Module 8

Sugar – Centrifugal

And

Sugar Drying
 Module 8: Sugar –Centrifugals and Sugar Drying

Table of Content

Unit One: Centrifugal ................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Batch Centrifugal .............................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1 General Description ................................................................................................ 6
1.2.2 The Basket .............................................................................................................. 9
1.2.3 The Screens ............................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Capacity of the Centrifugals (See Fig .1.3 below) ............................................................ 12
1.3.1 Diameter and Speed of Rotation of Basket ........................................................... 13
1.3.2 Basket Height and Massecuites Thickness ........................................................... 14
1.4 Time of Cycle ................................................................................................................ 14
1.5 Notes on Operation of Batch Centrifugals ...................................................................... 17
1.6 Notes on Batch Centrifugal Maintenance ....................................................................... 18
1.7 Centrifugal Drive ........................................................................................................... 18
Unit Two: Continuous Centrifugals .......................................................................................... 22
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 22
2.1.1 Description ............................................................................................................ 23
2.1.2 Wash Water and Steam ......................................................................................... 24
2.2 Centrifugal Drive ............................................................................................................. 25
2.3 Disadvantage of Continuous Centrifugals ....................................................................... 25
2.4 Design Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Screens for Continuous Centrifugals .................................................................... 26
2.4.2 Basket Angle ......................................................................................................... 28
2.4.3 High Capacity Continuous Machines ................................................................... 28
2.4.4 Dry Run of Centrifugals........................................................................................ 28
2.5 Massecuite Conditioning ............................................................................................... 29
Unit Three: Drying of Sugar ...................................................................................................... 37
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 Permissible Moisture Content ........................................................................................ 38

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3.2.1 The Safety Factor (S.F) ............................................................................................. 38

3.2.2 The Dilution Indicator.............................................................................................. 38
3.3 Sugar Dryers ................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.1 Horizontal Dryers..................................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 The Vertical Comessa Dryer .................................................................................... 40
3.3.2 Fluidized Bed Dryer ................................................................................................ 40
3.4 Dust Collectors............................................................................................................... 42
3.4.1 Dry Air Separator..................................................................................................... 42
3.4.2 Wet Air Separator .................................................................................................... 42
3.5 Precautions to be taken with Sugar Dryers: .................................................................... 42
3.6 Calculation for a Sugar Dryer ......................................................................................... 43
3.7 Steam Consumption ....................................................................................................... 46
3.8 Conditioning of Sugar after Drying ................................................................................ 46

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Module Introduction

Dear trainees! I welcome you to module eight of the course “Cane Sugar Manufacturing” In this
eighth module we will discuss sugar centrifugal and sugar drying.

The module is divided into three units. The first unit deals with sugar centrifugal. It deals about
the general concepts about batch type and continuous type’s centrifugals. It also describes the
parts of the centrifugal machines. In addition to these it explain about screen opening, complete
time cycle of centrifugal machine and calculation to estimate the capacity of the centrifugal
machine. Finally it discusses some notes on operation and maintenance of batch centrifugal and
centrifugal drive.

The second unit of the module focuses on the issues of continuous centrifugal. It explains and
names the different parts of continuous centrifugal machine. It tries to describe the advantages
and disadvantages of continuous centrifugal compared to that of batch centrifugals. Beside these
it explain about the design characteristics and schematic drawing of “STG” centrifugal and the
importance of proper conditioning of massecuite for continuous centrifugal operation.

The third unit is mainly devoted on sugar dryers. It explains about the permissible moisture
content of sugar and describes the two formulations that are used to control the moisture content
of sugar. It also discusses about the precautions to be taken with the dryer and the volume and
the steam required while dealing with a sugar drying. Finally it discusses all the precautions
taken in order to obtain a good conditioning of sugar after drying.

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Unit One

Centrifugal

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly what centrifugal means in sugar industry.

Describes properly the difference between continuous and batch types of centrifugals.
Explain and name the different parts of centrifugal machine.
Discuss the screen opening.
Calculate and estimate the capacity of the centrifugal machine.
Describe the complete time cycle of centrifugal machine operation.
Explain the factors affecting the time taken for a cycle during centrifugal operation.
List out some notes on operation and maintenance of batch centrifugals.
Describe the centrifugal drive.

1.1 Introduction

The process of separation of sugar crystals from molasses in massecuite is carried put in a
machine called Centrifugal. There are two types of centrifugals: the batch and the continuous.
The batch produces sugar intermittently and is used to cure “A” and “B” sugars when the latter
is made for export. The continuous centrifugal produces sugar continually and is used for curing
“B” and “C” massecuites, especially when the former produces ”B” sugar that is re-processed.

Continuous centrifugals are also used in back-end refineries to cure “A” massecuites supplying
the refinery sugar melter. In a more recent development in Australia, a continuous centrifugal
producing high grade sugar without crystals breakage is now available.

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1.2 Batch Centrifugal

1.2.1 General Description

The batch centrifugal consists of a revolving cylindrical metallic basket designed to receive the
massecuites to be treated. The basket is carried on a vertical shaft driven by a motor (See Fig.
1.1(a)). The basket wall is pierced with numerous holes to allow molasses to escape and is
constructed such that it can withstand the centrifugal force developed during the operation. The
basket wall is lined internally with metal screen which serves to retain the sugar crystals. The
basket is open at the top to allow massecuites to be fed in and has a bottom valve to allow the
discharge of sugar at the end of a cycle of operation. The basket is surrounded by a casing
designed to catch the molasses separated and the protect the operator from moving parts (see
Fig.1.1 (b)).

This “motor casing” as it is known is fitted in modern centrifugals with steel covers. The purpose
of which is to prevent the “fan effect” caused by air sucked into the basket when there are no
covers. This air would cool the purging massecuites and impair the curing.

Centrifugals are arranged in a line to from a “battery” centrifugals are grouped according to their
functions, and batteries of “A”, “B” and “C” centrifugals constitute the centrifugals station of a
factory.

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Figure 1.1(a): The Batch Centrifugal

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Figure 1.1(b): Schematic of a Suspended Batch Type Automatic Centrifugal (ASEA – WEIBULL)

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A mixer-distributor open at the top is normally installed on top of a battery of centrifugals to

receive massecuites and distribute it to all the centrifugals. Massecuites can be pumped to the
mixer or gravitated to it when crystallizers are situated higher than the battery. Today
crystallizers are continuous with the massecuites discharged from the last unit into a large pipe
connected to a totally enclosed cylindrical distributor. The massecuites is, therefore, under
pressure, which is dependent on the height of the crystallizers above the centrifugals. Because of
this condition, massecuites is fed to a batch centrifugals by means of a feed pipe fitted with two
automatic valves. This feeding arrangement completely eliminates drip of massecuites into the
basket and spilling of massecuites into the molasses compartment.

Sugar produced by batch centrifugals is discharged into either a grasshopper conveyor or a screw
conveyor or even a belt conveyor.

1.2.2 The Basket

The construction of the basket is dependent on the centrifugal force to which it is to be subjected.
Some manufactures provided the basket with circumferential hoops (Five–Cails Babcock
centrifugals, model “C411”, has a basket wall 5mm thick provided with 16 hoops). Other
manufacturers prefer to increase the basket wall thickness (BMA Variant centrifugal having
similar dimensions as above mentioned centrifugals has a basket wall 13 mm thick without
hoops but with 3 reinforcing 28 mm bands at top, middle and bottom) . The holes in the basket
wall are about 5 mm in diameter and are either uniformly distributed throughout the surface or
arranged in rows. A uniform distribution of holes is more efficient.

1.2.3 The Screens

In order to allow the molasses to escape and, at the same time, retain the sugar crystals, at least
two types of screens are required inside the basket (See Fig.1.2).

a) A screen with small openings called cover screen which retains the sugar crystals.

b) A backing screen with large openings which is installed between the basket wall and the
cover screen. The backing screen prevents the cover screen from lying right against the
basket wall and thus has its opening blocked.

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Figure 1.2: Screen Opening

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Some manufacturers add a supplementary screen called “sand which screen” between the cover
screen and the backing screen. This arraignment is not essential.

The cover screen is provided with either horizontal slots or circular openings. Horizontal slsots
are more common. The horizontal slots are either arranged in rows or are staged. To prevent
crystals from getting jammed inside the perforations, the latter are pyramidal in shape.

For high grade massecuites, the horizontal slot is approximately 4 mm long and 0.4 mm wide. A
piece of this screen 10 mm × 10 mm (100 mm2) contains 15 slots.

Open Space Area = 4 mm × 0.4 mm × 15 = 24 mm2

% Open Area of this Screen = 24 mm2

The installation of the screen should be done with great care due to their high cost. The screen
should be cut to a length such that there is a small overlap. The overlap itself should be arranged
in the right direction according to the direction of rotation. Very important also is the correct
setting of the tip of the plough which scrapes sugar off the screen at the end of a cycle. A bad
setting can damage a new expensive screen during the first operation.

In more recent designs, plough tips are provided which are spring loaded and cannot damage the
screen. “BMA” for instance has a device which locks the basket spindle centrally during
ploughing and prevents any lateral motion, thus protecting the screen fro being torn by the
plough. All modern machines have some protection against screen damage.

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1.3 Capacity of the Centrifugals (See Fig .1.3 below)

π D 2 π ( 0.75 D ) 2 
Volume of Mas sec uite / Cycle =  −  × H
 4 4 

π D2 H
=
4
{1 − ( 0.75 ) 2 }

π D2 H
= {1 − 0.5625}
4

3.1416 × D2 × H × 0.4375
=
4

= 0.34 D 2 H

Volume of Mas sec uite / Hour = 0.34 D 2 H N ( N = No of Cycle per Hour )

Figure 1.3: Centrifugal Capacity Estimate

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1.3.1 Diameter and Speed of Rotation of Basket

The most important factor influencing the capacity of a centrifugals is the centrifugal force
available to expel the molasses during the operation. Centrifugals force is directly proportional to
the basket diameter and to the square of the speed of rotation of the basket

CF = K × D × S2

Where/ CF: Centrifugal Force

K: Constant Factor
D: Basket Diameter
S: Speed of Rotation of Basket

Thus, for example, the same centrifugal force is developed by the following machines:

D S CF

1 2 K × 1 × 2 × 2 = 4K

4 1 K × 4 × 1 × 1 = 4K

If two centrifugal have the same diameter but run at different speeds, the one with the higher
speed will developed greater centrifugal force and hence will cure the same massecuites in short
time. The same applies for two centrifugals running at the same speed but having different basket
diameter. In other words, a centrifugal must possess the largest possible basket diameter and this
basket must run at the highest possible speed.

Due to the fact the basket is fixed to the vertical shaft at only one point (at the bottom), the larger
its diameter, the more complicated and costly will be the construction to overcome the great
resulting stress. The same reasoning applies to speed of rotation of the basket. Manufactures of
batch centrifugals have found that a practical basket diameter is 1,300 mm and a reasonable
speed is 1,200 – 1,500 rpm.

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1.3.2 Basket Height and Massecuites Thickness

Another factor influencing the capacity of a centrifugal is the basket height. The greater the
basket the greater will be its massecuites content.

In large capacity batch centrifugals of latest design speeds of rotation are as follows: (BMA).

Kg Massecuites/Charge Maximum Speed/rpm Basket Diameter

1,000 1,200 1,320

1,250 1,200 1,320

1,500 1,000 1,600

1,750 To 1,100 1,600

Note that the maximum speed for high grade massecuites is 1,200 rpm. At higher speeds,
packing of sugar would result affect the ploughing; optimum speeds are from 1,000 to 1,200
rpm.

Again, due to the construction problem mentioned above, a height of 1,250 mm has been found
to be practical.

The thickness of massecuites inside the basket will also determine the centrifugals capacity. The
thicker the massecuite the greater will be the capacity but also the more difficult will be the
curing. The average massecuite thickness recommended is from 12 % to 14 % of the basket
diameter. The setting of the massecuite thickness inside the basket is done by a feeler which
gives a signal for the shutting of the massecuite feed valve when the desired thickness is reached.

1.4 Time of Cycle

Centrifugal capacity depends also on time taken for a complete cycle which comprises the
following operations (See Fig .1.4).
(a) Massecuite Chagrining

(b) Acceleration Washing and Curing

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(c) Braking

(d) Sugar Discharging

(e) Screen Washing

(f) Acceleration to Chagrining Speed

The factors affecting the time taken for a cycle are:

(a) Viscosity of the molasses (longer curing time is required for massecuites of a high
viscosity). It is, therefore, important to cure”A” and “B” massecuites in batch machines
at a reasonably “warm” temperature where the viscosity is sufficiently low not to affect
curing time, and sugar quality.

(b) Regularity of crystals size in massecuites (irregular crystals size will result in blockage of
space between crystals thus hindering the passage of molasses).

(c) Rapidity of acceleration (rapid acceleration to reach curing speed will shorten cycle
time).

(d) Centrifugal force developed at curing speed (Higher centrifugal force will shorten curing
time and cycle time).

(e) Rapidly of braking (rapid braking will shorten cycle time).

(f) Rapidly of sugar discharge (Rapid sugar discharge will shorten cycle time).

(g) Rapidity of screen washing (Rapid screen washing will shorten cycle time).

(h) At times over heating of motors may occur when operating on too short a cycle for long
periods. High speed centrifugals provided between 22 to 28 cycles per hour.

Factors (a) and (b) above depend on the massecuite quality whereas factors (c) to (g) depend on
the centrifugals itself.
For high grade massecuites, we may reckon an average of 18 - 25 cycles per hour.

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Batch
of
Operations
Cycle
1.4:
Figure

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1.5 Notes on Operation of Batch Centrifugals

(a) The removal of molasses between crystals is easy. On the other hand, the film of
molasses adhering to the crystals is more difficult to remove hence necessitating
washing. Washing during the operation can be done with:

i) Water: To be effective, the water must be the hottest possible, between 80 and 85
o
C. This washing must be kept to a minimum due to the inevitable dissolution of
crystals to be fully effective, the washing should be applied at the right moment, i.e.
after the molasses between the crystals has been removed . The wash water may be
applied during a fixed time of a few seconds or in two steps. The wash sprays must
be well designed in order to get a uniform distribution of the wash water over the
massecuites.

Some manufactured supply super heated water for washing. The water is heated
under pressure to about 105 oC and applied under pressure to give a very fine spray.

ii) Steam: The washing causes less dissolution of crystals but is less efficient. It
sometimes follows the water washing. Steam used is saturated steam.

(b) After each cycles the screen should be washed. This is done with the minimum amount
hot water to Ensure That the Purity Drop Will Not Increase (Normal: 1 or 2 points).
Washing can also be done every 3 to 4 cycles to reduce remelting of sugar.

(c) Frequent checks should be made on molasses coming out of a centrifugal to detect
presence of crystals revealing possible damage of screen.

(d) Batch Centrifugal nowadays are completely automatic. All the necessary operations are
carried out according to a preset program electronically controlled.

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1.6 Notes on Batch Centrifugal Maintenance

A complete and systematic maintenance of all centrifugals should be done during intercrop
season. This will ensure proper functioning of the machines during crop season and also
safeguards the security of the operators.

The manufactures usually informs the client about the theoretical lifetime of the basket. He also
specifies the minimum thickness that the basket wall can reach. Below this level danger exists. It
is, therefore, advised to measure basket wall thickness every year.

A careful and systematic verification of the basket wall holes as well as the rims and bolt holes
must be done every year to detect any crack which usually starts from there. If any crack is
observed, contact immediately the manufacturer.

All moving parts should be scrupulously verified and maintained.

There exists on batch centrifugals an automatic device protecting both operator and machine
against exaggerated and dangerous oscillation of the basket. This device closes the electric
supply and puts into operation mechanical braking. The same result can be obtained by means of
a manual circuit breaker. These devices should be carefully verified, maintained, adjusted and
tested before the drop seasons.

1.7 Centrifugal Drive

The centrifugal is driven by an electric motor coupled directly to the centrifugal shaft by means
of a flexible coupling.

The electric motor can be either an altering current induction motor or a direct current motor fed
by a converter systems form the alternating current network of the factory.

The direct current motor has the following advantages over alternating current motor:

(a) Choice of speed is not dependent on the frequency of the alternating current supply

(b) Speed control is easy rendering the operation more flexible

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(c) Power consumption is less

(d) Power demand is constant and controllable

(e) Less heating of motor

On the other hand, the direct current motor has the following disadvantages over alternating
current motor:

(a) The construction cost is higher

(b) Maintenance cost is higher due to the necessity of commutator and carbon brushes.

(c) Running problems can be caused by moisture or other particles hindering proper contact
between commutator and carbon brushes.

It must be noted that a new electronic device, the inverter drive, has been developed which
allows the speed of an alternating current motor to be easily controlled. Some centrifugal
manufactures have already adopted this device with success. Several drives are available, namely
the “DC” drive, the “AC” current source inverter drive, and the “AC - PWM” inverter drive. All
these drives are controlled electronically. Some of their characteristics are listed below.

Characteristics “DC” Drive “AC” Current Source “AC-PWM”

Inverter Inverter
Reactive Current Drawn from
Main (Also Total Current) High High High
Power Factor:
(Rated Speed) 0.90 0.90 0.98
(50 % Speed) 0.44 0.44 0.99
(10 % Speed) 0.09 0.09 0.94
Overall Efficiencies:
(Rated Speed) 92 % 90 % 92 %
(50 % Speed) 83 % 81 % 85 %
Motor Maintenance Brushes ,etc None None
Overall Reliability Moderate High High

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PWM stands for Pulse Width Modification. It is considered to give the best speed control on
“AC” drives. The “PWM” gives the motor a power factor of 1.0

The decelerating part of the working cycles of “AC” centrifugal motors provides regenerative
braking i.e. current is returned to line while electric braking of the machine is applied prior to
mechanical braking to stop the motor.

In a battery of electrically driven batch centrifugals, the starting and stopping of the machines is
controlled to operate in sequences. In this way, no two machines can start and stop
simultaneously.

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Self Check Exercises

1. Explain what is the importance of open area when choosing centrifugals screens.

2. Why is it important to carry out a thorough and systematic examination and maintenance
of batch centrifugals during each intercrop? Explain briefly the points to look for during
such an examination.

3. (a) With the help of a diagram describe the different operations of a batch centrifugal
during one complete cycle.
(b) Explain how centrifugal force development during centrifugal operation varies with
size and speed of baskets.
(c) What is the right moment for application of wash water during a cycle of the batch
centrifugal.

4. (a) What are the factors that affect the capacity of a batch centrifugal?
(b) Explain how speed and diameter of a basket affects centrifugal force.

5. Describe the different screens commonly found and explain their relative importance.

6. With the help of the diagram show how overlapping screen is done according to the
direction of rotation.

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Unit Two
Continuous Centrifugals
Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain and name the different parts of continuous centrifugal machine.

Describes properly the disadvantages of continuous centrifugal compare to batch
centrifugal.
Discuss the design characteristics and schematic drawing of “STG” centrifugal.
Describe the importance of proper conditioning of massecuite for continuous centrifugal
operation.

2.1 Introduction

To overcome the numerous disadvantages of the batch centrifugal (complexity of operations, low
efficiency in the use of energy, dead times…), the continuous centrifugals has been designed and
perfected to the point that they can be successfully used for purging low grade massecuites(See
Fig .2.1). Because of some problems not yet solved, this machine is not widely used for high
grade massecuites. However, if raw sugar of very high Pol (99.3) is to be melted and refined,
then the continuous centrifugal is deal. In a recent development a continuous centrifugal is now
available in Austriala which does not cause breakage of crystals.

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Figure 2.1: The Continuous Centrifugal

2.1.1 Description

The main differences between continuous and batch centrifugals concern the basket, the screen
and the drive.

The basket is an inverted cone having an angle of 25 – 340. It rotates at a speed of 1,200 – 2,600
rpm. It has a backing screen fixed to its interior wall on which is installed a set of cover screens
with openings of 0.06 mm for “C” massecuites and 0.09 mm for “B” massecuites. A set of
cover screens is made up of four segments. As for batch machine, the installation of the screens
must be done such that the overlapping is in the right direction.

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Massecuites is fed into the middle of a cone which forms the mouth of a central tube. The
massecuites is then evenly distributed in the basket with the help of the “cup” and the “bell”
Alternatively side feed is used in Western States continuous centrifugals and no cups and bells
required. The centrifugal force causes the massecuites to climb up the cover screen and, as it
does so, the molasses escapes through the cover screen and backing screen. The molasses then
climbs up the basket wall behind the backing screen and goes through openings in the basket
wall into the molasses chamber. The sugar left on the cover screen thrown out cove the basket
rim.

2.1.2 Wash Water and Steam

To remove the film of molasses adhering to the crystals, wash water must be used. The
application of wash water can be:

(a) Co-axial: Water at 80 oC or more and under constant pressure is added at the periphery
of the mouth of the tube receiving the massecuites and flows in with the later.

(b) Radial: Water is sprayed inside the basket by a spray pipe parallel to the basket wall.
This is not done on “C” massecuites but it is used on “B” massecuites, if
required.

To facilitate the curing, steam is used at the entrance of the massecuites. The steam enters a
jacket outside the central tube and thus heats the entering massecuites. Steam inside the jacket
finally goes out through holes in the central tube at the bottom of the jacket and mixes with the
incoming massecuites. The stream pressure at the centrifugal should be as normally required, i.e.
2.5 bar or 255 KPa (36 ft/sq in). In many cases, vapour-I is used in place of exhaust steam. The
pressure of vapour at the machine will be about 0.5 bar or 51 KPa (7.2 ft/sq in) which is far
below the requirement for efficient performance. Whenever vapour-I is used, larger vapour
pipes should be installed to reduce the pressure loss. Lagging of the steam pipes should always
be done as well as an effective removal of condensate.

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2.2 Centrifugal Drive

The centrifugal basket is driven from underneath by means of a motor and vee belts. As the
speed is constant, the motor used can be an alternating current one.

The power required is low compared to that of a batch centrifugal and there is no peak demand.

2.3 Disadvantage of Continuous Centrifugals

(a) Sugar crystals are ejected from the basket of a continuous centrifugal at a very high
velocity. They then impact on the casing after leaving the basket rim resulting in crystals
breakage. Lumps of sugar collect on the casing wall and these lumps fall off from time to
time. This crystals breakage as well as the formation of lumps has limited the application
of continuous centrifugal for high grade massecuites separation. Research is looking for
ways and means of overcoming the crystals breakage problem, but until now, the
proposed solutions have not been fully satisfactory.

(b) Sugar crystals are broken on their way up the cover screen. The fine broken crystals find
their way through the cover screen and go into the molasses hence increasing sugar loss.

(c) With the passage of crystals on the screen, the latter gets worn rapidly.

The First Successful Continuous Centrifugal For High Grade Massecuites

Research in Australia culminated, in 1993, in the development, by “STG”, of a prototype

continuous centrifugal for high grade massecuite. The design efforts were concentrated on
controlling the trajectory of crystals after leaving the basket rim so as to decelerate and deliver
them to the sugar chamber without breakage and on creating a self-cleaning impact surface to
prevent build-of lumps. Compared to low grade continuous centrifugals, the “STG” centrifugal
has lower basket speed (800 rpm compared to 2,000 rpm).

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2.4 Design Characteristics

The “STG” centrifugal has a side feeding arrangement (See Fig .2.2). The vertically mounted
conical basket has an angle of 250. The cover screen has 0.15 mm openings. The rate of washing
and steaming in the “STG” centrifugal is higher than in a batch machine and contributes to better
separation efficiency. A static deflector provides a controlled trajectory through the special
basket geometry and low angle of impact for the crystals leaving the basket rim. This
arrangement together with the low speed reduces the incidence of crystals fracture.

A self–cleaning blender with two arms revolving at 250 rpm breaks up the lumps of sugar before
they leave the monitor caring. Compared to sugar cured by a batch centrifugal “STG” cured
sugar is hotter (65 0C) and wetter (1.5 % moisture)

The installed power on a 30 tones massecuites per hour capacity machine is 45 KW the “STG”
centrifugal is fully automated with remote sequence start/stop, automatic control of the feed
valve to provide a steady load, and automatic control of wash water flow as a function of
massecuites feed rate.

According to there manufactures, there is no significant difference in crystals size distribution

between sugars leaving “STG” continuous centrifugal and batch centrifugals.

2.4.1 Screens for Continuous Centrifugals

Most ‘B’ and ‘C’ machines use screens with 0, 06 mm aperture, some factories still use 0, 09 mm
aperture screens on ‘B’ centrifugals. In Mauritius 0, 04 mm screens are also used on ‘C’
massecuites.

The introduction of larger open area screens (10 % and 12 %) has allowed larger throughputs,
higher molasses Brixes and lower molasses purities.

Laser cut screens have been tested and have resulted min higher through puts and reduced
molasses purities as well as higher Brixes. Laser cut screens are more expensive than
conventional ones.

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Figure 2.2: Schematic Drawing of “STG” 110 HR Continuous Centrifugal

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The useful life of continuous centrifugal screens varies from 10 to 25 weeks in South Africa.
Laser cut screen last longer as they are made in stainless steel with a hard chromium surface
coating which does not flake off to expose relatively soft nickel. Laser cut screens are reportedly
more resistant to damage caused by foreign objects and can also be repaired by soldering.

Erosion of screens in continuous centrifugals occurs mainly at the bottom of the screen due to the
impact of sugar crystals. This in the long run results in widening of the bottom slots and loss of
sugar to molasses. Damage to screens is caused mainly by foreign objects and hard pieces of
scales coming in with the feed. Precautions musty be taken to thoroughly clean pan surfaces,
crystallizers and massecuites supply pipes and gutters before start-up. The impact of hard objects
also causes distortion of slots and their widening. Screens must be changed after their useful life.

Proper care of screens is therefore very important. The use of a stroboscope is essential as it will
allow screen damager to be detected without delay. Distribution of massecuites can be observed
and proper adjustments to the feed and water supplies made.

2.4.2 Basket Angle

Centrifugals having basket angles of 300 are completely satisfactory for curing both “B” and
“C” massecuites.

2.4.3 High Capacity Continuous Machines

Centrifugals of larger diameter and capacity have replaced many smaller machines, mainly
Broadbent “SP1220” and “BMA K1301”; these machines are capable of 8 to 9 tonnes of “B”
and “C” massecuites /hour. It is estimated that one such larger centrifugals can replace 5 smaller
“K 850 BMA” machines, with similar purity rises than with the “K 850”.

2.4.4 Dry Run of Centrifugals

Sometimes, a centrifugals may be checked by having a “Dry” run, i.e. with no water addition. If
on examination the molasses show large amounts of crystals this could be an indication of severe
wear and/or serious damage to the screen.

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2.5 Massecuite Conditioning

Proper conditioning of massecuites is important in the operation of continuous centrifugals. The
high viscosity of “C” massecuites of low purity (500 – 520) and high Brixes (960 – 970) require
that re-heating of the massecuite be done before feeding. In South Africa, reheating to 60 – 65 0C
is normally carried out. However, in Mauritius where the optimum “C” massecuites purities are
around 650 – 580, viscosities are low and reheating to 500 – 55 0C is normal. At Savannah sugar
mill, “C” massecuites are cured at ambient temperature, no reheating being necessary. This is
unique in the world.

In factories not equipped with “C” massecuites, re-heaters dilution of massecuites with water is
practiced as there is no other way of reducing viscosity. In these cases, provision should be made
for the eventual installation of a well designed massecuites re-heater.

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Figure 2.3: FC Series Continuous Centrifugal. (Fives – Cail Babcock)

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Figure 2.4: Specific Power Consumption of Batch Centrifugals and the Supe

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Self Check Exercises

1. Continuous centrifugals for high-grade massecuite is a fairly recent development.

(a) Explain the drawbacks of previous continuous centrifugals for curing high-grade
massecuite.
(b) Give the new design feature that have been adopted on continuous high grade
centrifugals in relation to these drawbacks.
(c) Give two advantages of high grade continuous centrifugals over the batch machines.
(d) What are still the two main disadvantages of high grade continuous centrifugals in
relation to crystal quality?

2. (a) Using a simple diagram, show the path of massecuite, sugar and molasses in a
continuous low-grade massecuite centrifugal.
(b) Give the different apertures commonly found on “A”, “B” and “C” continuous
centrifugals in relation to crystal size.
(c) What are the different basket angles found on continuous centrifugals for “A”, “B”
and “C” massecuites?

3. (a) With the help of diagram, explain the design effects that have helped to make the new
continuous centrifugal for high grade massecuite a success.
(b) What are the two disadvantages still found on those centrifugals as far as the crystal
quality is concerned?
(c) Give two advantages of high grade continuous centrifugals over the batch machines.

4. (a) Describe the different kinds of screens commonly found on batch centrifugal.
(b) With the help of diagram show:
(i) Overlapping of screens is done according to the direction of rotation of the basket.
(ii) The different kinds of screens help the curing of massecuites.

5. (a) With the help of the diagram describe the different operations of a batch centrifugal
during one complete cycle.
(b) What are the factors affecting the capacity of the batch centrifugal?
(c) What is the right moment for application of wash water during a cycle of batch
centrifugal?.

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Unit Three

Drying of Sugar

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly about the permissible moisture content of sugar.

Describes properly the two formulations that are used to control the moisture content of
sugar.
Discuss the sugar dryer and dust collector.
Describe all the precautions to be taken with sugar dryers.
Calculate the volume of the dryer required while dealing with a sugar drying.
Calculate the steam consumption of the dryers while dealing with sugar drying.
Discuss all the precautions in order to obtain a good conditioning of sugar after drying.

3.1 Introduction
In order for sugar to be properly handled and successfully stored, it has to be dried to a safe
moisture level.

Raw sugar, depending in its polarization, is surrounded by a film of molasses, which contains
non-sugars and reducing sugars .if the sugar is not dried sufficiently, growth of micro-organisms
could develop, which would causes deterioration and loss in storage.

The level of drying is determined by the required polarization to satisfy its market values, both
international and local.

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3.2 Permissible Moisture Content

This is determined by the ratio of non-Pol to the moisture in the film of molasses around the
crystals. Micro-organisms cannot develop in solutions of high concentration so that if the
moisture is driven off to a controlled level, no deterioration will take place. Two formulations
have been developed to control the moisture content of sugars.

3.2.1 The Safety Factor (S.F)

( % H 2O )
The Safety Factor ( S . F ) =
( 100 − Pol % )

A Value of 0 . 25 or Less is Re quired

3.2.2 The Dilution Indicator

( 100 × % H 2O )
The Dilution Indicator ( D .I ) =
( 100 − Pol % − % H 2O )

A Value of 0 . 33 or Less is Considered Satisfacto ry .

If Pol % = 98.50
and Moisture % = 0.35

( 100 × 0 . 35 )
Dilution Indicator ( D .I ) =
( 100 − 98 . 50 − 0 . 35 )

= 30 . 44

Dilution Indicator ( D .I ) < 33 . 3 = Safety Zone

Dilution Indicator ( D .I ) 33 . 3 − 50 = Doubtful Zone

Dilution Indicator ( D .I ) > 50 = Zone of Deteriorat ion

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Raw sugar of 98.50 Pol is generally dried to between 0.2 – 0.5 % moisture, and very high Pol
sugar of 99.30 Pol to less than 0.18 %. Refined sugar is dried to between 0.02 – 0.03 % moisture.

3.3 Sugar Dryers

A sugar dryer provides heated air in counter flow to a sugar stream to drive the moisture out of
the sugar to the desired level. A dryer consists of a drying section followed by a cooling section.
There are several types of dryers, namely.

Horizontal: Cascade and Roto - Louvre Dryers

Vertical: Comessa Dryer

Fluidised Bed Dryers: Used for Refined or V.H.P. Sugars

3.3.1 Horizontal Dryers

The Cascade dryer is largely utilized in the sugar industry. It has a rotating drum mounted at a
small angle with the horizontal with scoops designed to pick up the sugar and drop it from top to
bottom all along the dryer, uniformly spread. Due to the inclination with the horizontal, sugar
travels down the length of the dryer to the exit point. Warm (heated) air is drawn in to travel
counter-current to the falling sugar and is exhausted at the end of the dryer. Another rotary drum
is sometimes provided in order to cool the sugar. In that case, cool air is drawn in counter current
to the sugar. These dryers are also called “granulators”.

The Roto-Louver dryer is a rotary drum dryer designed to provide drying and cooling in the
same unit. Auxiliary equipment to the dryer consists of air-filters, Steam air heater, exhaust fan,
etc.

In the Roto-Louvre dryer, the saugar is not lifted to the top ands allowed to cascade to the
bottom. Is scoops are designed to allow sugar to roll forward along the length of the drum. This
design prevents the “abrasion” of crystals common in cascade dryers.

In all horizontal rotary drum dryers, the sugar leaving the dryer is screened over mesh wire to
remove lumps.

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3.2.2 The Vertical Comessa Dryer

This dryer consists of a rotating vertical shaft bearing a number of superimposed trays. On each
tray there are a number of radial slots to allow sugar to fall to the tray below. A metallic casing
encloses the whole dryer (trays, fans and radiators).

Circulation of Sugar

The principle of multiple recirculation of the air through a horizontal circuit is adopted here,
shown by the arrows. Meanwhile thee is a general movement of air from the bottom to the top
through the slots, causing a renewal of the air, Humid air is exhausted at the top of the dryer, it is
independent of the being mixed and can be reduced to t a minimum. Cold air is supplied to the
lower plates to cool the sugar before being discharged by an inclined chute. With a low velocity
and humid sugar entering at the top, there is a negligible dust entrainment from this dryer. The
air in the dryer is heated by radiators installed on each side of the fans. Steam at a pressure of
206 KPa (105 Gauges) is generally used and the temperature in the heating zone of the dryer is
kept at 60 0C.

3.3.2 Fluidized Bed Dryer

The fluidized bed dryer consists of a vertical cylinder separated into two compartments, upper
and lower, by a perforated plate containing gas distribution nozzles.

Part of the lower compartment (wind box) receives hot air for drying, which is produced by a
steam heat exchanger mounted in the main fludising air duct. The other section of the wind box
receives cold air.

Sugar from centrifugal is fed into the upper compartment expansion chamber) at the desired feed
rate and forms a bed about 300 mm deep non the perforated plate, where the hot air passing
through the plate fluids the sugar while drying it. The nozzles in the perforated plate are specially
designed to distribute air evenly through the sugar and keep it uniformly fluidised.
In the fluidised condition, sugar behaves like a liquid and flows out through the dryer discharge
outlet, where the discharge rate is controlled by means of a vibrating feed. Since the fluidised

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bed pressure drop is directly proportional to the bed depth, the level of material in the dryer can
be maintained constant irrespective of variations in feed rate.

Waste gases leave the dryer at the top of the expansion chamber and pass to the exhaust systems.

The plant is equipped with instruments and controls to indicted air flows and pressure and
thermocouples show the temperature of the hot air entering the dryer, the fluidized bed and the
exhaust gases.

Automatic bed level and bed temperature control is normally incorporated, bed level being
controlled by the discharge feeder, bed temperature by steam flow rate modulation.

Alarm systems and control are also fitted to the plant after start-up; it can be run with the
minimum of attention.

Working Conditions: (For a 20 tonnes per hour sugar dryer)

Temperature of Hot Air 60 0C

Temperature of Sugar Leavening the Dryer 40 0C

Moisture of Sugar at Inlet of Dryer 1%

Sugar Temperature at Inlet of Dryer 60 0C

Moisture of Sugar Leaving the Dryer 0.02 %

Power Consumption:

Main Air Fan 100 KW

Exhaust Fan 50 KW

Discharge Feeder 1.5 KVA

Water Usage 460 liters/minute (this can be closed circuit with 10 % make
up if water supply is a problem)

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3.4 Dust Collectors

The exhausted air from a sugar dryer is always contaminated by sugar dust. Dust collators are
used to separate the sugar dust from the air. There are two types:

(i) Dry Air Separator

(ii) Wet Air Separator

3.4.1 Dry Air Separator

In dry air section, the sugar dust is separated from the air in a “Cyclone Separator”. The sugar
dust collected can be used for seeding purposes or sold as powdered sugar. Dry air collectors are
simple in design but are less efficient than wet air separators.

3.4.2 Wet Air Separator

In the wet air separators, a spray of water is used to trap the sugar dust. The sweet water can be
recycled until a desired Brix is reached. This type of dust separator is very efficient but care
should be taken to keep the systems clean and free of fermentation (the Brix is generally
maintained at 150)

3.5 Precautions to be taken with Sugar Dryers

Never stop a dryer containing sugar, the dryer should be emptied first, as otherwise, sugar
well cake or caramelize inside the dryer.

The dryer should be fed as uniformly as possible.

The air blown through the dryer should be filtered to avoid contamination of the sugar.

The temperature of the air inside the dryer should be controlled as too high a temperature
will develop color or even caramelise the sugar.

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Smoking should be prohibited in the drying room. (sugar dust is explosive when it is very
fine and mixed with air).

Sugar dryers should be examined frequently and cleaned if necessary.

3.6 Calculation for a Sugar Dryer

Volume of Air Required:

A = Weight of air in Kg/hr

P = Weight of sugar to be dried in Kg/hr
H = Moisture content of sugar relatively to unity.
Ho = Weight of water vapour contained in saturated air at the temperature (to) of
entry exit from the dryer in Kg/Kg.
Hi = Weight of water vapour contained in saturated air at the temperature of (ti)
of exit from the dryer in Kg/Kg.

N.B. Exit air from dryer is snot saturated. We suppose that it has absorbed only:

(a) For Counter Current Circulation Sugar Dryers:

Two thirds of the moisture which might have been absorbed by the dryer of it had been
saturated.

(b) In Other Cases:

One third of this quantity

For Counter Current Circulation

2 
pH = A  ( H1 − H0 
3 

pH
A =
2
( H1 − H0 )
3

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Example:

p = 20,000 Kg/hr

Humidity of Sugar (H) = 1% = 0.01

to = 30 oC

ti = 50 oC

Ho and Hi are obtained from graphic 8

H0 = 0.025

Hi = 0.085

20,000 × 0.01
A = = 5,000 Kg / hr
2
( 0.085 − 0.025 )
3

A
Volume of Air =
ao + e0

Where/ V = Volume of Air in, m3/hr

ao = Density of Air in m3/hr
Co = Weight of Vapour Contained in Saturated Air at (to) Degrees, in Kg.

A 5,000
Volume of Air (V ) = = = 4.385 m 3 / hr
ao + e0 1.11 + 0.03

Heating Surface of Air Heater

S = Heating Surface of the Heater in m2

M = Quantity of Heat to Be Transmitted in KCal/hr
K = Heat Transfer Coefficient In KCal/m2/oC/hr
T = Temperature of the Saturated Steam in oC
to = Temperature of Cold Air Entraining in oC
ti = Temperature of Hot Air Leaving in oC

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Suppose:

K = 8 at 10 KCal/m2/degree/hr

M = 1.25 (q1 + q2 + q3)

q1 = Heat Necessary to Heat the Weight (A) of Air q1 = AC (ti – to)

C = Specific Heat of the Air = 0.24.

q2 = Heat necessary to evaporate the water contained in the sugar.

q2 = pH (607 + 0.3 ti – to)

q3 = Heat necessary to heat the vapour contained in the weight (A) of air supposed to be
saturated.

q1 = Ac (ti – to)

= 5,000 × 0.24 (50 – 30)

= 24,000 Kcalories

q2 = pH (607 + 0.3 ti – to)

= 20,000 × 0.01 {607 + (0.3 × 50) – 30}

= 200 × 607 + 15 – 30

= 118,400 Kcalories

M = 1.25 (q1 + q2) = 178,000 Kcalories

M
S =
t1 + to
K ( T − )
2

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178,000 178,000
S = =
50 + 30 8 (134 − 40 )
8 ( 134 − )
2

178,000
=
752

= 236.7 m 2

3.7 Steam Consumption

Q = Steam Consumption of the Heater in Kg/hr

r = Latent Heat of the Steam Used

M 178,000
Q = = = 345 Kg / hr
r 516

3.8 Conditioning of Sugar after Drying

The moisture content of refined sugar after drying is in the range of 0.02 – 0.03 % (using the
method: oven drying for 3 hours at 105 0C) which is a measure of the surface moisture. The total
moisture content of refined sugar as measured by Karl Fisher total moisture determination is
around 0.01 – 0.13 %.

The sugar should therefore be conditioned before bagging in order to reduce the total moisture to
an acceptable level ( < 0.06) to avoid caking.

Refined sugar is conditional in large silos with a retention time of at least 24 hours, if the sugar is
sold on local market and where the temperature gradient is small. The conditioning time should
however be at least 72 hours if the sugar is to be exported in cold regions. Conditional air at a
relative humidity of 20 – 30 % and at a temperature of 5 0C less than the sugar temperature at the

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dryer outlet is blown at the bottom of the silo through multiple outlets. It is important to circulate
the sugar in the silo during conditioning. It is also advisable to keep the sugar in a small
maturation bin with a retention time of 4 hours before transferring the sugar in the conditioning
silo.

Precautions in order to obtain a good conditioning of sugar:

1. Good pan control in order to avoid false grains and conglomerates.

2. Produce a refined sugar with a coefficient of variation (C.V.) of less than 25.

3. Sieve, if possible, the fines < 0.3 mm and the conglomerates before condoning

4. Dry the sugar using an air temperature as low as possible (60 0C if possible)

5. Sugar temperature at bagging should be less than 38 0C and as near as ambient

temperature as possible (60 0C if possible).

6. Ventilate the sugar conveyors with dry air.

7. Displace the humid air of containers with dry air before loading

8. Remove the maximum moisture during the centrifugal operation.

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Figure 3.1: Counter Flow Rotary Cascading Dryer / Cooler

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Figure 3.2: General Arrangement of a Cascade Type Combined Dryer/Cooler

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Figure 3.3: Schematic Arrangement of Fluidized Bed Sugar Dryer

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Figure 3.4: Entrainment Separator

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Self Check Exercises

1.

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