ROAD LINE CONSTRUCTION

ROAD LINE CONSTRUCTION
TRACK – I: Industry Internship Program (IIP-II)

with Project
Semester – VIII Work Details

B Tech (Common to all Programs)
Student Name: SURAJ BHARAT JADHAV
PRN No. : 17ST113251022
Class & Branch: CIVIL ENGINEERING B.TECH FINALYEAR
Cell No. : 9518721110/8381098392 E-mail : 17st113251022@sanjayghodawatuniversity.ac.in
Blood Group: AB+
Residential Address: PLOT NO. 82/1, LAXMI TAKLI ROAD VIGNHARTA GANESH MANDIR, ANAND
NAGAR, TAKLI, PANDHARPUR PIN CODE: - 413304
Name of University Guide: PROF/MR. C.S PATIL
Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 1

Annexure 1
INTERNSHIP REPORT
A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Industry Internship Program
Civil Department
By
PRN. No.: 17ST113251022
Class: : B.TECH FINALYEAR Div. B Roll No: 65

Under Supervision of
Guide name: MR. C.S. Patil
Guide Designation:
(Duration:01/01/2021to30/04/2021)
School of Technology

Annexure 2
Kolhapur (MS)
2020-21
School of Technology
Department of Civil
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the “Internship report” submitted by Suraj Bharat Jadhav(PRN No.:
17ST113251022) Class: B.TECH FINALYEAR Div.: B Roll No.: 65 is work done by him/her and
submitted during 20 20-21 academic year, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Industry Internship Program- II with project
Sanjay Ghodawat University, Kolhapur
Department Internship Co-ordinator Head of Department

Annexure 3
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement
First I would like to thank Management and staff of the
Civil Department (Organization in which training was taken up)
for giving me the opportunity to do an internship within the industry/organization.
I am highly indebted to University Management for the facilities provided to
accomplish this internship.
I would like to thank my Head of the Department Mr. Suraj Bharat Jadhav
for constructive criticism throughout my internship.
I would like to thank University Guide Dr /Mr. C.S. Patil and
Department Internship Co-ordinator Dr/Mr. Dr. A.D.KADTARE
for support and advices to get and complete internship in above said organization.
It is indeed with a great sense of pleasure and immense sense of gratitude that I acknowledge
the help of these individuals.
I am extremely great full to my department staff members and friends who helped me in
successful completion of this internship.
Class: : B.TECH FINALYEAR Div. B Roll No: 65

ABSTRACT
Road construction projects are expensive and highly affected by uncertainties related to
factors such as weather, type of soil and other site and environmental factors. These
uncertainties impact on the accuracy of predicting resource productivity and developing
reliable schedules for earthwork operations. Current simulation and planning approaches
and tools not only lack the capabilities of dealing with such uncertainties but they also
lack the integration and intelligence to simulate multiple strategies – a model should be
built every time a new scenario is required. As a result, planning decisions regarding the
assignment of resources are purely based on planner’s experience and project plans are
not the outcomes of comparing various allocation strategies. This paper proposed an
approach which is visual, interactive, and integrator of the functions involved in
earthwork operation such as activity scheduling, resource productivity calculation,
optimal distance calculation and profile visualization. This specifically addresses the
challenges related to the limited intelligence and capability of simulating multiple
strategies of resource allocation in earthwork operation. The proposed development
builds upon a prior study (Castro and Dawood, 2005) that developed a knowledge-driven
approach to tackle the ‘uncertainty’ challenge affecting the productivity of resources.
This paper hypothesizes that an integrated approach which integrates the various
functions involved in earthwork operations and provides an interactive environment
where planners could easily change planning decisions and promptly analyze the effect of
their decisions could improve the reliability of plans and consequently improve the
performance of road construction projects.

INDEX
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Steps in Bituminous Road Construction 01

1.2 Materials Used for the Construction of 01
Roads: Methods, Process, Layers and
Road Pavement!
1.3 Need for Soil Classification 01
1.4 Relatively Suitability for General 01
Engineering Purposes
1.5 Geological Classification of Rocks 01
1.6 Desirable Properties of Sand Aggregates 01
1.7 The definition for the term, bitumen, given 01
by the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) runs thus
1.8 Bitumen from Petroleum Refining 01
1.9 There are three types of cut-backs based on 01
the diluent (dilutant or solvent) used
1.10 Each of these has been categorized based on 01
their initial kinematic viscosity values as follows
1.16 Properties of Cement 01
CHAPTER-2 BRIDGE
2.1 Types of Bridges 02
2.2 Types of Bridges based on Type of 02
Super Structure
2.3 Types of Bridges based on Materials 02

2.4 Types of Bridges based on Span 02
2.5 Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing 02
2.6 Types of Bridges based on Function 02
2.7 Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation 02
2.8 Types of Bridges based on Utility 02
2.9 Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor 02
2.10 Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL) 02
CHAPTER-3 COMPANY PROFILE
3.1 S.M. Autade Constructions Pvt. Ltd. 03

3.2 Product and services 03
3.3 General information about company. 03
3.4 Purpose of visiting company. 03
3.5 Significance of the visiting company 03
3.6 What we learnt? 03
3.7 Conclusion 03
3.8 Reference 03
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Steps in Bituminous Road Construction
1. Preparation of the existing base course layer

The existing surface is prepared by removing the pot holes or rust if any. The
irregularities are filled in with premix chippings at least a week before laying surface
course. If the existing pavement is extremely way, a bituminous leveling course of
adequate thickness is provided to lay a bituminous concrete surface course on a binder
course instead of directly laying it on a WBM.
2. Application of Tuck Coat

It is desirable to lay AC layer over a bituminous base or binder course. A tack coat of
bitumen is applied at 6.0 to 7.5 kg per 10 sq.m area, this quantity may be increased to 7.5
to 10 kg for non-bituminous base.
3. Preparation and placing of Premix

The premix is prepared in a hot mix plant of a required capacity with the desired quality
control. The bitumen may be heated up to 150 – 177 deg C and the aggregate temperature
should not differ by over 14 deg C from the binder temperature. The hot mixed material
is collected from the mixture by the transporters, carried to the location is spread by a
mechanical paver at a temperature of 121 to 163 deg C. the camber and the thickness of
the layer are accurately verified. The control of the temperatures during the mixing and
the compaction are of great significance in the strength of the resulting pavement
structure.
4. Rolling
A mix after it is placed on the base course is thoroughly compacted by rolling at a speed
not more than 5km per hour. The initial or break down rolling is done by 8 to 12 tonnes
roller and the intermediate rolling is done with a fixed wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to 30
tonnes having a tyre pressure of 7kg per sq.cm. the wheels of the roller are kept damp
with water. The number of passes required depends on the thickness of the layer. In warm
weather rolling on the next day, helps to increase the density if the initial rolling was not
adequate. The final rolling or finishing is done by 8 to 10 tonne tandem roller.
Fig: Tandem Roller

5. Quality control of bituminous concrete construction

The routine checks are carried out at site to ensure the quality of the resulting pavement
mixture and the pavement surface. Periodical checks are made for a) Aggregate grading
b) Grade of bitumen c) Temperature of aggregate d) Temperature of paving mix during
mixing and compaction. At least one sample for every 100 tonnes of the mix discharged
by the hot mix plant is collected and tested for above requirements. Marshall tests are
also conducted. For every 100 sq.m of the compacted surface, one test of the field density
is conducted to check whether it is at least 95% of the density obtained in the laboratory.
The variation in the thickness allowed is 6mm per 4.5m length of construction.
1.2 Materials Used for the Construction of Roads: Methods, Process, Layers and
Road Pavement!
A wide variety of materials are used in the construction of roads these are soils (naturally
occurring or processed), aggregates (fine aggregates or coarse aggregates obtained from
rocks), binders like lime, bituminous materials, and cement, and miscellaneous materials
used as admixtures for improved performance of roads under heavy loads and traffic.
Soil constitutes the primary material for the foundation, subgrade, or even the pavement
(for low-cost roads with low traffic in rural areas). When the highway is constructed on
an embankment at the desired level, soil constitutes the primary embankment material;
further, since all structures have to ultimately rest on and transmit loads to ‘mother earth’,
soil and rock also serve as foundation materials.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Soil is invariably used after some process of stabilisation such as compaction and
strengthening by adding suitable admixtures for improving the performance of the road.
Mineral aggregates obtained from rocks form the major component of the sub-bases and
bases of highway pavements of almost all types.
A detailed study of their properties is therefore essential. Binder materials such as
bitumen and cement mixed with appropriate types and proportions of aggregates are used
for the construction of superior types of roads that are characterised by their durability
and load-carrying capacity. Thus, base courses, sub-base courses and even the surface or
wearing courses require the use of these materials.
1. Soil:
Soils can be studied effectively if they are classified according to certain principles into a
definite system. A system is an ordered grouping of certain elements in a discipline
according to pre-defined principles. Just as classification or grouping is practised in

scientific disciplines such as chemistry, zoology and botany, it is used in Geotechnical

Engineering as well.
A soil classification system may be defined as a fundamental division of the various types
of soil into groups according to certain parameters such as its physical properties,
constituents or texture, field performance under load, presence of water and so on.
There are a few field identification tests have been developed for preliminary
identification in the field.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
1.3 Need for Soil Classification:

Soil deposits in nature are never homogenous in character; wide variations are observed
in their properties and behaviour. Soils that exhibit similar average properties may be
grouped as a class. Classification of soil is necessary to obtain an appropriate and fairly
accurate idea of the properties and behaviour of a soil type.
A classification system is usually evolved with a view to assessing the suitability of a soil
for specific use as a construction material or as a foundation material. In view of the wide
variations in engineering properties of several soils, it is inevitable that in any system of
classification, there will be borderline cases which may fall into groups that appear to be
radically different under different systems of classification.
Hence, classification is taken only as a preliminary requirement to study the engineering
behaviour of a soil; special tests may become necessary in any project of importance.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Requirements of a Soil Classification System:

The general requirements of an ideal soil classification system are:
(i) It should have a scientific basis.
(ii) It should be relatively simple and objective in approach.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(iii) The number of groupings and properties used as the criteria should be limited.
(iv) The properties considered should be relevant to the purpose of classification.
(v) A generally accepted uniform soil terminology should be used.
(vi) It should indicate the probable performance of the soil to a satisfactory degree of
accuracy.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

(vii) Group boundaries should be drawn as closely as possible where significant changes
in soil properties occur.
(viii) It should be acceptable to all engineers.
These are rather ambitious requirements and cannot be expected to be met by any system,
primarily because of the complex nature of soil, which does not lend itself to a simple
classification. Therefore, a soil classification system is probably satisfactory only for the
specific engineering application for which it was developed.
Although several classification systems have been developed, some being relatively
more elaborate and exhaustive than others, the following systems only will be
considered:
(a) Textural classification
(b) PRA system of classification (Group index method)
(c) Unified soil classification System
(d) Indian Standard Soil classification system
(a) Textural Classification:
Textural or grain size classification of soil is based on the particle size of the soil. Terms
such as gravel, sand, silt and clay are used to indicate the ranges of grain size. Natural
soil is invariably a mixture of particles of various sizes.
Although several textural classifications have been proposed, including the PRA system,
the MIT classification and the IS textural classification are considered here in view of
their wider acceptance.
MIT Textural Classification:
This was developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. The ranges of
grain sizes in this scale, along with the soil designations, are given below (Fig. 6.7).
IS Textural Classification:

The ranges of sizes in the IS textural classification scale, along with the soil designations,
are given below (Fig. 6.8).
This forms part of the Indian Standard Soil Classification System. In general, textural
classifications are inadequate primarily because plasticity characteristics do not find any
place in them.
(b) PRA System of Classification (Group Index Method):

The US Bureau of Public Roads developed a classification system, called the Public
Roads Administration (PRA) classification system in 1931, specifically meant for use in
road construction. This was revised several times, and the one given here is that revised
in 1945 by the American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials
(AASHTO). This system is based on both particle size and plasticity characteristics.
According to this system, soils are classified into eight groups—A-1 to A-8, the last one
being Peat. Some groups contain a few subgroups. Soils within each group are evaluated
according to the group index (GI), calculated from the following empirical formula –

GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd … (6.55)

Here,
a = that part of the percent passing US Sieve No.200 (IS-75 μm) greater than 35, and
not exceeding 75, expressed as a positive whole number (1 to 40);
b = that part of the percent passing US Sieve No.200 (IS-75 μm) greater than 15, and not
exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole number (1 to 40);
c = that part of the liquid limit greater than 40, and not greater than 60, expressed as
a positive whole number (1 to 20); and,
d = that part of the plasticity index greater than 10, and not exceeding 30, expressed as a
positive whole number (1 to 25).
The group index value should be rounded off to the nearest integer; in case any of the
above values is less than the minimum limit, it should be taken as zero.
In general, the greater the group index value, the less desirable the soil is for highway
construction within that subgroup.
The details of the groups and subgroups are set out in Table 6.1.

Unified Soil Classification System:

This system was originally developed by Arthur Casagrande and adopted by the US
Corps of Engineers in 1942 as ‘Airfield Classification’. It was later revised for universal
use and re-designated as the Unified Soil Classification in 1953.
In this system, soils are classified into three broad categories:
(i) Coarse-grained soils with up to 50% passing No.200 American Standard Testing
Service (ASTM) Sieve (75 μm-IS sieve).
(ii) Fine-grained soils with more than 50% passing No.200 ASTM Sieve (75 μm-IS
sieve).

(iii) Organic soils.

The first two categories can be distinguished by their plasticity characteristics. The third
can be easily identified by its colour, odour and fibrous nature.
Each soil component is assigned a symbol as follows:
Gravel – G
Silt: M (from the Swedish word, ‘mo’ for silt)
Organic – O
Sand – S
Clay – C
Peat – Pt
Coarse-grained soils are further sub-divided into well-graded (W), and poorly-graded (P)
varieties, depending upon the uniformity coefficient (U) and the coefficient of curvature
(Cc) –
Well-graded gravel, U > 4
Well-graded sand, U > 6
Well-graded soil, Cc = 1 to 3.
Fine-grained soils are subdivided into those with low plasticity (L), with ωL < 50%, and
those with high plasticity (H), with ω L > 50%. The plasticity chart devised by Casagrande
is used for the identification of fine-grained soils (Fig 6.9) –

Indian Standard Soil Classification System:

The relevant Indian Standard is “IS: 1498-1970, classification and identification of soils
for engineering purposes (First Revision.)”.
The significant provisions of this system are given below:
Soil shall be broadly divided into three divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained soil – More than 50% of the total material by weight is larger than 75
μm IS sieve size.
(2) Fine-grained soil: More than 50% of the total material by weight is smaller than 75
μm IS sieve size.
(3) Highly Organic Soil and Other Miscellaneous Soil Materials:
These soils contain large percentages of fibrous organic matter such as peat and particles
of decomposed vegetation.
In addition, certain soils containing shells, cinders and other non-soil materials in
sufficient quantities are also grouped in this division.
Coarse-grained soils shall be divided into (a) gravels and (b) sands.
(a) Gravels – More than 50% of coarse fraction (+75 μm) is larger than 4.75 mm IS sieve
size.
(b) Sands – More than 50% of coarse fraction (+75 μm) is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve
size. Fine-grained soils can be subdivided into
(i) Silts and clays of low compressibility – Liquid limit less than 35% (L).
(ii) Silts and clays of medium compressibility – Liquid limit greater than 35% and less
than 50% (I).
(iii) Silts and clays of high compressibility – Liquid limit greater than 50% (H).
Coarse-grained soils shall be further subdivided into eight basic soil groups, and the fine-
grained soils into nine basic soil groups; highly organic soils and other miscellaneous soil
materials shall be placed in one group.
The Plasticity Chart used in IS system of soil classification is shown in Fig. 6.10.

Classification Criteria for Fine-Grained Soil:

Based on laboratory tests and the results in the form of consistency limits, the plasticity
chart forms the basis for the classification of fine-grained soils.
Organic silts and clays are distinguished from inorganic soils which have the same
position on the plasticity chart, by odour and colour. In case of doubt, the material may
be oven-dried, remixed with water, and retested for liquid limit. The plasticity of fine-
grained organic soils is considerably reduced on oven-drying.
Oven-drying affects the liquid limit of inorganic soils also, but only to a small extent. A
decrease in liquid limit on oven-drying to a value-less than three-fourths of that before
oven-drying is a positive identification of organic soils.
Black-Cotton Soils:
These are inorganic clays of medium to high compressibility. They are characterised by
high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. When plotted on the plasticity chart, they lie
mostly along a band above the A-line. For some, the band may lie below the A-lie also.
Kaolin behaves like inorganic silt and usually lies below the A-line; this shall be
classified as such (ML, MI and MH), although it is clay from mineralogical stand point.
The classification criteria for coarse-grained soils are given in Table 6.4.

Boundary Classification for Coarse-Grained Soils:

Coarse-grained soils with 5% to 12% fines are considered border-line cases between
clean and dirty gravels or sands-for example, GW-GC, or SP-SM. Similarly, border-line
cases might occur in dirty gravels and dirty sands, where Ip is between 4 and 7- for
example, GM-GC, or SM-SC. It is, therefore, possible to have a border-line case of a
border-line case. The rule for correct classification in such cases is to favour the non-
plastic classification.
For example, gravel with 10% fines, a U-value of 20, a Cc -value of 2.0, and IP of 6 would
be classified GW-GM, rather than GW-GC.
Note – Even separate flow-charts may be shown for coarse-grained and fine-grained
soils.
1.4 Relatively Suitability for General Engineering Purposes:
The characteristics of the various soil groups pertinent to roads and airfields-value as
subgrade, sub-base and base material, compressibility, drainage characteristics,
compaction characteristics, dry unit weight, CBR-value, and subgrade modulus are all

tabulated in “IS: 1498-1970 – classification and identification of soils for general

engineering purposes”.
It also includes characteristics pertinent to embankments and foundations-values as
embankment material, compaction characteristics, value as foundations material,
requirements for seepage control, ranges of permeability and dry unit weight.
Characteristics pertinent to suitability for canal sections compressibility, workability as a
construction material and shearing strength when compacted and saturated are also given
in relative terms or qualitative terms.
The information provided in IS: 1498-1970 serves the purpose of a guideline or an
indication of the suitability of a soil based on the IS classification system. However,
important and large projects need detailed investigation of the soil properties and
engineering behaviour for good design.
2. Stone Aggregates:
Stone aggregate, or mineral aggregate, as it is called, is the most important component of
the materials used in the construction of roads. These aggregates are derived from rocks,
which are formed by the cementation of minerals by the forces of nature.
Stone aggregates are invariably derived by breaking the naturally occurring rocks to the
required sizes. They are used for granular bases, sub-bases, as part of bituminous mixes
and cement concrete; they are also the primary component of a relatively cheaper road,
called water-bound macadam.
A study of the types of aggregates, their properties, and the tests to determine their
suitability for a specific purpose is of utmost importance to a highway engineer.
Properties such as strength and durability of aggregates are generally influenced by their
origin of occurrence, mineral constituents and the nature of the bond between the
constituents.
1.5 Geological Classification of Rocks:
Geologically speaking, rocks are classified into the following categories:
(a) Igneous Rocks:
These are formed by the cooling, solidification and crystallisation of molten rock on the
earth’s crust at different depths. The minerals, their proportions and the rate of cooling of
the magma have a bearing on the strength characteristics of the rock.
Igneous rocks are, in general, stronger than the other two types. Granite, diorite and
gabbro are intrusive rocks which form at deep layers in the earth’s crust. Basalt (or trap),
andesite, rhyolite and dolerite are extrusive rocks which from at the top layers of the
earth’s crust.

(b) Sedimentary Rocks:

Fine material or rock fragments and particles transported by water or wind and deposited
in layers, get hardened in course of time to form sedimentary rocks (the time required is
on geologic scale). They consist of a layered structure; the rock beds are stratified, they
may be porous, and have relatively low strength.
Examples of siliceous variety are sandstone and argellite; those of calcareous variety are
limestone and dolomite.
(c) Metamorphic Rocks:
These are formed by the modification and re-crystallisation of igneous rocks and
sedimentary rocks by geological and natural agents such as temperature, pressure,
moisture, humidity, and movement of rock beds.
Major changes occur in geologic time and form foliations. This kind of foliated structure
makes these rocks comparably weaker than igneous rocks. Popular examples of
metamorphic rocks are gneiss (from granite), slate (from shale) and schist.
Examples of un-foliated types are marble (from limestone) and quartzite (from
sandstone). (Marble and gneiss are used for flooring and face work in buildings.)
1.6 Desirable Properties of Sand Aggregates:
The following properties are desirable in soil aggregates used the construction of
roads:
(i) Strength:
It is the resistance to crushing which the aggregates used in road construction, especially
in the top layers and wearing course, have to withstand the stresses due to wheel loads of
the traffic in addition to wear and tear.
(ii) Hardness:
It is the resistance to abrasion of the aggregate at the surface. The constant rubbing or
abrading action between the tyres of moving vehicles and the exposed aggregate at the
road surface should be resisted adequately.
(iii) Toughness:
This is the resistance to impact due to moving traffic. Heavily loaded trucks and other
vehicles cause heavy impact loads on the road surface while moving at high speeds, and
while accelerating and decelerating. Even steel-typed vehicles, though moving slow,
cause heavy impact on the aggregates exposed at the surface. Hence, resistance to such
impact forces is a desirable quality.
(iv) Durability:

It is the resistance to the process of disintegration due to the weathering action of the
forces of nature. The property by virtue of which the aggregate withstands weathering is
called soundness. This is also a desirable property.
(v) Cementation:
It is the ability of the aggregate to form its own binding material under traffic, providing
resistance to lateral displacement. Limestone and laterite are examples of stones with
good cementing quality. This becomes important in the case of water-bound macadam
roads.
(vi) Appropriate Shape:
Aggregates maybe either rounded, cubical, angular, flaky, or elongated. Each shape is
appropriate for a certain use. Too flaky and too elongated aggregates have less strength
and durability; so they are not preferred in road construction.
Rounded aggregates are good for cement concrete because of the workability such
aggregates provide. Cubical or angular aggregates have good interlocking properties;
since flexible pavements derive their stability due to interlocking, such aggregates are the
preferred type for construction. Thus, the appropriate shape for a particular use is also a
desirable property.
(vii) Adhesion with Bitumen:
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity to water than to
bitumen; otherwise, the bituminous coating on the surface of the aggregate will get
stripped off in the presence of water. So, hydrophobic characteristic is a desirable
property for aggregates to be used in the construction of bituminous roads.
(viii) Attrition:
This is mutual rubbing of aggregates under traffic; adequate resistance to attrition is a
desirable property.
(ix) Texture:
This is a measure of the degree of fineness or smoothness of the surface of the aggregate.
Gravels from river beds are fairly smooth; as a rule, fine grained rock is highly resistant
to wear and is preferred for surface courses.
3. Bituminous Materials:
Bitumen was used as a bonding and water-proofing agent thousands of years ago.
However, the use of bitumen for road-making picked up only in the nineteenth century.
As the quest for fuels like petroleum to run automobiles grew and the distillation of crude
oil emerged as a major refining industry, the residues known as bitumen and tar found

increasing use in constructing bituminous surfaces, which provided superior riding

surface.
1.7 The definition for the term, bitumen, given by the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM) runs thus:
“Bitumen is a hydrocarbon material of natural or pyrogenous origin, which is in a
gaseous, liquid, semi-solid, or solid state, and which is completely soluble in carbon
disulphide (CS2).”
Of course, bitumen is found to be soluble to a large extent in carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4)
also. Bitumen is a complex organic compound and occurs either as such in nature or can
be obtained during the distillation of petroleum; it is generally non-volatile and resistant
to most acids, alkalis and salts.
Bitumen occurring in nature as rock intrusions invariably contains inert inorganic
materials or minerals; in such a case it is called asphalt. It is also found in lakes (as in
Trinidad), in which case it is called lake asphalt. However, in American terminology,
bitumen itself is termed asphalt, irrespective of whether it contains inorganic/mineral
matter or not. In India, the British terminology is used for the terms bitumen and asphalt.
Important Properties of Bitumen:
1. Predominantly hydrocarbons, with small quantities of sulphur, nitrogen and metals.
2. Mostly (up to 99.9%) soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2), and insoluble in water.
3. Softens on heating and gets hardened on cooling.
4. Highly impermeable to water.
5. Chemically inert and unaffected by most acids, alkalis and salts.
6. No specific boiling point, melting point or freezing point; a form of ‘softening point’ is
used in their characterisation.
7. Although generally hydrophobic (water repellent), they may be made hydrophilic
(water liking) by the addition of a small quantity of surface-active agent.
8. Most bitumens are colloidal in nature.
Desirable Properties of Bitumen as a Road Material:
1. Workability – Bitumen should be fluid enough at the time of mixing so that the
aggregates are fully coated by the binder. Fluidity is achieved either by heating or by
cutting back with a thin flux or by emulsifying the bitumen.
2. Durability – There should be little change in viscosity within the usual range of
temperatures in the locality.
3. Volatile constituents in bitumen should not be lost excessively at higher temperatures
to ensure durability.

4. It should have enough ductility to avoid brittleness and cracking.

5. Strength and adhesion – The bitumen should have good affinity to the aggregates and
should not be stripped off in the continued presence of water.
6. Cost-effectiveness.
A few more terms relating to bitumen/asphalt are:
Straight-Run Bitumen:
Bitumen derived from the refining of petroleum for which the viscosity has not been
adjusted by blending with flux oil or by softening with any cut-back oil or by any other
treatment. It generally has high viscosity.
Asphalt Cement:
A binder consisting of bitumen, or a mixture of lake asphalt and bitumen or flux oils,
specially prepared as per prescribed quality and consistency for direct use in paving,
usually in the hot condition.
Oxidised or Blown Bitumen:
Bitumen obtained by further treatment of straight-run bitumen by running it, while hot,
into a vertical column and blowing air through it. In this process, it attains a rubbery
consistency with a higher softening point than before.
Cut-Back Bitumen:
Asphalt/bitumen dissolved in naphtha or kerosene to lower the viscosity and increase the
workability.
Emulsified Bitumen:
A mixture in which asphalt cement, in a finely dispersed state, is suspended in chemically
treated water.
Liquid Bitumen:
Include cut-backs in naphtha and kerosene, as also emulsified asphalts.
Flux-Oil:
A bituminous material, generally liquid, used for softening other bituminous materials.
1.8 Bitumen from Petroleum Refining:
The main source of bitumen is petroleum crude. Refining of petroleum crude involves
fractional distillation. The crude oil is heated in a tube-still to about 200°C to 400°C and
injected into a fractionating column. As the pressure is suddenly reduced, the volatile
fractions with low boiling points get vaporised and go up the column, from where they
are carried through condensers.
Gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, and lubricating oils, constituting the light, medium and
heavy distillates with gradually increasing boiling points, thus get collected. The heavy

residue left at the bottom is collected as bitumen. Steam is injected into the fractionating
column to help in the separation process of the fractions. The steam and vacuum
distillation process is only a physical process and does not involve any chemical changes.
In modern refining processes, the distillation is carried out in stages. In the first stage, the
temperature in the tube-still is kept relatively low (say 300°C to 350°C) and the light and
medium fractions are separated in the fractionating column operating at atmospheric
pressure.
The crude left is then passed through another still for subsequent transfer to another
column operating under vacuum and injected with steam. The latest process dispenses
with steam and relies on dry vacuum only, thus enabling a wide range of bitumen to be
produced.
Paraffinic crudes yield, on distillation, an undesirable wax-like residue. Naphthenic
crudes yield practically wax-free bitumen; crude from middle-east yields good bitumen.
The heavy residue may be blown with air at high temperature in a converter to produce
air-blown or oxidised bitumen.
They are stiff even at high atmospheric temperatures. Such bitumen are not used for
pavements, but are good as roofing materials and water-proof paints. It is also used as
filler material for cracks and joints in concrete pavements.
A schematic flow-chart for petroleum refining is shown in Fig. 6.65.

Cut-Back Bitumen:
Cut-back bitumen is one, the viscosity of which is reduced by adding a volatile diluent.
Penetration grade bitumens require to be heated to a specified temperature to lower its
viscosity before it is applied on a road to facilitate coating the pre-heated aggregate. To
obviate the need for heating the aggregate, cut-backs come in handy. Upon application,
the volatiles slowly evaporate, and leave behind the original bituminous binder.
1.9 There are three types of cut-backs based on the diluent (dilutant or solvent)
used:
1. Rapid-curing (RC) cutback – Bitumen blended with gasoline or naphtha, (highly
volatile, low viscosity)
2. Medium-curing (MC) cutback – Bitumen blended with kerosene or coal tar creosote oil
(medium viscosity)
3. Slow-curing (SC) cutback – Bitumen blended with gas oil (low viscosity, highly
viscous)
1.10 Each of these has been categorized based on their initial kinematic viscosity
values as follows:
1. RC 70, RC 250, RC 800, RC 3000
2. MC 30, MC 70, MC 250, MC 800, MC 3000
3. SC 70, SC 250, SC 800, SC 3000

Further details and specifications for these cutbacks are given in “IS: 217-1988:
Specification for cutback bitumen, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1993”.
Since cutbacks contain volatile solvent, some of which may enter water bodies and air,
they may cause environmental pollution. Also, since the solvent is inflammable, it may
increase the possibility of fire hazard and cause concerns related to safety during
handling and application. Therefore, cutbacks are being gradually replaced by emulsions.
Bitumen Emulsions:
A bitumen emulsion is obtained by blending bitumen with water and an additive called an
emulsifier. The emulsified suspension contains dispersed minute particles of bitumen
(that is, oil in water). In a bituminous emulsion, bitumen is the ‘dispersed’ phase
(minutely subdivided particles), while water is the ‘continuous’ phase in which it is not
soluble. The amount of bitumen to be mixed with water may range from 40 to 70%
depending upon the intended use of the suspension.
Based on the type of emulsifier used, the bitumen particles can be negatively charged or
positively charged. If they are negatively charged, ‘anionic bitumen emulsions’ are
obtained, and if they are positively charged, ‘cationic emulsions’ are got.
Fatty acids derived from mineral, vegetable or wood sources saponified with sodium or
potassium hydroxide are used as emulsifiers for producing anionic emulsion. For cationic
emulsions, the emulsifiers are generally amine salts produced by the reaction of organic
amine or diamine with acetic acid or hydrochloric acid.
The type of emulsion should be selected based on the mineral composition of the
aggregate used for the bituminous mix. For example, for an aggregate rich in silica (SiO 2)
which has a strong electronegative charge on the surface, cationic emulsions are suitable
with electropositive charge on the suspended bitumen particles. The mix then becomes
electrostatically stable and produces a strong layer when compacted.
1.11 Bitumen emulsions, like cutback bitumens, are also classified into three types
based on their setting times:
1. Rapid-setting emulsions (RS)
2. Medium-setting emulsions (MS)
3. Slow-setting emulsions (SS)
Setting, in this context, means separation of the emulsion. When the water in the
emulsion evaporates, the minute bitumen particles in the emulsion coat the surface of the
aggregates; curing takes place, by which the compacted layer of the emulsion-aggregate

mix hardens and attains strength. Therefore, rapid-setting emulsion sets and cures in a
relatively quick manner.
“IS: 3117-2004: Anionic bitumen emulsions” covers anionic emulsions, while “IS: 8887-
2004: Cationic bitumen emulsions” covers cationic emulsions.
Setting and curing of emulsion mixes are affected by the following factors:
(i) Gradation, dust, dampness, water absorption and mineral composition and surface
charge of/on the aggregates.
(ii) Ingredients and quantity of the emulsion used.
(iii) Meteorological conditions like climate, weather, temperature, humidity, wind
velocity, etc.
(iv) Drainage conditions of the construction site.
Advantages of Emulsions:
1. Emulsions can be used under cold and damp weather conditions.
2. Strength properties of bitumen are preserved as they do not need hot mixing.
3. Better coating of aggregates due to low viscosity of the emulsion.
4. Ideal for patch repair work and sealing of cracks as no heating is required and better
penetration into even minute cracks is possible.
5. Water-based nature of the emulsions makes them environment-friendly.
6. A lot of energy is conserved as there is no need for intensive heating (only warming is
needed, if at all.)
Limitations of Emulsions:
1. The nature of the aggregate has to be verified before choosing an appropriate emulsion.
2. Setting time varies not only with the type of emulsion, but also with atmospheric
conditions at the time of application.
3. Based on the particular need, care should be exercised in choosing the type of
emulsion and the quantity needed for the desired grade of bituminous mix.
4. Storage time is relatively restricted.
5. Bitumen emulsions are more expensive than hot-mix bitumen.
6. In general, emulsion-based bituminous pavements using emulsions are not as good as
hot- mix constructions for heavy traffic loads.
1.12 Specifications for paving bitumen are to be appropriately chosen based on the
particular need and the Indian Standard specifications listed below:
IS: 1203, 1205, 1206 (Parts 2 & 3), 1208, 1209 and 1216 (1978, 2002) for tests.
IS: 73-2006 for paving bitumen.
IS: 217-1988, 1993 for cutback bitumen.

IS: 3117-2004 for anionic bitumen emulsions.

IS: 8887-2004 for cationic bitumen emulsions.
Specifications for paving grade bitumens (IS: 73-2006):
Tar:
Tar is a black or brown to black, viscous, non-crystalline material having binding
property. This is, therefore, the other category of bituminous materials.
Tar is obtained from the destructive distillation of organic materials such as coal,
petroleum, oil, wood and peat, in the absence of air at about 1000°C. It is completely
soluble in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). It contains more volatile constituents than bitumen
and is therefore more susceptible to change in temperature. Generally, tar is used for
surface dressing on the wearing course since it has good adhesion in damp conditions.
Some more terms relating to tar are:

1. Coal tar – Tar produced by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal.
2. Coke-oven tar – A variety of coal tar obtained as a by-product from the destructive
distillation of coal in the production of coke.
3. Oil-gas tar – A petroleum tar produced by cracking oils at high temperature in the
production of oil-gas.
4. Water-gas tar – A petroleum tar produced by cracking oils at high temperature in the
production of carburetted water-gas.
5. Refined tar – Produced from crude tar by distillation to remove water and to produce a
residue of desired consistency.
6. Road tar – A tar refined in quality and consistency for use in paving of roads.
7. Pitch – Black or dark brown solid cementitious residue which gradually liquefies when
heated and which is produced by distilling off the volatile constituents from tar.
1.13 Specifications for Road Tars:

Indian Standards classify road tars for paving purposes into five grades — RT1, RT2,
RT3, RT4, and RT5, meant for specific purposes.
These are covered by “IS: 215-1995: Road tar: Specifications, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 2000”.
The grades and specific uses are given below in Table 6.12:
Standard specification for road tars of the five standard grades based on the properties
determined from tests on tar are given in the Table 6.13 [IS: 215-1995, 2000].
Low Temperature Tar:

The coal-tar produced in the manufacture of coking coal requires carbonation at high
temperatures above 1000°C. In view of the increasing demand for road tars in recent
years, a new technology known as low temperature carbonisation has come into vogue.
In this, the carbonisation of coal is carried out in the temperature range of 600°-750°C in
a smokeless fuel process. The crude tar thus produced is successfully used for making
road tars; these are known as low temperature tars.
Bitumen versus Tar:
A comparison of bitumen and tar is given below:
(i) Aggregates coated with tar exhibit lower stripping action than those coated with
bitumen.
(ii) Tar is more susceptible to temperature than bitumen. It becomes liquid at relatively
lower temperature.
(iii) Tar is not easily dissolved in petroleum solvents; so it can be preferred for paving
parking areas, where oils might drip from vehicles.
(iv) Since more setting time is required for tar, it may be processed at a mixing plant and
carried to the construction site.
(v) In view of the higher free carbon content, tar is more brittle than bitumen.
(vi) As tars have more phenol content, they can get more easily oxidised than bitumen.
(vii) At higher temperatures, tar may be more easily affected than bitumen.
(viii) As more time is required for tar to set, tar-paved roads need to be closed to traffic
for a longer time.
(ix) Both bitumen and tar appear black in colour in a large mass, but appear brown in thin
films.
Tar-Bitumen Mixtures:
A mixture of tar and bitumen provides a binder of excellent quality as it has a decreased
volume of insoluble benzene is decreased. Such mixtures have lower temperature
susceptibility and reduced penetration value. Rheological properties of the binder also get
altered. Generally, a mixture of tar and bitumen in equal proportions is considered to be
an ideal binder.
Bituminous Mixes:
Bituminous mixes for paving purposes consist of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler
material, bitumen, and air voids, suitably proportional and blended to provide a strong,
stable and durable pavement.
The main aim of mix design is to determine the optimum bitumen content that will hold
the mineral aggregates of suitable gradation together as a compact layer that resists the

traffic loads. The mix should have a certain minimum air voids to allow volume changes
during service either because of temperature changes or repeated loading from the traffic.
1.14 Requirements of Bituminous Mixes:
The following are the important requirements of bituminous mixes for pavements:
(i) Stability:
This is the resistance to deformation under traffic loads; it is a function of inter- particle
friction and cohesion offered by the bitumen binder. It is related to the density of the mix
which is dependent on the voids content. The more the density, the more stable the mix;
however, a minimum voids content is necessary to allow for volume changes which
cannot be fully prevented.
(ii) Durability:
This is the resistance to weathering action and abrasion from traffic. Spalling, stripping
and formation of pits, corrugations and potholes can result from weathering and traffic.
Excessive strain may cause cracking or plastic failure.
(iii) Flexibility:
This is a measure of the resistance to long-term deformations and shapes of the road base,
sub-base and subgrade; this depends on the flexural or bending strength of the pavement.
(iv) Skid Resistance:
The resistance of the surface of the pavement laid with the bituminous mix to skidding of
the tyres of vehicles is called skid resistance. The surface texture should be such as to
provide grip or friction even under wet conditions. This is important in the prevention of
accidents.
(v) Workability:
This is the ease with which the mix can be placed in position and compacted. It depends
on the aggregate characteristics like the size, shape texture and gradation, bitumen
content and nature of the bituminous material.
(vi) Economy:
The overall cost in achieving the desired qualities of the mix and the pavement should be
a minimum, consistent with quality.
The desired qualities of the bituminous mixes, therefore, have to be achieved by:
1. Using good quality aggregate, which is hydrophobic and has rough surface texture,
with appropriate grading and voids content.
2. Using bituminous binder of the correct quality and consistency based on the specific
purpose for which the pairing mix is intended.

3. Controlling the voids content and the bitumen content to achieve the desirable qualities
listed above.
4. Cement, Cement Mortar and Cement Concrete:
Cement concrete is a versatile material which has revolutionised civil engineering
construction during the twentieth century. A fresh cement concrete mix consists of
cement, mineral aggregates (coarse aggregate and fine aggregate), and water.
A well-designed cement concrete mix sets and hardens due to the binding property of the
cements, forms a mix with minimum void space and on curing with water, provides a
strong, stable and durable pavement for a highway, resisting repetitive impact from wheel
loads and also withstanding adverse environmental conditions.
Thus, a cement concrete pavement is the most superior highway construction primarily
from the point of view of strength and durability. The ingredients of the concrete mix,
viz., the coarse aggregate (broken stone) and fine aggregate (sand) have to be selected
carefully to satisfy the desirable properties for concrete-making. Potable water is
generally considered satisfactory making cement concrete.
Cement is used also as an additive to soil to produce soil-cement used as the primarily
material in the construction of low-cost roads.
Cement:
Cement is the most important ingredient of cement concrete or cement mortar (cement
mortar is a suitable mixture of cement and fine aggregate or sand in appropriate
proportions).
Cement mixed with water becomes a paste and spreads over the aggregates forming a
thin film; chemical reactions take place leading to the formation of silicates and
aluminates. Subsequently, setting takes place and in the presence of water, hydration
takes place leading to hardening of the concrete.
The most common cement is what is now known as the Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC). Calcareous and silicate compounds are blended and heated to high temperatures
(1500°C) to form clinkers of new chemical compounds, which when ground to fine
particles result in ‘cement’.
The primary ingredients of cement are:
(i) Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2) ≈ 50%
(ii) Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) ≈ 22%
(iii) Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) ≈ 9%
(iv) Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3) ≈ 9%
(v) Miscellaneous compounds ≈ 10%

The silicates contribute to the immediate strength gain while the other ingredients are
responsible for the long-term strength gain. The properties of cement can be modified by
blending it in different admixtures in the manufacturing process.
1.15 The following are the different types cements widely used for specific purposes
in India:
1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
2. Rapid hardening cement
3. High alumina cement
4. Low heat cement
5. Portland blast furnace slag cement
6. White cement
Ordinary Portland cement is classified into three grades:
Grade 43 cement is widely used for highway pavements since its heat of hydration and
shrinkage cracks are less compared to OPC 53 grade.
Rapid hardening cement is preferred for remedial jobs when rapid gain of strength is
necessary to restore the pavement to traffic in a short duration.
1.16 Properties of Cement:
The important properties of cement are:
1. Fineness:
This is related to grain size and specific surface. Fineness is a desirable feature because it
is related to the intensity of hydration and strength gain. Sieve analysis is the simplest and
the most direct method to determine the fineness (IS: 269-1993). Dry cement retained on
IS-90 p sieve should not be more than 10% for OPC and 5% for rapid-hardening cement.
2. Setting Time:
Workable cement mortar paste using a desired water-cement ratio is prepared and the
time taken for the paste to harden is noted; setting time is an indication of initial chemical
reactions of cement.
Temperature and humidity affect setting time. The standard values for testing are 20±2°C
and 65% respectively. Setting times are classified into initial and final setting time. Initial
setting time is important for transporting, placing and compaction of concrete. The
minimum initial setting time for OPC should be at least 30 min. (IS: 269-1993).
The final setting time is the time required for the concrete to harden sufficiently to attain
the shape of the mould in which it is poured. By this time, primary chemical reactions are

completed. This is important for the removal of form work. The maximum final setting
time is about 10 hours for OPC (IS: 269-1993).
3. Soundness:
This is the ability to resist volume changes as a result of the channel reactions with water.
The Le Chatelier test and the autoclave test are used to verify the soundness (IS: 269-
1993).
4. Chemical Composition:
The lime saturation factor (LSF) of a cement is the ratio of Calcium Oxide (CaO) to the
other three main oxides present in it.
5. Strength:
This is usually determined by testing cement mortar or cement concrete cubes or
cylinders for compression, tension and flexural strength. Compressive strength is the
most important property; for OPC, it should not be less than 16, 22 and 33 MPa at 3, 7
and 28 days of curing (IS: 269-1993).
Admixtures for Cement Concrete:
Different types of additives — chemical compounds, synthetic polymers and resins are
blended with cement concrete while mixing, to modify its properties. Setting times,
workability, strength and durability can be modified by reducing water and cement and
adding admixtures. (IS: 9103 and IS: 6925)
Some admixtures used are:
1. Retardants – Increase the setting time of cement concrete.
2. Accelerators – Accelerate hydration for rapid strength gain.
3. Plasticisers and super-plasticisers – Increase the workability of concrete, reduce the
water content needs and reduce the heat of hydration
4. Air-entraining agents – Improve workability and increase resistance to frost action.
5. Pigments – Impart colour to the cement concrete mix for aesthetic purposes.
Miscellaneous Admixtures:
Fly ash, blast furnace slag, pond ash, rice husk ash, calcined clay and other mineral
additives supplement cementing properties, and act as partial substitutes for cement for
achieving some degree of economy.
1.17 Properties of Cement Concrete:
Workability:

This is a property of fresh concrete. The ease of placement is workability. Slump test and
compaction factor test are generally used to assess the workability of concrete (SP: 23-
1982). Generally, ‘slump’ ranges from 25 to 125 mm. The prescribed compaction factor
values are of the order 0.75 to 0.80 (IS: 456-2000 & IS: 1199-1959)
Tests on hardened concrete are for compressive strength, flexural strength, split (or
indirect) tensile strength and elastic modulus [IS: 516-1999 & IS: 5816-1999].
The Poisson’s ratio for normal concrete in Indian conditions may be taken as 0.15. More
details may be found in the relevant Indian Standard Specifications cited.
Design of Cement Concrete Mix:
The relevant standards are:
“IS: 10262-1998: Indian standard guidelines for concrete mix design” and “IRC: 44-2008
Guidelines for cement concrete mix design for pavements.”
1.18 PCC Pavement
Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure deflects very little under
loading due to the high modulus of elasticity of their surface course. A rigid pavement
structure is typically composed of a PCC surface course built on top of either (1) the
subgrade or (2) an underlying base course. Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement
structure distributes loads over a wide area with only one, or at most two, structural
layers
Surface course
This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab.
Base course
This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally consists of aggregate or
stabilized subgrade.
Subbase course
This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A subbase is not always needed and
therefore may often be omitted.
Structural Elements
A typical rigid pavement structure (see Figure 2) consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses (if used). The surface course (made of PCC) is the

stiffest (as measured by resilient modulus) and provides the majority of strength. The
underlying layers are orders of magnitude less stiff but still make important contributions
to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection.
Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and is made of PCC. It
provides characteristics such as friction (see Figure 3), smoothness, noise control and
drainage. In addition, it serves as a waterproofing layer to the underlying base, subbase
and subgrade. The surface course can vary in thickness but is usually between 150 mm (6
inches) (for light loading) and 300 mm (12 inches) (for heavy loads and high traffic).
Figure 4 shows a 300 mm (12 inch) surface course.
Fi Figu
gure 3. PCC Surface re 4. Rigid Pavement Slab Thickness
Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides (1) additional load
distribution, (2) contributes to drainage and frost resistance, (3) uniform support to the
pavement and (4) a stable platform for construction equipment (ACPA, 2001). Bases also
help prevent subgrade soil movement due to slab pumping. Base courses are usually
constructed out of:
1. Aggregate base. A simple base course of crushed aggregate has been a common
option since the early 1900s and is still appropriate in many situations today.
2. Stabilized aggregate or soil (see Figure 5). Stabilizing agents are used to bind
otherwise loose particles to one another, providing strength and cohesion. Cement
treated bases (CTBs) can be built to as much as 20 – 25 percent of the surface
course strength (FHWA, 1999). However, cement treated bases (CTBs) used in the
1950s and early 1960s had a tendency to lose excessive amounts of material
leading to panel cracking and settling.

3. Dense-graded HMA. In situations where high base stiffness is desired base courses
can be constructed using a dense-graded HMA layer.
4. Permeable HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness and excellent
drainage is desired, base courses can be constructed using an open graded HMA.
Recent research may indicate some significant problems with ATPB use.
5. Lean concrete (see Figure 6). Contains less portland cement paste than a typical
PCC and is stronger than a stabilized aggregate. Lean concrete bases (LCBs) can
be built to as much as 25 – 50 percent of the surface course strength (FHWA,
1999). A lean concrete base functions much like a regular PCC surface course and
therefore, it requires construction joints and will crack over time. These joints and
cracks can potentially cause reflection cracking in the surface course if they are
not carefully matched.
Fi Fi
gure 5. Completed CTB with Curing Seal gure 6. Lean Concrete Base Material
Subbase Course
The subbase course is the portion of the pavement structure between the base course and
the subgrade. It functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
3. Minimize frost action damage.
4. Provide a working platform for construction.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better
than the subgrade soils. Appropriate materials are aggregate and high quality structural
fill. A subbase course is not always needed or used.

1.19 Types
Almost all rigid pavement is made with Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). Rigid
pavements are differentiated into three major categories by their means of crack control:
Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
This is the most common type of rigid pavement. JPCP controls cracks by dividing
the pavement up into individual slabs separated by contraction joints. Slabs are
typically one lane wide and between 3.7 m (12 ft.) and 6.1 m (20 ft.) long. JPCP
does not use any reinforcing steel but does use dowel bars and tie bars.
Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
As with JPCP, JRCP controls cracks by dividing the pavement up into individual
slabs separated by contraction joints. However, these slabs are much longer (as
long as 15 m (50 ft.)) than JPCP slabs, so JRCP uses reinforcing steel within each
slab to control within-slab cracking. This pavement type is no longer constructed
in the U.S. due to some long-term performance problems.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
This type of rigid pavement uses reinforcing steel rather than contraction joints for
crack control. Cracks typically appear ever 1.1 – 2.4 m (3.5 – 8 ft.) are held tightly
together by the underlying reinforcing steel. FHWA Tech Brief.

1.20 What is Bituminous Road
Bituminous road consist of their surface with bituminous materials which is also called as
Asphalt. It is sticky dark viscous liquid obtained from natural deposits like crude
petroleum.
1.21 Different Types of Bituminous Surfaces.

1. Prime Coat :
This is a single coat of low viscosity bituminous binder. This coat is applied to existing
untreated pervious layer like WBM. The main purpose is to improve the adhesion
between base and bituminous surface.
Functions :
 The most important function is to imporve the adhesion between existing
pervious base and wearing surface.
 To bind the dust and loose particles together to form hard and tough
surface.
 It provides temporary seal to prevent the surface water from penetrating
through the surface.
2. Tack Coat :
This is single coat of low viscosity bituminous binder applied to the existing treated
impervious layer such as bitumen or cement-concrete base. This boat is applied between
treated base and bituminous surface.
Function :
 It is provided to improve the adequate bond between existing impervious
base and wearing surface.

3. Seal Coat :
Seal coat is the final coat of bituminous material that is applied on the top of surface to
prevent the entry of moisture through the voids.
Function :
 To provide water tight surface.
 It improves the visibility at night and develops skid resistant texture.
 To improve the wearing resistance of an existing road surface.
ALSO READ : Earth Road : Types and Construction Procedure
4. Surface Dressing :
It is the process in which two or more coats of bituminous materials are applied to
prepared base. This coat consist of bituminous binders sprayed on which chipped
aggregates are properly rolled.
Function :
 It prevents the removal of binding material and prevents the damage of road
due to waterproofing effects.
 Roads can be easily cleaned and washed as it reduces dust nuisance.
 Smooth surface of the road reduces the wear and tear of tyres.
1.22 Bituminous Road Construction Steps and Procedure :
1. Bituminous Penetration Macadam Road :
In this type of bituminous road the aggregates are bound together by grouting bitumen
into the voids of the compacted aggregates. This type of bituminous road is generally
adopted for the thickness of 50 and 75 mm.
Materials Required :
 The grade of bitumen to be used for this type of road suggested by IRC
ranges from 80/ 100, 60/ 70 & 30/ 40. Any one of the above grade can be
adopted.
 Road tars of grades such as RT-4 & RT-5 can also be used.
 Physical properties of the aggregates must fulfill the following standard test
values given below :

Equipments and Plants Required :

 Bitumen heating device.
 Bitumen distributor.
 Roller for compacting operation.
 Aggregate spreader.
1.23 Construction Procedure of Bituminous Penetration Macadam Road :
• Preparation of Existing Surface :
First of all the surface on which bitumen macadam is to be applied is cleaned from dust
and other debries. The gradient and the camber of the road is properly checked. Priming
coat can be also applied if necessary for porous surfaces.
• Spreading of Course Aggregates :
Spreading of aggregates can be done manually or by machine. To achieve the desired
profile in cross-section, template cat or camber profile may be used.
• Rolling Operation :
After speeding of aggregates they are dry rolled with a minimum of 10 tonnes roller. It is
assured that the aggregates are properly compacted and interlocked.
• Bitumen Application :
The uniform layer of bitumen binder is applied on the dry rolled compacted aggregates
with the help of pressure distributor or mechanical hand sprayer.
• Spreading of Key Aggregates :

Once the bitumen is properly applied key aggregated are properly laid and rolling
operation again continued for proper compaction. Cross Profile is also checked at the
same time.
• Seal Coat Application :
If the road is going to be made open for the traffic and another surface course is not
required then the seal coat is applied. It consist of sand bitumen or it may be of surface
dressing type.
• Finishing :
Cross profile of the road should be checked with template and the longitudinal profile by
straight edge of the road. The permissible undulation on 3 m road is 12 mm.
• Open to Traffic :
The road is made open to traffic after minimum of 24 hours after its construction.
2. Bitumen Carpet Road.

In the construction of bitumen carpet road the recommended bitumen binder is 80/ 100
grade and the tar required should be of grade RT-3. The stone chippings required for 2
cm carpet thickness should be 12 mm and 10 mm. Below table should the requirement
that should be satisfied by the aggregates to be used.

1.24 Construction Procedure of Bitumen Carpet Road :

• Preparation of the Existing Surface :
For the existing layer if potholes or depressions are found then they are required to be
filled with percolated chippings before the layer of carpet is applied. After the preparation
of the surface the tack coat is applied to WBM surface or old bitumen surface. If there is
presence of softer aggregates such as laterite, kankar or murum, then prime coat
application is necessary to be applied first.
• Application of Tack Coat :

The bitumen binder is heated up to required temperature and a tack coat is applied to the
surface.
• Preparation and Placing of Premix :
Preparation of premix is carried out in mechanical rotary mixer or hand drum mixer. For
this mix, aggregates and bitumen are separately heated for specified temperature. Mixing
is done to obtain through and homogeneous mix. These mix is then carried out to site and
it is ready to be placed on the surface. Cross profile is effectively checked after its
application.
• Rolling and Finishing :
Rolling operation for compaction is carried out once the premix application is finished. It
is carried out for completion of every 15 m surface of road. The rollers which are
generally used are tandem type or pneumatic type rollers having capacity of 6-10 tonnes.
The wheels of the rollers are kept damp to prevent the adhesion of mix to the wheels of
roller.
Note : for heavy rainfall areas liquid seal is sprayed on the carpet at 9-10 kg per 10m2
area. It is then covered with layer of tone chippings and properly compacted.
• Surface Finish :
The surface is properly checked for undulations. For 3 m straight edge the undulation
should not exceed 10mm. Cross profile should not have undulations exceeding 6mm
• Open to Traffic :
Road is opened for the traffic after 24 hours of application of seal coat or surface
dressing.

Advantages of Bituminous Road :

 Generally Bituminous road do not develop cracks on the surface for long
period.
 Maintenance cost of this road is also very less.
 Bituminous road are waterproof, non-slippery, smooth, durable and it
provides comfortable road surface for the traffic.
 It can withstand the adverse natural effects caused by heavy rain, excess
heat and change in temperature.
Disadvantages of Bituminous Road :

 The viscosity of the bitumen and aggregate mix plays important role in
defining the performance of bituminous road.
 If the bituminous material is used in excess than the value for given mix, it
effects the performance of the bituminous road.

CHAPTER-2
2.1 Types of Bridges

Bridges are classified into so many types based on different criteria’s. They are explained
below.
2.2 Types of Bridges based on Type of Super Structure
 Arch bridge
 Girder bridge
 Truss bridge
 Suspension bridge
2.2.1 Arch Bridge

Arch bridge is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and is
restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many types of arch
bridges are there. In some cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.
2.2.2 Girder Bridge

In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of girders. The girder may
be of rolled steel girder or plate girder or box girder. Load coming from the deck are
taken by girder and transferred them to the piers and abutments.

2.2.3 Truss Bridge

Truss is member consisting connected elements to form triangular units. In case of truss
bridge the super structure is provided with trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel.
There are several types of trusses are available.

2.2.4 Suspension Bridge

In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and
suspenders. These will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of
suspension is suitable.
2.3 Types of Bridges based on Materials
 Timber bridge
 Masonry bridge
 Steel bridge
 R.C.C bridge
 Pre stressed concrete bridge

2.3.1 Timber Bridge

Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges. These are generally
constructed for short spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy loads.

2.3.2 Masonry Bridge

Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally constructed
for short spans and in low depth canals.
2.3.3 Steel Bridge

Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel cables. These are more
durable and bear heavy loads.

2.3.4 R.C.C Bridge

R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced cement concrete. These are more stable
and durable. They can bear heavy loads and are widely using nowadays.
2.3.5 Prestressed Concrete Bridge

If concrete material is placed under compression before applying the loads, then it is
called as prestressed concrete. To construct pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-stressed
concrete blocks are arranged as deck slab with the help of girders. These blocks are
suitable for shorter span to longer span bridges.
2.4 Types of Bridges based on Span
 Culvert bridge
 Minor bridge
 Major bridge
 Long span bridge

2.4.1 Culvert Bridge
When the bridge span length is below 6meters then it is called as Culvert Bridge.
2.4.2 Minor Bridge

If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters, then it is called minor bridge.

2.4.3 Major Bridge

For major bridge, the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.
2.4.4 Long Span Bridge

When the span of bridge is more than 120 meters then it is termed as long span bridge.
2.5 Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing
 Over bridge
 Under bridge
2.5.1 Over Bridge
To pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is constructed to allow traffic.
This is called over bridge or fly over bridge.

2.5.2 Under Bridge

If over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is constructed to pass another
route. This is called under bridge.

2.6 Types of Bridges based on Function
 Foot bridge
 Highway bridge
 Rail way bridge
 Aqueduct bridge
 Road cum railway bridge
2.6.1 Foot Bridge
Foot Bridge is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads or rail route or any
canal by foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.
2.6.2 Highway Bridge

High way or road Way Bridge is used for road transportation. These are constructed over
rivers or another routes to allow road way traffic. Girder type bridges are used as
highway bridges over rivers or canals.

2.6.3 Railway Bridge

Rail bridges are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type bridges are preferred for
railways but how ever r.c.c bridges are also used.
2.6.4 Aqueduct Bridge

Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water carrying bridges which are constructed to0
transport water from source to system.
2.6.5 Road cum Railway Bridge

This type of bridge is useful for both road way and railway transport. It may be of one
floor or two floors. If one floor is there then, rail and road way are arranged side by side.
Otherwise roadway on top deck and railway in bottom deck is preferred.
2.7 Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation
 Simple bridge
 Continuous bridge
 Cantilever bridge

2.7.1 Simple Bridge

Simple bridge is like simply supported beam type which consist two supports at its ends.
For shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.
2.7.2 Continuous Bridge

If the bridge span is very long, then we have to build more supports in between end
supports. This type of bridge is termed as continuous bridge.

2.7.3 Cantilever Bridge

Cantilever type of bridge have only supported at one end and another end is free to space.
Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to make way to the vehicles or humans.
2.8 Types of Bridges based on Utility
 Temporary bridge
 Permanent bridge
2.8.1 Temporary Bridge
During construction of dams or bridges or during floods, temporary bridges are
constructed at low cost for temporary usage. These bridges are maintained at low cost.
After construction of original structure temporary bridges are dismantled. Generally
timber is used to construct temporary bridges.
2.8.2 Permanent Bridge

These bridges are constructed for long term use and maintained at high level. Steel or
R.C.C bridges are come under this category.
2.9 Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor
 Deck bridge
 Through bridge
 Semi-through bridge
2.9.1 Deck Bridge

In case of Deck Bridge, super structure or floor of bridge is positioned in between the
high flood level and formation level.
2.9.2 Through Bridge

In case of through bridge, Super structure of bridge is completely above the formation
level.
2.9.3 Semi-Through Bridge

If the super structure of bridge is partly above and partly below the formation level, then
it is called as semi-through bridge.

2.10 Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL)
 Low level bridge

 High level bridge
2.10.1 Low Level Bridge
The super structure of bridge is generally below high flood level. So, whenever floods
occurred these are submersed in water. So, these are also called as submersible bridges.
These are generally constructed for unimportant routes with low cost.
2.10.2 High Level Bridge

High level bridge is non submersible against floods. It is well above the high flood level
and constructed in important routes.
Read More: Accelerated Bridge Construction -Features, Advantages and Sequence of

Construction Planning for Bridge Construction including Sequence and Steps of
Planning Types of Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Systems for Bridge Construction

CHAPTER-3
3.1 S.M. Autade Constructions Pvt. Ltd.
We trace our origins back to 16 years ago; we entered in infrastructure development since
1998 with small beginning. Now we acquired considerable domain & technical expertise
in the field of infrastructure development like Earthwork, Structures, Dams, Canals,
Roads, Highways, KT Weir, and Buildings & B.O.T etc.
We always operate with the highest levels of integrity and responsibility so as to build on
the trust that we have earned over the years. The commitment to quality in every
endeavor is most evident at autadegroup & still continues to strive to reach greater
heights. We empathetically believe and passionate about work ethics to meet the client’s
requirements with desired quality within given deadlines. Our company has established
quality standards and goals by setting up quality laboratory equipments along with skilled
team. As you scan through our website, you will find several examples of industry
leading projects within our portfolio, including no. of major projects with proven quality
Our employees are our biggest asset. Integrating their talent allows us to undertake
complex projects in the harshest of operating environment. As a company that operates
across various states if India, We believe our responsibilities go beyond our clients, to the
larger community that we operate in. We at autade group of company will continue to
innovate & design solutions that add value to our esteemed clients, for in their success
lies ours.
Annual turnover of our company is near about 1.5Cr.

3.2 PRODUCT AND SERVICES
Products
S.M. AUTADE CONSTRUCTION PVT.LTD has so far completed five projects—

1.NH965G SANGOLA-JATH 2.NH591 PANDHARPUR-MANGALWEDHA-UMADI
3. NH965 –(PALKHI MAHAMARG) PACKAGE 123 4.NH4 KOLHAPUR-KARAD
Services
We specialize in new construction, interior remodels, exterior remodels and building

maintenance for retail, offices, financial institutions, healthcare facilities, educational
facilities, government properties, warehouses and shipping facilities. Examples of work
completed at these facilities include creating innovative offices, installing modular
buildings, creating public greenways and parks, upgrading interior and exterior for ADA
compliance, and erecting metal building/canopies. Our in-house work includes but is not
limited to sidewalks, concrete pads and ramps, framing, drywall, acoustical ceilings,
wood trim work, doors, frames, locks, and pallet racking systems. For work not
completed in-house, we have an extensive list of qualified contractors. Here are services
offered:
 Emergency Services
 Pre-construction Design and Estimating
 Design/Build
 Construction Management
 Construction Services
 Office Build-outs, Renovation and Expansion
 Remodeling
 Building Sustainability
 Upgrades
 Bank Equipment Sales and Installation
Saving You Time and Money

We can fast track your project and offer cost-saving solutions to meet your budget goals.
We encourage creating an eco-friendly and high performance building to save you money
on building expenses for years to come.

3.3 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT COMPANY.
S.M. Autade Constructions Pvt. Ltd.
1. We trace our origins back to 16 years ago; we entered in infrastructure

development since 1998 with small beginning. Now we acquired considerable
domain & technical expertise in the field of infrastructure development like
Earthwork, Structures, Dams, Canals, Roads, Highways, KT Weir, and Buildings
& B.O.T etc.
2. We always operate with the highest levels of integrity and responsibility so as to
build on the trust that we have earned over the years. The commitment to quality
in every endeavor is most evident at autadegroup & still continues to strive to
reach greater heights. We empathetically believe and passionate about work ethics
to meet the client’s requirements with desired quality within given deadlines. Our
company has established quality standards and goals by setting up quality
laboratory equipments along with skilled team. As you scan through our website,
you will find several examples of industry leading projects within our portfolio,
including no. of major projects with proven quality.
3.4 PURPOSE OF VISITING COMPANY.
1. To gain a practical knowledge of the actual working of the organization.

2. To get the practical knowledge of the project development process.
3. To adopt criteria about the management.
4. To study co-ordination between different departments.
3.5 Significance of the visiting company
The basic objective of visiting to the company is for studying various aspects
related with different construction units. The different techniques and methods
being used in construction are studied in order to gain wide outlook concerning
civil engineering activities for that purpose.

3.6 What we learnt?

On 1st janaury, 2021 (friday) at 10:30 A.M. we reached at company, Solapur,
mangalwedha. We have divided our whole visit schedule into mainly two session.
 Session -1 visiting to the company
1. We were introduced to H.R. (Human Resource) Department.

2. Interview techniques, Various Rounds of Interviews.
3. Personality development.
4. How to get Projects from Market?
5. How company works.
6. Visit of various department of the company
a. Design department
b. structural design department
c. planning department
d. estimation department
e. consulting department
 Session-2 General practices in current scenario.
1. Introduction to civil engineer

2. Introduction to work of civil engineer.
3. Current scenario of civil engineers in market.
3.7 Personal Experience of Students
The visit to the company was the interface between the college life and the
corporate world. All those who attended experienced the moment. It was clear that
all the basic and fundamental of each subjects be learnt thoroughly .we learnt how
civil engineer works, what are the current Scenario of Market. They told us what
the needs of the construction companies are, what they are expecting from us as
the freshers. They guided us how to prepare for the corporate world after
completing education.

3.8 Conclusion
The experience of this visit was really fantastic and unforgettable. It was
reverberating experience. we got valuable information from this visit and they
guided us how to stand in the corporate world in the era of competition. We got to
learn a lot many more things from this visit.
Most road projects today involve modifications to existing roadways, and the
planning, operation, and maintenance of such projects often are opportunities for
improving ecological conditions. A growing body of information describes such practices
for improving aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
Planning boundaries for roads and assessing associated environmental effects
are often based on socioeconomic considerations, resulting in a mismatch between
planning scales and spatial scales at which ecological systems operate. In part, this
mismatch results because there are few legal incentives or disincentives to consider
environmental effects beyond political jurisdictions, and thus decision making remains
primarily local. The ecological effects of roads are typically much larger than the road
itself, and they often extend beyond regional planning domains.

3.9 References
ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-02)
and Commentary (ACI 318R-02): An ACI Standard. Farmington Hills, MI: American
Concrete Institute, 2002.
AISC Committee on Manuals and Textbooks, Manual of Steel Construction: Load and
Resistance Factor Design. Third Edition. American Institute of Steel Construction, 2001.
Hibbeler, R.C. Mechanics of Materials. Third Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1997.
Kansai Airport. Earth Observatory Newsroom, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
Uniform Building Code. International Conference of Building Officials: Whittier, CA,
1991.

ROAD LINE CONSTRUCTION

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ROAD LINE CONSTRUCTION

TRACK – I: Industry Internship Program (IIP-II)

Semester – VIII Work Details

Student Name: SURAJ BHARAT JADHAV

PRN No. : 17ST113251022

Class & Branch: CIVIL ENGINEERING B.TECH FINALYEAR

Cell No. : 9518721110/8381098392 E-mail : 17st113251022@sanjayghodawatuniversity.ac.in

Blood Group: AB+

Name of University Guide: PROF/MR. C.S PATIL

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 1

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Class: : B.TECH FINALYEAR Div. B Roll No: 65

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 2

Sanjay Ghodawat University, Kolhapur

Department Internship Co-ordinator Head of Department

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 3

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 4

uncertainties impact on the accuracy of predicting resource productivity and developing

approach which is visual, interactive, and integrator of the functions involved in

earthwork operation such as activity scheduling, resource productivity calculation,

challenges related to the limited intelligence and capability of simulating multiple

strategies of resource allocation in earthwork operation. The proposed development

approach to tackle the ‘uncertainty’ challenge affecting the productivity of resources.

functions involved in earthwork operations and provides an interactive environment

performance of road construction projects.

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 5

1.1 Steps in Bituminous Road Construction 01

2.1 Types of Bridges 02

2.2 Types of Bridges based on Type of 02

2.3 Types of Bridges based on Materials 02

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 6

2.4 Types of Bridges based on Span 02

2.5 Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing 02

2.6 Types of Bridges based on Function 02

2.7 Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation 02

2.8 Types of Bridges based on Utility 02

2.9 Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor 02

2.10 Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL) 02

CHAPTER-3 COMPANY PROFILE

3.1 S.M. Autade Constructions Pvt. Ltd. 03

1.1 Steps in Bituminous Road Construction

1. Preparation of the existing base course layer

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 7

2. Application of Tuck Coat

3. Preparation and placing of Premix

Fig: Tandem Roller

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 8

5. Quality control of bituminous concrete construction

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 9

scientific disciplines such as chemistry, zoology and botany, it is used in Geotechnical

1.3 Need for Soil Classification:

Requirements of a Soil Classification System:

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 10

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 11

(b) PRA System of Classification (Group Index Method):

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 12

GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd … (6.55)

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 13

Unified Soil Classification System:

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 14

(iii) Organic soils.

Dept. of Civil Engg., Sanjay Ghodawat University, Atigre, Kolhapur. 15

Indian Standard Soil Classification System: