ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT THEORY, IME 304

It has been stated that the potential different across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously
and the current through an inductor cannot change suddenly. If therefore, a circuit containing
capacitor or/and inductance is operating in the steady state and conditions change for some
reason, requiring the current or/and voltage value to change, there will be a finite period of time
during which these changes will take place. This period of time is called a period of transient
operation.

There are two types of transient operation namely: (i) when a circuit containing capacitance or
inductance is initially switched ON and (ii) when such a circuit having been operating in the
steady state for some time is suddenly switched OFF. Since there is no energy storage in resistor,
thus no transient response operation exists in pure resistive circuit.

There are single-energy transients and double-energy transients. Single-energy transients are that
in which only one form of energy storage component exists either electromagnetic or
electrostatic is involved as in R-L and R-C circuits. Whereas, double-energy transients are that in
which both electromagnetic and electrostatic energy storage components are involved as in
R-L-C circuits.

Transient Response in R-L Circuit of D.C. Electrical Energy

If ir, Is and it represent resultant current, steady state current and transient current respectively in
an R-L circuit below.
1
ί 2 R L

By superposition theory, the equation for the resultant current for the duration of
initiation transient is:
ir,= Is + it
Since the applied voltage V drives the steady state current Is

∫ ∫

( )

( ) ( )

Is
𝑉 𝑅
𝑡
𝑟 𝑠 𝑡 ( 𝑒 𝐿 )
𝑅

0 t
𝑅
𝑡
𝑖𝑡 𝐼𝑒 𝐿

I0

𝑉 𝑅
𝑡
𝑟 ( 𝑒 𝐿 )
𝑅

Let the circuit be disconnected from voltage source and short-circuited by shifting the switch
from point 1 to 2 as shown above. Since voltage has been disconnected from the circuit, the
trapped current Is will immediately cease to be a steady state current, but on the other hand it will
become the initial value I0 of a new subsidence transient current it. So when t = 0, the current Is
 ( )

If the graph of this transient current it is plotted, we get this.

Is
𝑉 𝑡⁄
𝑟 𝑒 𝜆
𝑅

0 t
𝜆

The only voltage acting in the circuit when the voltage source was disconnected and the circuit

short circuited is self –induction

Time constant of a transient response can be explained as the time it would have taken the
transient current to decrease (decay) to zero if the decrease were linear instead of being
exponential. That is, the time during which it would have decrease to zero if it maintains its
initial rate of decrease. Having transient current to be it = Ioe-t/λ, then the initial rate of its
decrease can be found by differentiating it with respect to time t when t = 0. That is,
⁄

From this, the linear relation should be

If this rate is constant throughout and equal to then the doted straight line showing the
relationship between it and t would be given by

⁄
If we put t = λ in equation

Hence, time period of a circuit is the time during which the transient current decreases to 0.37 of
its initial value.

EXAMPLE
If a circuit of resistance 12Ω and inductance 0.2H in series is suddenly supplied with direct
voltage of 240V, calculate the voltages across the inductance and the fluxes linkage at the
instance of switching on (supplied) and 0.02 seconds after the switching
Solution

ί R = 12Ω L = 0.2H

240V

At the instance of switching (supplying), ί = 0

Therefore, ίR = 0, from this, all applied voltage is dropped across the inductor only.
That is, voltage drop across inductor = 240V
 Since ί = 0, no flux linkage on the coil at that time = Lί = 0
The flux linkage = 0
When t = 0.02 seconds, as time increases, current grows and voltage partly dropped
across resistor and inductor
ί = Is + ίt = Is(1-e-t/λ)
λ = L/R = 0.2/12 = 2/120 = 1/60
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Therefore, voltage dropped across resistance, R when t = 0.02 seconds
= ίR = 13.98 × 12 = 167.71V
VR2 + VL2 + VS2 = 167.712 + VL2 = 2402

√
Flux linkage when t = 0.02 second, = Lί = NФ = 0.2 × 13.98 = 2.796Wb-turns

A coil of 12H inductance with 6Ω resistance in series is connected in parallel with a 24Ω resistor
and a 120V d.c. is applied to the circuit. If after steady state is reached, the voltage source is
suddenly switched off, calculate:

(i) The initial rate of change of current immediately after disconnection

(ii) The values of voltage across the 24Ω resistor initially and 0.5 second after disconnection

(iii) The voltage across the switch contacts at the time of disconnection

(iv) The rate at which the coil is losing its stored energy 0.5 second after disconnection

SOLUTION
6Ω 12H

120V 24Ω
At steady state, the current flowing through the coil,

(⁄ )

(⁄ ) ( )

(i) The initial rate of change of current after disconnection i.e when t=0

( )
⁄

(ii) The values of voltage across 24Ω initially and 0.5 second after disconnection
( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

(iii) Voltage at switch contacts when t = 0, = applied voltage plus voltage across 24Ω

Voltage at switch contacts when t = 0.5 seconds, = applied voltage plus voltage across
24Ω

(iv)

( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

⁄
R-L-C circuit
In an R-L-C circuit, both electromagnetic and electrostatic energy storage components are
involved, hence any sudden change in the conditions of the circuit will involve redistribution of o
these two forms of energy (electromagnetic and electrostatic). The transient current produced
due to this redistribution is known as a double energy transient. The transient current produced
may be unidirectional or a decaying oscillatory current.

Thus, in an R-L-C circuit, the transient voltages across the three circuit parameters are:

This is a linear differential equation of second with constant C.

√( )
√

√ √

The values of K1 and K2 are constants and can be found from the boundary condition.

Depending on the values of four different conditions of the circuit are distinguishable
Case 1, when R = 0, this is a loss-free circuit, Un-damped circuit

√ √

√ √

( ) ( )

( ) √ ( )

From above equation, it can be seen that it is sinusoidal wave of constant peak value Im and

frequency
√

From initial conditions, the value of Im and can be determined.

it
𝑖𝑡 𝐼𝑚 (𝑤𝑡 𝜃)
Im

t
0 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360
0 0

i.e Under-damped.
 √ √

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
Where Im and are constants as before, this equation represent damped transient oscillatory
current as shown in the diagram below.

it

it = Ime-at sin(wt+Ɵ)

The exponential (e-at) which account for the decay of oscillations is called the decay, damping
factor or decrement. It makes each current peak a definite fraction less than that preceding it.

In this case, λ1 and λ2 will be pure numbers.

 √

√ √

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( )

[( ) ( ) ]
[ ]

it

𝑎𝑡 [𝐴
𝑖𝑡 𝑒 𝛾𝑡 𝐵 𝛾𝑡]

Over-damped

√ √

Hence, equation for it is reduced to:

 ( ) ( )
It is called critical damping because the current is reduced to almost zero in the shortest possible
time.

it
(𝐾 𝑎𝑡
𝑖𝑡 𝐾 𝑡)𝑒

Critical damping

Above cases can be summarized as following:

EXAMPLE
If a 6μF capacitor which was initially charged to 12V is to be discharged through a series
connection of 1.5H and a resistance of 750Ω, find an expression for its current, calculate the
value of current after 0.2 second and find the additional resistance required to have critical
damping condition.
 ί𝑡 R = 750Ω L = 1.5H

6μF 12V

√ √ √

( )

√ √ √ √

⁄
At initial state when t = 0,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( )]

[( ) ( )]
 ( )
( )

For critical damping condition circuit,

EXAMPLE
If in the figure below a disconnection occurs at appoint marked X, what would be the voltage
across the disconnection points? It is assumed that steady state condition has existed in the
circuit before disconnection occurred.

60Ω

120V
0.01μF
12mH

SOLUTION

When disconnection occurred, the energy stored in inductor is transferred to the capacitor.
 √

This voltage will be oscillating because the energy alternates between the inductor and capacity.

√ √

√ √ √

91287t

EXAMPLE
If a damped oscillating current of a circuit has the equation i = 240e-10tsin942.5t, calculate the
number of oscillation which will occur by the time the amplitude of the oscillation decay to one-
tenth (1/10 th) of its un-damped value.

SOLUTION
= 240e-10tsin942.5t
Then Un-damped amplitude current = 240A
Therefore, 1/8th of 240 =
To calculate the time taken the amplitude of the current to decrease to 30A,
Two-Port Networks
A two-port network can be defined as a four-terminal network with two pairs of terminals to
connect to external circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents entering one terminal
is equal the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port. The ports constitute
interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the points where signals are applied or
outputs are taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is
considered the output port.

Two-port Network I2
I1
V1
V2

The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate
portions of larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties
specified by a matrix of numbers. This allows the response of the network to signals applied to
the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the
network. It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. Any linear circuit with
four terminals can be regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain an
independent source and satisfies the port conditions.

Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports networks are: filters, matching networks,

transmission lines, transformers, and small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi
model). In two-port mathematical models, the network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of
complex numbers.

, voltage across port 1 , current into port 1

, voltage across port 2 , current into port 2

ABCD Parameters
Two-port Network I2
I1
V1
V2

As shown in the diagram above, ABCD parameter can be defined as the parameter that
show the relationship between the input variables V1 and I1 with the output variables V2
and I2. Where V2 and I2 are independent variables and v1 and I1 are dependent variables.
Thus the relationship is shown in the equations below
V1 = AV2 + BI2
I1 = CV2 + DI2
In matrix form,

[ ] * +[ ]

This is called the transfer matrix of the network.

By open circuit the output port of the network in order to make I2 = 0
Then,
By short circuit the output port of the network in order to make V2 = 0
Then,

Simple Transmission Network

V1 I1 Z I2
V2

() ( )

[ ] [ ] * +[ ]

To find A and C, we open circuit the output port of the network in order to I2 = 0, When I2 = 0,
I1 = 0 and V2 = V1.

To find B and D, we short circuit the output port of the network in order to V2 = 0, When V2 = 0,
V1 = I1Z and I2 = I1.
[ ] * +[ ] * +[ ]

When A = D, it means that the two-port network is a symmetrical network. A symmetrical

network is a network for which its input and output are interchangeable.

ABCD Parameters for Shunt Admittance Network

V1 I1 I2
V2
Y

() ( )

[ ] [ ] * +[ ]

To find A and C, we open circuit the output port of the network in order to I2 = 0, When I2 = 0,
I1 = V1Y and V2 = V1.

To find B and D, we short circuit the output port of the network in order to V2 = 0, When V2 = 0,
I2 = I1 and V1 = V2 = 0

[ ] * +[ ] * +[ ]
ABCD Parameters for Shunt-Series Network

V1 I1 I2
Z V2
Y

() ( )

[ ] [ ] * +[ ]

To find A and C, we open circuit the output port of the network in order to I2 = 0, When I2 = 0,
I1 = V1Y and V2 = V1.

To find B and D, we short circuit the output port of the network in order to V2 = 0, When V2 = 0,

( )

( )

[ ] * +[ ] * +[ ]

Cascaded Two-Port Networks

Two-port Two-port
I1 I2
Network Network
V1 V2
1 2

Two networks connected above are said to be cascaded. The output port of network 1 is the input
port of network 2. The ABCD parameters of cascaded pair are obtained by the multiplication of
the matrixes of the two-port networks cascaded. Thus, if the transmission parameters of network
1 are: A1, B1, C1, and D1 while those for network 2 are: A2, B2, C2, and D2 then,

[ ] * +[ ] [ ][ ][ ]

Whereby matrix multiplication gives:

Characteristic Impedance (Z0)

Characteristic impedance of a symmetrical two-port network can be explained as the impedance
“Z0” which when connected to the output port of a two-port network, it gives rise to input
impedance “Zin of the same value.

This is illustrated below.

Two-port Network I2
I1
Zin = Z0 V1 Z0
V2

( )

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
 √

Image Impedances
Suppose that for a non-symmetrical two-port network which its output port is terminated with an
impedance Z12 results into impedance Z11 when looking into the input terminal and terminating
the input port with Z11 results into impedance looking into the output terminal of Z12. The Z11
and Z12 are said to be image impedances. Some networks are frequently designed on the image
impedance basis in order to take advantage of maximum power transfer theorem. For a
symmetrical two-port network Z11 = Z12 and it is the characteristic impedance of the network Z0.

Insertion Loss
The maximum power transfer theorem state that maximum power is transferred from the source
to load when the impedance of the load is equal to impedance of the source. So, when
 + Inserted
_ VS
ZL
Two-port network
ZS

When a two-port network (such as attenuator pad) is inserted between a Source VS and a
load ZL as shown above, there will be a loss of power transfer due to the result of
mismatch between them and as well as that due to the loss in the inserted network itself.
The inserted loss is then defined as

Where, Pb = power in the load before insertion of the network

Pa = power in the load after insertion of the network
So if the load resistance is RL, then the power in the load is:

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Where, Ib = current through the load before insertion of the network

Ia = current through the load after insertion of the network

EXAMPLES
A single-phase transmission line has an impedance Z = (0.22 + j0.36)Ω
(i)Determine the ABCD Parameters of this line
(ii) Calculate the sending-end voltage required to produce 500KVA at a voltage of 2KV if the
power factor of the line 1.
SOLUTION

V1 I1 Z=(0.22 + j0.36)Ω
I2
V2

From the matrix equation,

[ ] * +[ ] ( )

From the question, receiving-end voltage i.e. V2 =2000V

Since the receiving-end power factor is 1, I2 is in phase with V2 and so:

I2 = 250A but V1 = AV2 + BI2 A = 1 and B = Z = (0.22 + j0.36)Ω
( )

√ √ √ (

If a five two-port networks consisting: a series resistor of 100Ω, a shunt conductance of

(1/500)S, a series resistor of 200Ω, a shunt conductance of (1/500)S and a series conductor of
100Ω are connected in cascade in that order, draw the networks and calculate the ABCD
parameters of the cascaded networks.

SOLUTION

I1 200Ω 100Ω I2
100Ω
(1/500)S (1/500)S V2
V1

[ ] * +[ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]

[ ] * +[ ]* +[ ]* +[ ]
 [ ] [ ]* +[ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ]* +[ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ]* +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ]

[ ] [ ][ ] * +[ ]

Calculate the “characteristic” impedance of the network shown in the figure below

50 + j0Ω
j0.2S j0.2S

By definition, Characteristic impedance,

√ ⁄
By cascaded method, ABCD parameters of two-port network
[ ] * +[ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ]

[ ] [ ]* +[ ][ ] * +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ][ ] * +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ][ ] * +[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ] * +[ ]
( )

[ ] [ ][ ] * +[ ]

√ ⁄ √ ⁄( ) √
√( ) ( )

√ √ √
√ ( )

The network shown below is inserted between the source and the load resistor as shown below.
Determine the insertion loss.

V
ZL=80Ω 660Ω

240Ω
ZS =80Ω 240Ω
SOLUTION

V
ZL=80Ω 660Ω

240Ω 240Ω
ZS =80Ω

Is
660Ω Ia
V
s 240Ω 240Ω ZL = 80Ω

Zs = 80Ω
 ( ) ( )

( )

Filters
A filter can be explained as a network used to shape the frequency spectrum of an electrical
signal. These networks are an essential part of communication and control systems. Filters are
classified according to the function they perform; as Low-Pass, High-pass, Band-pass, Band-
stop, Amplitude Equalizer, Delay Equalizer etc.

Before 1960s, filters for voice and data communication systems were manufactured by using
passive RLC components. Thereafter, the emergence of Hybrid Integrated Technology has
opened up the large field of active RC filters.

Graphical Representation of Characteristic Requirements of Filter

Stop band
Stop band
Loss in dB
Loss in dB

Amin Amin

Pass band
Pass band

Amax Amax
𝜔 𝜔
𝜔p 𝜔s 𝜔s 𝜔p

Low-pass characteristic requirement High-pass characteristic requirement

 Stop band Stop band
Stop band
Loss in dB

Loss in dB
Amin
Amin
Pass band
Pass band Pass band

Amax Amax Amax

𝜔 𝜔
𝜔3 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔4 𝜔1 𝜔3 𝜔4 𝜔2

Band-pass characteristic requirement Band-stop characteristic requirement

Amax. Means at most maximum electrical power lost in the dB when the filter allows the signal to
pass through the filter.
Amin. Means at least minimum electrical power lost in the dB when the filter allows the signal to
pass through the filter.

Passive Filter
Passive filter use resistors capacitors and inductors. For audio frequency application, the use of
inductor causes certain problems. This is because the impedance of a practical inductor deviates
from its ideal value due to inherent resistance associated with its realization. The model is
inductor is shown in the diagram below.

R wL

Practical model of inductor

The larger the value of resistance R, the lower the quality factor of inductor. And this makes
inductor deviate further from ideal value. To minimize distortion in the filter characteristic, it is
desirable to use inductor with higher quality factor. However, at frequencies below
approximately 1KHz, high quality inductor tends to become bulky and expensive. Attempts at
miniaturizing inductor have not met with much success.

Active Filter
Active filters overcome the drawbacks of passive filter. In addition, it has several advantages
over passive filter. Active filter are realized by using resistors, capacitors and active devices
(operational amplifiers). These devices can all be integrated, thereby allowing active RC filters
to provide the following advantages.
(i) There is reduction in its size and weight
(ii) There is increment in its reliability because the processing step of its realization can
be automated.
(iii) It cost lesser than passive filters because of integrated circuit it uses
(iv) There is improvement in its performance due to high quality (integrated circuit)
devices it uses
(v) There is reduction in the parasitic problem due to its smaller size.
(vi) Its design processes are simpler than that of passive filter.
(vii) It can be easily realized in wider classes of functions
(viii) Its realization can provide voltage gain.

Disadvantages of Active Filter

(i) Its finite bandwidth place a limit on the highest attainable of pole frequency.
(ii) Its maximum pole frequency limit decreases its quality factor that determines the
sharpness of filter characteristic.
(iii) Active filter requires power supply while passive filter does not.

Sensitivity of Filter
Sensitivity of filter is the measurement of the deviation of filter response due to variations in the
value of components caused by environmental change. Sensitivity of active filter realization is
much better than that of passive realization.
The economic and performance advantages of active RC filter realization far outweigh the above
mentioned disadvantages especially in voice and data communication system which represent a
larger percentage of all filter applications. Modern Engineering trend uses active filters in most
of these applications.

Low-Pass Filter
The basic function of a low-pass (LP) filter is to pass low frequencies signal with very little loss
and to attenuate (block) high frequencies signal with very high loss. A typical low-pass filter
requirement was shown in the figure above. The LP filter is required to pass signals from DC
(zero frequency) up to the cutoff frequency wp with at most Amax dB attenuation. This band of
frequencies from zero to wp is known as the “pass-band”. Frequencies above from ws to infinity
are called “stop-band” and ws is referred to as the “stop-band edge frequency”. The frequency
band from wp to ws is called the “transition band frequencies”. F, rom these four parameters, wp,
ws, Amax and Amin describe the requirements of a filter completely as shown is the diagrams
above.

A familiar application of LP filter is in the tone control of some hi-fi (high fidelity) amplifier.
The treble control varies the cutoff frequency of a low-pass filter and is used to attenuate the
high frequency record scratch-noise and amplifier hiss.

Synthesis of Passive Filters by Inspection

A passive filter can be realized by inspecting the simple driving point functions of the filter.
Especially those simple functions that can be directly recognized as the sum of the impedances
(or admittances) of resistors, capacitors and inductors can easily be synthesized. These are
illustrated below. The more complex network function can also be realized as a combination of
these simple building blocks. The following illustrate the procedure.

Symbols Use to Represent; Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor are:

Resistor → R,
Inductor → Ls and
 ( )

EXAMPLES

( ) ( )

( )

1/2H 2F
=

( ) ( ) ( )

⁄
( )
( ⁄ )

( ⁄ )
( )
( ⁄ )
 1/4Ω 1Ω

1F 1/4H

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )

(1/3)Ω
1Ω

(1/3)H

Laplace Transform
Laplace transform is a common technique use to transform problems from one form to another in
order to make their solution easier, even if the resulting processes are longer. One example is the
use of logarithms to transform the process of multiplication or division into simpler one of
addition or subtraction respectively.

The equations associated with operation of some electric circuits are differential equations in the
time domain. A stimulus which is a function of time is applied to the circuit whose behavior is
then described by one or more differential equations. These equations then have to be solved in
order to determine the response of the circuit to the stimulus. By means of Laplace transform, it
is possible to convert these equations into algebraic equations involving a complex variable “s”.
After manipulation in order to solve these algebraic equations (which are easier to solve than
differential equations), the inverse Laplace transform is then found which gives the time
response to the original stimulus.

[ ( )] ( )
Which read as “the Laplace transform of the function of time f(t) is equal to a function of “s”.
[ ( )] ∫ ( )
Thus the original function f(t) is first multiplied by exponential decay e-st and the result is
integrated from zero to infinity. The value of “s” must be such that the above equation converges
to zero as time gets to infinity.

The Laplace transform of many different functions of time have been determined and tabulated.
Since these tables are readily available, there is no need to derive the required transform in any
particular problem. However, we shall derive few in order to show and understand the procedure.
( )

( )
[ ( )] ∫ ( ) ∫ ∫

( )
[ ] [ ]

( )

[ ( )] ∫ ( ) ∫ ∫

[ ] [ ]

Laplace transform of the derivative of a function.

( )
( ) ( )

[ ( )] ∫ ( )

∫ [ ] ∫ ( ) ( ( )

∫ ( ) [ ( ) ] ∫ ( )( )
 [ ( )] ∫ ( ) [ ( )] [ ( )] ( )

f(t) Description L[f(t)] = F(s)

[ ( )]
() [ ( )] ( )

( )
∫ () () ( )

( )
( )

( )
( )

( )
[( ) ]
( )
( )
[( ) ]
First Shift Theorem
We have seen that the Laplace transform of f(t) is afunction of “s” only. That is L[f(t)] = F(s).
The shift theorem state that if L[f(t)] = F(s), then L[e-atf(t)] = F(s+a). The Laplace transform of
L[e-atf(t)] is thus the same as L[f(t)] with “s” everywhere in the result replace by (s+a).

[ ( )]

[ ( )]
( )
Inverse Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace Transform is the process which gives the time response to the “s” domain
equation.

( )

* + ( )

* + [ ] * + ( )

[ ] ( )

Partial Fraction Recduction of a Given Function

Let us take a closer look at the rule.

Rules of Partial Fraction
(i) The numerator must be of lower degree than denominator. If it is not, then, first divide
out
(ii) Factorize the denominator into its prime factors. These determine the shape of the partial
fraction.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
 ( ) ( )
( )

EXAMPLES
1. Determine the inverse Laplace transform of a function F(S)

( )
( )( )

SOLUTION

( )
( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
From this equation;
() ( ) ( )
When s – 2 = 0, s=2
( ) ( ) ( )( )

When s + 2 = 0, s = -2

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

()

( ) ( )
( )( )

[ ( )] [ ]

2. Determine the inverse Laplace transform of a function F(S) (19 marks):

( )
( )
 SOLUTION

( )
( ) ( )( )

( )( )( )

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
From this equation,
()
( )
( )
( )
Again, when (s – 2) = 0 that is, s = 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )

( )

Also, when (s + 2) = 0 that is, s = -2

( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )

From equation (i) A + B + C = 3, 4 + 2 + C = 3, C = 3-6 = -3

From equation (ii) 2A - 2B + D = 4, 8 - 4 + D = 4, D = 4 - 4 = 0

( )
( )( )( )

( )
( )( )( )

( ( )) ( )
Assignment

* + * + [ ]
( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( )

EXAMPLE
The capacitor in the circuit below is initially charged to 30V. Obtain an expression for the
voltage (VC) across the capacitor as a function of time when the switch is closed at an instance
t = 0. Also, determine the time it will take VC to equal to 90V

I(t) R = 6Ω C = 0.2F

30V

150V

R = 6Ω C = 0.2F
SOLUTION I(t)

30V
+
150V
-

I(s) C = 1/CS
R = 6Ω
+ +
𝑆 𝑆 -
-

When switch is closed i.e when t = 0

Voltage across the capacitor VC

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By partial fraction,

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End of the Note

Thanks.