the index difference    n1  n2  / n2 can be approximated by
  n2
b k
n1  n2
Solving the above equation β we have
  n2 k  b  1
The group delay τwg arising from waveguide dispersion is
L d L  d  kb  
 wg    n2  n2  
c dk c  dk 
The plot shows that for a fixed value of V, the group delay is different for every guided
mode. These various modes arrive at the fiber end at different times depending on their
group delay so that a pulse spreading results. For multimode fibers the waveguide
dispersion is generally very small compared with material dispersion and can therefore
be neglected.

Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode dispersion

7. (i) Derive the expression for signal distortion in single mode fibers. (8) (K) (C402.2)
For single mode fibers waveguide dispersion is of importance and can be of the same
order of magnitude as material dispersion. To see this, let us compare the two dispersion
factors. The pulse spread occurring over a distribution of wavelength is obtained by
derivative of group delay with respect to wavelength.
d
 g  wg      L Dmat ( )
d
V d wg n2 L  d 2 (Vb)
  
 d  c dV 2
ua 
1  2 V
 
1
1 4 V 4 4
For HE11 mode
1  2 
2
b(V )  1  2
1  4  V 4 
 
1
4
 

(ii) Explain in detail about polarization mode dispersion in optical waveguides. (8) (K)
(C402.2)
The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization States of an optical signal are another
source of pulse broadening. This particularly critical for high rate long haul transmission links
(10Gb/s over tens of kilometers) that are designed to operate near the zero dispersion
wavelength of the fiber.
A fundamental property of an optical signal is its polarization state. Polarization refers to the
electric field orientation of a light signal which can vary significantly along the length of a fiber.
The signal energy at a given wavelength occupies two orthogonal polarization modes. A
varying birefringence along its length will cause each polarization mode to travel at slightly
different velocity.
The difference in propagation times between the two orthogonal polarization modes will
result in pulse spreading. This is called as polarization Mode Dispersion. The orthogonal
fundamental modes have different phase propagation constants βx and βy . Hence the two modes
exhibit different specific delays of τgx and τgy . This delay difference is said to be PMD.
The two polarization components during propagation of the pulse over a distance L is given
by
L L
 pol  
vgx vgy
Where vgx and vgy are the two orthogonal polarization.

Intermodal dispersion, Pulse Broadening in GI fibers

8. With neat diagram explain intra and intermodal dispersion. (16) (May/June’14) (K)
(C402.2)
can be explained by examining the behavior of the group velocities of the guided modes,
where the group velocity is the speed at which energy in a particular mode travels along the
fiber.
Intramodal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This is known as (GVD)
since the dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function of the wavelength. Since
intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect on signal distortion increases with
the spectral width of the optical source.
path.
The intermodal distortion is a result of different values of the group delay for each
individual mode at a single frequency. Consider the meridional ray picture for step index
fiber. The steeper the angle of propagation of the ray congruence, the higher is the mode
number and consequently the slower the axial group velocity. This variation in the group
velocity of the different modes results in a group delay spread of intermodal distortion.
 Tmod  Tmax  Tmin
n1L

c

Note that this simple derivation considers only pulse broadening owing to meridional
rays and does not take into account skew rays.
9. Analyze the effect of pulse broadening in graded index waveguides. (16) (S) (C402.2)
The analysis of pulse broadening in graded index waveguides is more involved owing to
the radial variation in core refractive index. The feature of this grading of the refractive
index profile is that it offers multimode propagation in a relatively large core together with
the possibility of very low intermodal delay distortion. This combination allows the
transmission of high data rates over long distance.
The rms pulse broadening σ in a graded index fiber can be obtained from the sum
   inter
2
modal   intra modal 
2
Where  inter
2
modal - rms pulse width resulting from intermodal delay distortion
 intra
2
modal - rms pulse width resulting from pulse broadening with each mode.
The expression for intermodal delay distortion is from the relationship connecting the
intermodal delay to pulse broadening,
 
1
2 2
 intermodal   2
g  g
In real systems pulse distortion will increase less rapidly after a certain initial length of
fiber because of mode coupling and differential mode loss. In this initial length of fiber,
coupling of energy form one mode to another arises because of structural imperfections,
fiber diameter, and refractive index variations and cabling induced microbends. The
coupling tends to average out the propagation delays associated with the modes thereby
reducing intermodal dispersion.
Design Optimization of SM fibers-RI profile and cut-off wavelength

10. Discuss about the design optimization of single mode fibers. (16) (K) (C402.2)
(Nov/Dec’16)

Telecommunication companies use single mode fibers as the principal optical

transmission medium in their networks and because of the importance of single mode fibers
in microwave speed localized applications. Some of the attributes of single mode fibers
include a long expected installation lifetime, very low attenuation, high quality signal
transfer because of the absence of modal noise and large bandwidth-distance product.
The waveguide dispersion can vary dramatically with the fiber design parameters. By
creating a fiber with larger negative waveguide dispersion and assuming the same values for
material dispersion as in a standard single mode fiber, the addition of waveguide and
material dispersion can then shift the zero dispersion point to longer wavelengths. The
resulting optical fibers are known as dispersion shifted fibers.
An alternative is to reduce fiber dispersion by spreading the dispersion minimum out
over a wide range. This approach is known as dispersion flattening. Dispersion flattened
fibers are more complex to design than dispersion shifted fibers because must be considered
over a much broader range of wavelengths. However they offer desirable characteristics
over a wide span of wavelengths.
(a) Index profile for 1300nm optimized fiber
(b) Index profile for dispersion shifted fiber

(c) Index profile for dispersion flattened fiber

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Regulation 2013 Academic Year 2017-2018

IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

waveguide. Attenuation owing to radiative effects originates from perturbations (both

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

21. Write the expression for Rayleigh scattering. (K) (C402.2)

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

29. Define microbends in fiber. (K) (C402.2)

31. How to reduce the micro bending losses? (S) (C402.2)

Core cladding losses

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

39. Define intermodal delay. (K) (C402.2)

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

48. Write the expression for material dispersion. (K) (C402.2)

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Polarization mode dispersion

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Design optimization of single mode fibers

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

71. Write the types of polarization maintaining fibers. (K) (C402.2)

73. Define dispersion flattening. (K) (C402.2)

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

P  30km   1031/10 1mW 

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

A measure of the information capacity of an optical waveguide is usually speci6ed by

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

The expression for material dispersion is given by,

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode dispersion

For HE11 mode

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Intermodal dispersion, Pulse Broadening in GI fibers

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Design Optimization of SM fibers-RI profile and cut-off wavelength

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

Telecommunication companies use single mode fibers as the principal optical

(a) Index profile for 1300nm optimized fiber

(b) Index profile for dispersion shifted fiber

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

(c) Index profile for dispersion flattened fiber

IFETCE/ECE/R.Sathyamoorthy/IV Year/VII Sem/EC6702/OCN/Solved/Unit-2/ Ver 1.1

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