CHAPTER IV

SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The signal transmitting through the fiber is degraded by two mechanisms (i)
Attenuation and ii) Dispersion. Both are
important to determine the transmission
characteristics of the fiber at operating wavelengths.
4.2 ATTENUATION
The transmission loss or attenuation in an
optical fiber is very important to
consider in the optical fiber communication. Different mechanisms are responsible for
the signal attenuation within the fiber. These mechanisms are influenced by the
material composition, purification level, waveguide structure and these lead to
material absorption, material scattering (linear and non linear scattering),
microbending losses, mode coupling radiation losses and leaky modes losses. Further
there is also loss due to connectors and splices. The attenuation of the signal is
measured in decibelkm and is a function of wavelength. The optical communication
wavelengths are 0.8, 1.3 and 1.55 m.
Generally signal attenuation or fiber loss is defined as the ratio of the input
(transmitted) optical power Pi into a fiber to the output (received) optical power Po
from the fiber. Thus
The attenuation of the signal per unit length

Pi dB/
a-log10 P aB/km
Problem 4.1
The optical power launched into the fiber is 100 W. The transmission distance
is 10 km. The optical power at the output of the fiber is 2 W.

(a) Calculate the signal attenuation per unit length.

(b) Calculate the overall signal attenuation.
 4.2
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

(a) Signal attenuation Pi10log 100

per unit length =LOE P 10 2

=
1.7 dB km
(6) Overall signal attenuation =
1.7x 10 = 17 dB
4.3 ABSORPTION

(1) Absorption by atomic defects in the fiber material.

(11) Extrinsic
absorption by impurity atoms in the fiber material.
(11) Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent
atoms of the fiber material.
G) Absorption by atomic defects:
Atomic defects such as
fiber material and cluster vacancy, imperfections of the atomic structure of the
of atoms
preparation of preform and then fiber produce
a small
absorption loss. By careful
fabrication will reduce the atomic
defects.
(ii) Extrinsic
Absorption by impurity atoms:
Impurity absorption results from transition metal ions
copper, manganese and nickel. such as iron, chromium,
direct melt technique. In ultra Impurity absorption more for
is fibers drawn from
low loss fibers from VAD
ranges from 1 to 5 parts per billion. method the impurity level
= 0.8 m.
The transition metal ions produce loss at
Impurity absorption also results from OH ions.
These OH
the oxyhydrogen flame used for the impurity results from
hydrolysis reaction of the SiCl4, Ge Cl4 and
POCl3. The fundamental absorption peak by molecular
around 2.7 u m and its
vibration
of OH impurity is
overtones occur at 1.38 u
absorption can be reduced by reducing the water m, 0.95 u m and 0.725 u m. This
content in the fibers below 1
(parts per billion) as in MCVD method. ppb
(iii) Intrinsic Absorption:
Intrinsic absorption is associated with the
basic fiber material
case of silica fibers, tail of
infrared absorption (Si02). In the
wavelengths higher than 1.5 m. so at operating by Si-0 coupling occurs at
1.55 m, there is no infrared
absorption.wavelengths 0.8 m, 1.3 um and
Tntrinsic absorption also results from
the
electronic absorption bands
ultraviolet region and rom aomc in the
TT viDration
alet absorption decays8 exponentially bands in the near
infrared region.
lraviolet absorption extends upto 0.8 pwith increasing
m. At that wavelength. The tail of
absorption produces a loss of 0.3 dB/km.
Thus in the wavelength, the ultraviolet
as a transmission window trom 1 u m to 16u case of silica fiber, it will
m.
ace
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
4.3
Figure 4.1 shows the different transmission losses in a pure silica fiber. It is
found that at 1.8 4 m and 1.55 u m, the losses are minimum.

3
-- RAYLEIGH
SCATTERING
OH

INFRARED
2 NET LOss ABSORPTION
ULTRAVIOLET TAIL
ABSORPTION
TAIL
1
OH
OH
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Wavelength (um)
Fig. 4.1: Different losses in a pure silica fibe:.

4.4 SCATTERING LOSSES

Scattering losses are divided into two types:

i) Linear Scattering Losses (ii) Nonlinear scattering losses

(a) Rayleigh scattering (a) Stimulated Brillouin scattering

(b) Mie Scattering (b) Stimulated Raman Scattering

4.4.1 Linear scattering:

Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagating mode
to a different mode. This linear may cause the attenuation
scattering process
operating mode power by means of transterring power to leaky or radiation mode
of
which will not continue to propagate within the core of fiber but is radiated from
the fiber. There is a large scattering loss in multimode fibers due to higher dopant
concentration and greater compositional fluctuations.
 OPTICAL FIBER COM
4.4
(a) Rayleigh Scattering:
UNCATE
dominant
we in
loss mechanicsm
loss is the the blh
ultrav
Rayleigh
scattering
extends upto
infrared region. Rayleigh Rayleigh scatter
scattering loss is invers
region. Its tail
power
wavelength. It
of wavelength.. lt arises from the from
proportional to the
fourth
material ot
fiber. The inhomogeneitiee ic
inhomogeneities present
in the nay arise t
and compositionaase
refractive index
tluctuations
tional
the density
fluctuations,
variatin
scattering loss at a given wavelength r
SiO fiber, the Rayleigh
For

density fluctuations is given

by
8 T3
Cscat4n°p*Bek Tpm*1.

where n and p are refractive index and photoelastic coefficient for silica A
t
isothermal compressibility, Tp is the fictive temperature at which solidification a
glass takes place or simply anealing temperature.
The transmission loss due to Rayleigh scattering a= exp (- seat L)

where L is the length of fiber. It is well known that by operating the fiber at higte
wavelengths the Rayleigh scattering loss can be reduced.
Forexample at 1.3 u m, it is 0.3 dB/km only. Rayleigh scattering is an
ela
scattering because there is no change in
frequency.
Problem 4.2:
Calculate the
Rayleigh scattering
1 km length fiber and attenuation coefficient, the transmission loss factor
(dB/km) for silica fiber at a
1.3 m. waveleng
Given: For silica, fictive
7x 10lm2N1 temperature of 1400 K,
isothermal compressibi.
Refractive index =
1.46
Photoelastic coefficient =
0.286
Boltzmann's constant k' =
1.381 x 10"23 JK-1
(a) Rayleigh scattering coefficient
= 8TnP.
p Be KTp
kTp
3

248.05 x 20.65 x
0.082 x 7 x 10 x 1400
3 x
1.381 x 10-23
xx 1.381x L
2.856 x
10-24
=
0.664 x
10 m 1
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
4.5
(b)Transmission loSs factor
"L=exp (-0.664 x 10*x 10)
0.936

(c) Attenuation = 10
log10 L-10
10 logE10 0.9136
=

log10 7
= 0.29 dB km.

(b) Mie Scattering:

Mie Scattering is a linear scattering which arises from the

which are comparable in size to the guided inhomogeneities
wavelength. Further it is also due to the
imperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide, irregularities in the core-cladding
interface, core-cladding refractive index difference along the fiber and diameter
fluctuations. Mie scattering created by inhomogeneities is mainly in the forward
direction. Mie scattering loss can be reduced by defect free fiber fabrication and
by
increasing the relative refractive index difference.

4.4.2 Non-linear Scattering losses:

When we use high optical

power levels (- 100 mW) the non-linear scattering
losses occur. This scattering causes the optical power in one mode to the other mode
at a different frequency either in forward direction or backward direction. These
scatterings are observed in single mode fiber at high optical power densities. These
scatterings are all inelastic scatterings due to shift in the frequency. When the
refractive index of the medium depends on the optical intensity of the signal, then
these non-linear scatterings are occured.

G) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

Stimulated Brillouin scattering is defined as the modulation of light through

thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber. The scattered light contains a upper
and lower side bands along with incident light frequency. An incident photon produces
a scattered photon as well as a phonon of acoustic frequency. The frequency shift
Varies with the scattering angle. The frequeney shit is maximum in the backward
direction and reduced to zero in the forward direction. The threshold optical power
0r Brillouin scattering is proportional to d* a* dB where d is the fiber core diameter
and is the operating wavelength and ag is the Brillouin scattering loss coefficient.

7 Stimulated Raman Scattering:

Here the scattered light consists of a scattered photon and a high frequency
both in the forward
cal phonon. Further stimulated Raman scattering occurs

C o n and backward direction in the optical fiber.

4.6 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIOM

The threshold optical power for Raman Scattering is about three orders
hgnitude higher than the Brillouin threshold for given fiber. The of
a thresholdoptic
tical
power for Raman Scattering is proportional to d à oR where d is the core diameto
A 18 the ter,
operating wavelength and is the Raman scattering loss coeficien
Generally the scatterin losses are maximum in multimode fibers than in the ent,
hocde fibers due to their
the single singie
larger diameter and large compositional variations.
4.4.3 Bending Losses:

Whenever the optical fiber contains bends, then the bends produce
losses. There are two radiative
types of bending losses:
(a) Macroscopic bending losses: These occur when the radius of curvature of
is greater than fiber diameter. This situation arises when a fiber cable bend
turns a corner
(b) Microscopic bending losses: These occur due to bends in the fiber axis.
situation arises when the fibers are This
incorporated into cables.
Macroscopic bending losses:
Whenever the radius of curvature of bend
is large, the loss is small.
radius of curvature of bend When the
radius of curvature.
decreases, the loss increases exponentially upto a critical

For multimode fiber the critical radius of curvature of bend

'R = 3 na
4 T (n-n2
The attenuation coefficient by the
macrobends a= A exp (-B
Where A and B R)
are constants which are
independent of Re.
Cladding

Power loss
Core through radiation

Field distribution
Bent fiber

Fig. 4.2 Radiatlon loss at a

fiber bend
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
4.7
As shown in figure 4.2, the part of the
of the bend is required to travel
propagation mode which is on the outside
faster than that on the inside so that
a wavefront
nerpendicular to the direction of
propagation is maintained. So the mode in the
cladding needs to travel faster than the
velocity of light in the medium. As this is
not possible,
the energy in the
evanescent field at the bend is lost
through radiation.
In the case of single mode fiber,

20 52.748 0.996 3
R
R (n -n/21480.996

2 -T ani (2 4)
where e= cutoff wavelength =
2.405
Macrobending losses are minimised by (i) fibers with large relative refractive
index difference and (ii) operating at the shortest
wavelength possible.
Problem No. 4.3:
Amultimode fiber with core refractive index 1.5 and a relative refractive
index
difference of 5% and operating wavelength of 1 pm. Calculate its
critical radius of
curvature at which bending losses occur. Similarly calculate the same for single mode
fiber with 8 u m core diameter.

For multimode fiber:

A 52n 100

n=n-24 nf =2.25 - 0.1x 2.25

2.025

R.
Re
3 na 3x2.25x 1x 10
4T(n-ng 47 (2.25-2.02532
= 5 m.

For single mode fiber

2Tan (2 A) 2Tx4x 10 x 1.5 (2 x 0.05)1/2
ne 2.405 2.405

= 4.957 H m
 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATI
N

20 2 7 4 8 - 0 . 9 9 6
(m-ng

20x1x 10
(1.5-1.429)2
2.748-0.996* 4.957
56.63p m.

Microbending losses (mode coupling losses):

Microbending introduces slight surface imperfections which can cause mode
upling between adjacent modes or coupling of energy between the guided modes
and the leaky modes (nonguided modes) in the fiber which inturn ereates a radiative
loss. The amount of loss depends on the fiber deformation, the length of fiber and
the optical power distribution among the different modes. Microbending losses
proportional to the number of modes propagating through the fiber and is inversely
proportional to wavelength.

Microbends are due to small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the
fiber axis. Fluctuations in the radius of curvature either by non-uniformities in the
manufacturing of fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling
of the fiber.

4.44 Core and cladding losses:

The core and cladding have ditferent refractive indices. Therefore they differ in
composition. So core and cladding have different attenuation coefficients a1 and
@
respectively
For step index fiber, the loss for a mode of order (v m) ,

Pore Pelad
P
gare and
wherep
P P are the fractional power in core and
of the fiber can be found by
eladding. The total lass
summing over all modes
power in that mode
weighted by the fraction
4.5 DISPERSION IN FIBERS
Dispersion in the iber
means the
active index of broadening
of the signal pulse width due
dependene the material of the fiber
of the carrier. If we end digitized
send
digitized signal
signmal pulses
pulses e
in the
wavelengt
with the wavelengt
c broadened gaussian form of square the"
into
puises due to
dispersion. The
pulses,
dispersion i
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS 4.9
to the distortion (or) degradation of the signal quality at the output end due to
overlapping of the pulses. There are two kinds of dispersion mechanisms in the fiber:
6) Intram0dnl dispersion and (Gi) Intermodal dispersion.
The dispersion effects can be explained on the basis of behaviour of group
velocities of the guided modes in the optical fiber. Group velocity is the velocity at
which the energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber.

Let us see the difference between nondispersive medium and dispersive medium

Quentity Free space (or) Non dispersive dispersive

vacuum medium (water) medium (silica
fiber)

1. Refractiive index no=1 n = constant with n ()

(n) respect to all
wavelengths
2. Wave vector (k) 2 ko 2T = n
2 -n
ko () ko
Vp

3. Wavelength (4)
n n (ao)

4. Velocity of light (C) C C C

n n ()

5. Phase velocity and pC=V C

Vp
group velocity pn)
(Vp and v C
Ng
where Ng = group index and

N = n ()+ 0 dn
do

n A0
dn
(A)- do
Thus the group velocity and phase velocity C are different in the optical

fiber is a dispersive medium.

fiber. Otherwise an optical
4.10 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIoN

i) Intramodal dispersion

Intramodal dispersion arises due to the dependence of group velocity on tho

wavelength. Further it increases with the increase of spectral width of the optical
source. This spectral width is the range of wavelengths emitted by the optical source
For example in the case of LED, it has large spectral width about 40 nm since it
emits wavelengths from 830 870 nm with the peak emission wavelength is at
860 nm. In the case of laser diode which has very narrow spectral width, about
1 or 2 nm only. Thus the intramodal
dispersion can be reduced in an optical fiber
using single mode laser diode as an optical source. Intramodal dispersion arises
to the dispersive due
properties of the optical fiber material (material dispersion) and the
guidance effects of the optical fiber (waveguide dispersion).
(a) Material dispersion (or) Chromatic dispersion:
Thisdispersion arises due to the variation of the refractive
material with the index of the core
wavelength or frequency of light. It is directly
frequency bandwidth of the transmitted pulse. A material proportional to the
when d ni/d exhibits material
*0. For pure
silica, the material dispersion tends to dispersion
wavelength of 1.3 zero at the
pm. Further by using an
width, the material optical source with a narTow
0.6 m
dispersion can be reduced. For shorter spectral
to 0.8 m, the
material dispersion rises wavelengths around
to a
exponentially higher value.
(b) Waveguide dispersion:

This dispersion arises

of the mode due to the finite
group velocity with the frequency bandwidth and the
bandwidth of the transmitted of
frequency dependence
amount of waveguide pulse, higher will be thelight. Higher the frequency
the dispersion depends on the fiber The
waveguide dispersion.
propagation constant i8 a
function of a / A. In design like core radius, since
waveguide dispersionarises when d* the case of
of the modes B/d A *0. In the single mode fibers,
propagate far from the case of
from waveguide dispersion. cutoff value. multimode fibers, most
are
Therefore they all almost free
i) Intermodal dispersion (or)
Multimode dispersion
Intermodal dispersion or
nvelocity for each mode atmultimode dispersion arises
exit end of the fiber at due to the variation of
different a single irequency. variation o
there is broadening of the signal times. So there is Different modes arrive
pulses, multimode at
dispersionon and hence
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
4.11
A6 DISPERSION IN
DIFFERENT FIBERS:
Among the three dispersions,

Multimode dispersion> Material dispersion>

Waveguide dispersion.
Based on the dispersion effects, one can
get the following renulta:
) The multimode step index fibers
enormous amount of multimode
exhibit' a large value of dispersion due u
dispersion which gives the greatest pulse
broadening. At the same time the multimode
over all
graded índex fiber exhibita an
dispersion which is 100 times lesser than the multimode step index
fiber's dispersion. This is due to
shaping the refractive index profile in a
parabolic manner.
(ii) In the case of
single mode step index fibers, they have only intramodal
dispersion. Further among the intramodal dispersions, the waveguide
dispersion is a dominant one. The material dispersion in them is almost
negligible due to axial ray propagation and small core radius. When we
compare it with the dispersion in the multimode graded index fiber, the
dispersion in the single mode fiber is negligible. That is why, wingle mode
fibers are highly useful in the long distance communication
systems8.
(i) Single mode step index fiber:

Here the, dispersion is small. In single mode step index fiber, there is material

dispersion and waveguide dispersion when +0.

d

There is no intermodal dispersion.

For wavelengths less than 1 um on> Owg
But for longer wavelengths, awg Om
In this fiber, there is least pulse broadening and
greatest po8sible band width
when single mode laser is used as a light source.

(ii) Multimode step index fiber:

Here waveguide dispersion is small. But the intermodal

dispersion dominates.
Here the total dispersion is more than other fibers.

Oin m>>Owg at = 850 nm.

i ) Multimode graded index fiber:

Here there is only material dispersion. Intermodal

dispersion is minimum
4.12 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

4.7 DISPERSION SHIFTED SINGLE MODE FIBERS:

dispersion is obtained at a wavelent

aboutenerally
1.3 u m.
in single mode fibers,
Since there is a finite
zero
loss in the silica fiber at l.3 p m, today the

are designed such that zero dispersion at 1.55 m

with a minimum los8. At
nbers
.55 m , the material dispersion in single mode fiber is positive and large, meanwhile
The waveguide dispersion is negative and small. So to increase the waveguide
dispersion equal to that of material dispersion, the relative refractive index difference
m a y be slightly inereased by adding more Ge O2 in core (which increases the
refractive index of core) or adding more fluorine in cladding (which decreases the
refractive index of cladding) (or) instead of parabolic refractive index profile, a
triangular refractive index profile be designed. Thus the
can dispersion shifted fibers
have minimum loss and zero dispersion at 1.55 u m.

4.8 DISPERSION COMPENSATING FIBERS:

At present the installed fiber optic links are operating at the wavelength of
1.3 um using conventional single mode fibers. Instead of 1.3 m wavelength if
anybody wants to use 1.55 m wavelength to reduce the transmission loss, then the
whole fiber optic link should be replaced with the new dispersion shifted fibers. This
will create enormous expenditure. To avoid this huge expenditure and to use the old
fiber links dispersion compensating fibers are evolved. These fibers have
optic large
egative dispersion at 1.55 p m. Meanwhile the conventional single mode fibers
operating at 1.3 u m have positive dispersion at 1.55 m.

In the fiber optie link, for every 100 km

length of conventional single mode
fiber, 1 km length of dispersion compensating fiber is introduced by replacing 1 km
length of conventional single mode fiber. So that one can achieve minimum loss and
zero dispersion also.

4.9 DISPERSION Vs BANDWIDTH

The fiber bandwidth is limited by dispersion and length of the fiber

Taking dispersion alone by optic link.
interms of bandwidth length product.
whieh
the pulse is broadened, the bandwidth is expressed

When light pulses are propagating through a fiber they are suffering Dy
dispersion resulting broadening ot output pulses. So to
#ho nulses are properly separated accommodate this broadening
out. But this will
reduce the maximum bit rate
Let. us see one example. SuPpOse the lhght
pulses corresponding to
101 are transmitted througn the digital bit pattern
iber (Fig. 4.3(a)). Each
n a over a distance (Fig. 4.3(6)) and finally at the pulse broadens after
with its neighbours.
So the digital hit output, the pulse overlap
pattern (101) is
changed Fig. 4.3(c)
into (111) (Fg
Th will create
error n n e received
output signal. Let us
take the pulse duratio"
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
4.13
and the pulse
as hroadening due
to
dispersion in the fiber optic link as t. 0

The maximum bit rate =

2t
(a)
When there is no
overlapping of
light pulses, the digital bit rate BT
must be less than the reciprocal of the
Time
broadened pulse duration (2 t).
The digital bit rate 0
BT = bandwidth of fiber B'

Hence B s(or) B 2T
(b)

Bopt 2T Time

In the non return to zero (NRZ)

digital code scheme,

BT 2B. Bs 1

Bopt 4
Problem No. 4.4: Time

A multimode graded index fiber Fig. 4.3: Broadening of light pulses

exhibits the pulse broadening of corresponding to digital bit pattern 101
0.2 u s over a distance of 15 km.

Estimate.
(a) Optimum Bandwidth of fiber
(b) dispersion per unit length
(c) Bandwidth length product.
1 1 MHz.
BoptB
62.5
(a)
= 21 2 x 0.2 x 10
0.2 x 106
=- 13.33ns km
(b) dispersion per unit length 15

2.5 MHz x 15 km
length product
=

(c) Bandwidth
37.5 MHz km
4.14 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIOM

4.10 THEORY OF DISPERSION

(a) Material dispersion

We know that Vg* C

Ng

But do

The pulse broadening due to material dispersion is obtained through the

group
delay in the optical fiber which is reciprocal of group velocity 'v

Groupdelay - dn

Pulse delay length L'= tm= dn

over a
n- d

r.m.s pulse broadening due to material dispersion =Om O dda

Tm

Here o= rms spectral width and a is the mean wavelength of light source.

dn
d

Material dispersion parameter M= dam2dn

C d12 |

C2 d n
M has the unit ps nm km
 DEGRADATION IN FIBERS
sIGNAL 4.15

0.6 1.3 1.8

Wavelength (um)
Fig. 4.4: Variation of material dispersion with wavelength.

Fig. 4.4 shows the variation of dispersion with wavelength. Upto 1.3 um, the
material dispersion is positive. At 1.3 p m, it is zero. Beyond 1.3 p m, the material
due to material
dispersion is negative. In the shorter wavelength the pulse broadening
be reduced an injection laser diode with the n a r r o w
by selecting
dispersion can

spectral width.

Problem No. 4.5:

For a fiber it is given that at ^= 850 nm

(dn
da2
is equal to 0.015. The rms spectral width of the light source is

20 nm at' this wavelength. Determine

and
(a) Material dispersion parameter

km due to material dispersion.

(6) rms pulse broadening per

(a) Material dispersion parameter,

M- d22

0.015 Here C and a r e

in kms
*
and nm respectively
3x 10 x 850

= 58.8 ps nmkm