Energy efficient buildings with respect to

indian climates
AIM
To study the different energy efficient building construction methods and
materials with respect to the 6 major indian climates.

INTENT
energy-efficient building creates comfortable living conditions inside the
dwelling with the least possible amount of energy consumption maximizing
efficiency in use of resources. In energy efficient buildings, the mode of use of
the internal environment is a central issue. Having an energy efficient building is
becoming more and more vital as energy emerges as a critical economic issue
due to high demand for energy and unsustainable supplies of energy. Energy
efficient buildings offer opportunities to save money as well as reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. in india the climate and the temperature differs from
one area to another, namely 6 major climates hot and dry, warm and humid,
moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny and composite. In order to achieve
the energy efficient building in different climate the construction materials and
methedology differ from one to another.

OBJECTIVE
-different materials to achieve energy efficient buildings.
-study the charecterstics of different climate.
-different methodology to achieve the energy efficiency building in different
climate.
-techniques and tools of implementing energy efficiency.
-design strategies of energy efficiency.

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METHODOLOGY

CLIMATES IN INDIA
The Climate of India consists of a wide range of weather conditions across a
vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalizations difficult.
Based on the koppen system, india hosts six major climatic sub types, ranging
from arid deserts in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid
`tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest and the island
territories.they are as follows,
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 • Hot and dry.
• Warm and humid.
• Cold and cloudy.
• Cold and sunny.
• Moderate.
• Composite.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

3
Source: Mannual of tropical climate and building

Hot and Dry climate

• The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India;
Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Sholapur are some of the towns that experience this
type of climate.
• A typical hot and dry region is usually flat with sandy or rocky ground
conditions, and sparse vegetation comprising cacti, thorny trees and
bushes.
• In summer, the maximum ambient temperatures are as high as 40–45 ºC
during the day, and 20–30 ºC at night.
• In winter, the values are between 5 and 25 ºC during the day and 0 to 10 ºC
at night.
• The climate is described as dry because the relative humidity is generally
very low, ranging from 25 to 40 % due to low vegetation and surface water
bodies.
Moreover, the hot and dry regions receive less rainfall- the annual precipitation
being less than 500 mm.
4
Warm and Humid
• The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country. Some
cities that fall under this zone are Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
• The high humidity encourages abundant vegetation in these regions.
• In summer, temperatures can reach as high as 30 – 35 ºC during the day,
and 25 – 30 ºC at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between 25
to 30 ºC during the day and 20 to 25 ºC at night.
• Although the temperatures are not excessive, the high humidity causes
discomfort.
• An important characteristic of this region is the relative humidity, which is
generally very high, about 70 – 90 % throughout the year.
• Precipitation is also high, being about 1200 mm per year, or even more.
Hence, the provision for quick drainage of water is essential in this zone.

Moderate
• Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone.
Areas having a moderate climate are generally located on hilly or high-
plateau regions with fairly abundant. vegetation.
• The solar radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the
year.
• Being located at relatively higher elevations, these places experience lower
temperatures than hot and dry regions.
• The temperatures are neither too hot nor too cold. In summers, the
temperature reaches 30 – 34 ºC during the day and 17 – 24 ºC at night.
• In winter, the maximum temperature is between 27 to 33 ºC during the day
and 16 to 18 ºC at night.

Composite
• The composite zone covers the central part of India.

5
 • Some cities that experience this type of climate are New Delhi, Kanpur and
Allahabad. A variable landscape and seasonal vegetation characterise this
zone.
• The maximum daytime temperature in summers is in the range of 32 – 43
ºC, and night time values are from 27 to 32 ºC.
• In winter, the values are between 10 to 25ºC during the day and 4 to 10 ºC
at night.

Cold and Cloudy

• Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most
cold and cloudy regions are situated at high altitudes.
• Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar are examples
of places belonging to this climatic zone.
• These are generally highland regions having abundant vegetation in
summer.
• In summer, the maximum ambient temperature is in the range of 20 – 30 ºC
during the day and 17– 27 ºC at night, making summers quite pleasant.
• In winter, the values range between 4 and 8 ºC during the day and from -3
to 4 ºC at night, making it quite chilly.

Cold and Sunny

• The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in (Ladakh).
• The region is mountainous, has little vegetation, and is considered to be a
cold desert.
• In summer, the temperature reaches 17– 24 ºC during the day and 4– 11 ºC
at night.
• In winter, the values range from -7 to 8 ºC during the day and -14 to 0 ºC at
night.
• Winters thus, are extremely cold.

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7
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Energy efficiency is defined as the use of energy in an optimum manner to
achieve the same service that could have been achieved using a common less
efficient manner. Energy efficiency is the practice of reducing the energy
requirements while achieving the required energy output.Energy efficient
building design involves constructing or upgrading buildings that are able to get
the most work out of the energy that is supplied to them by taking steps to reduce
energy loss such as decreasing the loss of heat through the building envelope.
Energy efficient homes, whether they are renovated to be more efficient or a built
with energy efficiency in mind, pose a significant number of benefits. Energy
efficient homes are less expensive to operate, more comfortable to live in, and
more environmentally friendly. Inefficiencies that are not removed in the
building process can pose issues for years. However, keeping energy efficient
building design in mind when construction is underway is a more effective way
to approach making a home more efficient, which is less expensive for a
homeowner in the long run. Building codes exist around the world to ensure that
buildings are energy efficient to a certain degree, however sometimes it is wise to
go above and beyond these recommendations to have an even more energy
efficient home.As well, since a house operates as a system, a home must be
looked at as a whole in order to fully increase the energy efficiency. For example,
expensive heating and cooling equipment do nothing to improve the energy
performance of the house if insulation isn't keeping heat in during the winter and
out in the summer

IMPORATANCE OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Having an energy efficient building is becoming more and more vital as energy
emerges as a critical economic issue due to high demand for energy and
unsustainable supplies of energy. This means that even households must evaluate
how well energy is being used to heat and light a home. Energy efficient
buildings offer opportunities to save money as well as reduce greenhouse gas
emissions As well, the reliance on non-renewable fuels is not sustainable, and it
involves using more and more destructive processing means to obtain these fuels.
Homes and other buildings account for nearly 40% of total US energy use
8
(Canada is lower with just under 29%), and thus increasing their efficiency will
improve the reliance on non-renewable fuels for the future. This environmental
benefit of reducing the number of greenhouse gases is both local and global.
There are local benefits due to the fact that a buildings energy demand requires a
local supply of energy, which causes local pollution and negative health side-
effects. This allows communities to focus on investing funds in other places
instead of in building power plants. In addition to overall environmental benefits
that arise from a more energy efficient building, there are also personal benefits.
Reduced heating and electrical bills are one major benefit to upgrading a home or
building a more energy efficient home. As well, installing these energy-efficient
technologies effectively works to "future-proof" the building by making
investments that will be selling points well into the future. Overall, even though
there is an initial amount of money that must be put in to improve energy
efficiency, homeowners will often recover these costs in a short period of time
due to the reduced energy expenses. This payback time can be short, taking only
a few years. As well, if there is more support and interest in energy saving
technologies, associated prices will go down on certain devices while
encouraging more and more developments in energy saving technologies to
occur. Along with this, the more new practices that are adopted in construction,
the more these measures will become standard practice and this in turn will
lessen the environmental impact of buildings by making more efficient buildings
necessary by law. The best time to focus on energy efficiency is when a building
is first being built, as this new construction offers opportunities to integrate new
energy efficiency measures more simply than in a building that is already
complete. As well, building a more energy efficient home to begin with is more
cost effective than renovating a home to be more energy efficient.

NEEDS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Demand for energy is increasing fast day by day and is likely to increase in tune
with industrialization/ urbanization.
The building sector being one of the largest consumers of energy, has gained
prominence over the past few decades.
45% of total global energy is used in heating, cooling and lighting of building.
5% energy is used in building construction.

9
 In India energy used for air conditioning of commercial buildings accounts for
32% of the total energy consumption in the commercial sector in 1995.
Energy consumption patterns can be substantially reduced by energy conserving
measures, particularly during the phase of building design.
Space heating load can be reduced by about 50%, when economically-viable
insulating measures are applied to the building envelopes, i. e. to ceiling and
walls.

Source: https://www.econiwas.com/pdf/publication/Eco%20friendly
%20HVAC%20tecshnologies.pdf

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES

Landscaping
Landscaping is an important element in altering the microclimate of a place.
Proper landscaping reduces direct-sun from striking and heating up building
surfaces. It prevents reflected light carrying heat into a building from the ground
or other surfaces. Landscaping creates different airflow patterns and can be used
to direct or divert the wind advantageously by causing a pressure difference.
Additionally, the shade created by trees and the effect of grass and shrubs reduce
air temperatures adjoining the building and provide evaporative cooling. Properly
designed roof gardens help to reduce heat loads in a building. A study shows that
the ambient air under a tree adjacent to the wall is about 2 DC to 2.5 DC lower
than that for unshaded areas (Bansal, Hauser, and Minke 1994). Trees are the
primary elements of an energy-conserving landscape. Climatic requirements
govern the type of trees to be planted. Planting deciduous trees on the southern
side of a building is beneficial in a composite climate. Deciduous plants such as
10
mulberry or Champa cut off direct sun during summer, and as these trees shed
leaves in winter, they allow the sun to heat the buildings in winter.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Building form/surface-to-volume ratio

The volume of space inside a building that needs to be heated or cooled and its
relationship with the area of [he envelope enclosing the volume affect the thermal
performance of the building. This parameter, known as the SN (surface-co-
volume) ratio, is determined by the building form. For any given building
volume, the more compact the shape, the less wasteful it is in gaining/losing heat.
Hence, in hot and dry regions and cold climates, buildings are compact in form
with a low SN ratio to reduce heat gain and losses, respectively. Also, the
building form determines the airflow pattern around the building, directly
affecting its ventilation. The depth of a building also determines the requirements
for artificial lighting-greater the depth, higher he need for artificial lighting.

Location of water bodies

water is a good modifier of microclimate. It cakes up a large amount of heat in
evaporation and causes significant cooling especially in a hot and dry climate, In
humid climates, water should be avoided as it adds to humidity.

Orientation
Building orientation is a significant design consideration, mainly with regard to
solar radiation and wind. In predominantly cold regions, buildings should be
oriented to maximize solar gain; the reverse is advisable for hot regions. In
regions where seasonal changes are very pronounced, both the situations may
arise periodically. For a cold climate, an orientation slightly east of south is
favoured (especially 15 degrees east of south), as this exposes the unit to more
morning than afternoon sun and enables the house to begin to heat during the
day.

Building envelope and fenestration

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The building envelope and its components are key determinants of the amount of
heat gain and loss and wind that enters inside. The primary elements affecting the
performance of a building envelope are
• materials and construction techniques
• roof
• walls
• fenestration and shading
• finishes.

Roofs
The roof receives significant solar radiation and plays an important role in heat
gain/losses, day lighting, and ventilation. Depending on the climatic needs,
proper roof treatment is essential. In a hot region, the roof should have enough
insulating properties to minimize heat gains. A few roof protection methods are
as follows. • A cover of deciduous plants or creepers can be provided.
Evaporation from leaf surfaces will keep the rooms cool. • The entire roof
surface can be covered with inverted earthen pots. It is also an insulating cover of
still air over the roof. • A removable cover is an effective roof-shading device.
This can be mounted close to the roof in the day and can be rolled up to permit
radiative cooling at night. The upper surface of the canvas should be painted
white to minimize [he radiation absorbed by the canvas and consequent
conductive heat gain through it. • Effective roof insulation can be provided by
using vermiculite concrete. This has been used in the RETREAT building at Gual
Pahari (near New Delhi) and has reduced roof conduction by 60%

12
 Source: Implementing energy efficiency in buildings

Materials and construction techniques

materials with low embodied energy

Choice of building materials is important in reducing the energy content of
buildings. Strain on conventional energy can be reduced by use of low-energy
materials, efficient structural design, and reduction in transportation energy. The
choice of materials also helps to maximize indoor comfort. Use of materials and
components with low embodied energy has been demonstrated in various
buildings in Auroville. The Visitors' Centre at Auroville uses innovative
materials and construction techniques CO reduce embodied energy of the
building and attain the desired comfort conditions conducive to the warm and
humid climate.

Thermal insulation
Insulation is of great value
when a building requires
mechanical heating or
cooling insulation helps
reduce the space-
conditioning loads. Location
of insulation and its
optimum thickness are
important. In hot climates,
insulation is placed on the
outer face (facing exterior)
of the wall so that thermal
mass of the wall is weakly
coupled with the external
source and strongly coupled
with the interior (Bansal,
Hauser, and Minke 1994).
Source: Implementing energy efficiency in
building Use of 40-mm thick expanded polystyrene insulation
on walls and vermiculite concrete insulation on the roof has brought down space-
conditioning loads of the RETREAT building by about 15%

Walls

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Walls are a major part of the building envelope and receive large amounts of
solar radiation. The heat storage capacity and heat conduction property of walls
are key to meeting desired thermal comfort conditions. The wall thickness,
material, and finishes can be chosen based on the heating and cooling needs of
the building. Appropriate thermal insulation and air cavities in walls reduce heat
transmission into the building, which is the primary aim in a hot region.

Air cavities
Air cavities within walls or an attic space in the roof ceiling combination reduce
the solar heat gain factor, thereby reducing space-conditioning loads. The
performance improves if the void is ventilated. Heat is transmitted through the air
cavity by convection and radiation. A cavity represents a resistance, which is not
proportional to its thickness. For a thickness >20. mm, the resistance to heat flow
remains nearly constant. Ventilated air does not reduce radiative heat transfer
from roof to ceiling. The radiative component of heat transfer may be reduced by
using low emissive or high reflective coating (e.g. aluminium foil) on either
surface facing the cavity. With aluminium foil attached to the top of ceiling, the
resistance for downward heat flow increases to about 0.7 m 2 kJW, compared to
0.21 m 2 kJW in the absence of the foil (Bansal, Hauser, and Minke 1994).

Fenestration and shading

Of all the elements in the building envelope, windows and other glazed areas are
most vulnerable to heat gain or losses. Proper location, sizing, and detailing of
windows and shading form an important part of bioclimatic design as they help
to keep the sun and wind out of a building or allow them when needed. The
location of openings for ventilation is determined by prevalent wind direction.
Openings at higher levels naturally aid in venting out hot air. Size, shape, and
orientation of openings moderate air velocity and flow in the room; a small inlet
and a large outlet increase the velocity and distribution of airflow through the
room. When possible, the house should be so positioned on the site that it takes
advantage of prevailing winds. The prevailing wind direction is from the south-
east during summer. The recommendations in IS:336i-1977 code of practices for
natural ventilation of residential buildings (first revision) should be satisfied in
the design of windows for lighting and ventilation. There should be sufficient air
motion in hot-humid and warm-humid climates. In such areas, fans are essential
to provide comfortable air motion indoors. Fenestrations having 15%-20% of
floor area are found adequate for both ventilation and daylighting in hot and dry,
and hot and humid regions. Natural light is also admitted into a building through
glazed openings. Thus, fenestration design is primarily governed by requirements
of heat gain and loss, ventilation, and daylighting. The important components of
a window that govern these are the glazing systems and shading devices.
14
Glazing systems
Before recent innovations in glass, films, and coatings, a typical residential
window with one or two layers of glazing allowed roughly 75%~85% of the solar
energy co enter a building. Internal shading devices such as curtains or blinds
could reflect back some of that energy outside the building. The weak thermal
characteristics of windows became a prime target for research and development
in an attempt to control the indoor temperature of buildings. A detailed write-up
on energy-efficient glazing system is provided in Appendix. Windows admit
direct solar radiation and hence promote heat gain. This is desirable in cold
climates, but is critical in hot climates. The window size should be kept
minimum in hot and dry regions. For example, in Ahmedabad, if glazing is taken
as 10% instead of 20% of the floor area, then the number of uncomfortable hours
in a year can be reduced by as much as 35% (Nayak, Hazra, and Prajapati 1999).

Shading devices
Heat gain through windows is determined by the overall heat loss coefficient U-
value (m2K) and the solar energy gain factor, and is much higher as compared to
that through solid wall. Shading devices for windows and walls thus moderate
heat gains into the building. In a low-rise residential building in Ahmadabad (hot
and dry climate), shading a window by a horizontal O.76-m deep chaja can
reduce the maximum room temperature by 4.6 °C (from 47 .7 to 43.1 °C).
Moreover, the number of uncomfortable hours in a year with temperatures
exceeding 30°C can be reduced by 14% «Nayak, Hazra, and Prajapati 1999).
Shading devices are of various types (Bansal, Hauser, and Minke 1994).
Moveable opaque (roller blind, curtains, etc.) can be highly effective in reducing
solar gains but eliminate view and impede air movement. 2 Louvres (adjustable
or fixed) affect the view and air movement to some degree. 3 Fixed overhangs.

advanced passive heating

Advance passive heating techniques are used by architects in building design to
achieve thermal comfort conditions in cold climate. Passive solar heating systems
can be broadly classified into direct gain systems and indirect gain systems .
Direct gain
Direct gain is the most common passive solar system. In this system, sunlight
enters rooms through windows, warming the interior space. The glazing system
is generally located on the southern side to receive maximum sunlight during
winter (in the northern hemisphere). The glazing system is usually double-glazed,
with insulating curtains to reduce heat loss during night. South-facing glass
admits solar energy into the building, where it strikes thermal storage materials
such as floors or walls made of adobe, brick, concrete, Stone, or water. The direct
15
gain system uses 60%- 75% of solar energy striking the windows. The interior
thermal mass tempers the intensity of heat during the day by absorbing heat. At
night, the thermal mass radiates heat into the living space, thus warming the
spaces. direct gain can be achieved by various forms of openings such as
clerestories and skylight windows designed for the required heating. Direct gain
systems have been used for day-use rooms by architect Sanjay Prakash in the
residence for Mohini Mullick at Bhowali. The user is extremely satisfied with the
thermal performance of the direct gain system in Indirect gain system this
residence. Direct gain systems have some limitations. They cause large
temperature savings (typically 10°C) because of large variations in input of solar
energy. In direct gain systems, the interior of the house receives direct sunlight,
which results in the degradation of the interior furnishings, etc. However, being
relatively simple to construct and inexpensive, they are by far the most common
systems used worldwide.
Indirect gain system
in an indirect gain system, thermal mass is located between the sun and the living
space. The thermal mass absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to the
living space. The indirect gain system uses 30%-45% of the sun's energy striking
the glass ad joining the thermal mass. A few commonly used indirect gain
systems are discussed below,

Trombe wall
Solid wall passive solar system consists of a solid wall placed on the south side
of the building and darkened in colour and glazed to allow the wall to act as a
solar collector and heat storage element. During the day, the wall slowly stores
heat.
By evening, heat will have been conducted to the inside face of the wall and will
radiate in the adjacent rooms. If it is properly sized, the wall will continue to
radiate until early morning. Often the wall is vented to the interior space at the
top and bottom to create a thermosyphon loop. This venting keeps the wall’s
surface cooler, allowing more efficient heat collection. This system is sometimes
known as the Trombe wall, after its first designer.

16
The characteristics of this system are:
• From the collection point of view, this system is less efficient than a direct
gain system because of the high temperatures reached in the gap between
wall and glass. This temperature excess induces high thermal losses and
therefore for the same output an indirect gain system would require 50 to
90% more collector area than a direct gain system.
• Because of their good wall thermal conductivity, compared with
conventional insulated walls, in cloudy–cold climates thermal walls will
lose too much heat during the day to be able to supply the expected heat at night
time.
• In all climates very effective external shading is mandatory to avoid
overheating at midday on sunny days.
• Because transmission of stored heat is delayed a number of hours,
depending on the wall design, indirect gain systems are suitable for
residential building where activity starts in the afternoon.
• Indirect gain systems do not have as many problems as direct gain systems
regarding heat storage. This offers more freedom in design of the interior.
• Tromb walls can be expensive because of the cost of materials and the
structural modifications required.

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Water wall
In this system instead of solid wall there is water- filled containers. As water is
the substance with the highest heat absorption capacity,
 its use as accumulating element is very efficient and economic.
 More over, the convection in the water medium helps the transfer of heat in
its entire volume much faster.
 As a result of this, there is reduction of thermal losses in the system and the
losses can be additionally regulated in winter and summer seasons by heat
insulating elements.

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 Another advantage of the water wall solar heating system is that it allows
penetration of solar radiation in internal spaces if the containers are
transparent and provides for visual contact with the environment.

Roof based air heating system

In this technique, incident solar radiation is trapped by the roof and is used for
heating interior spaces. In the northern hemisphere, the system usually consists of
an inclined south-facing glazing and a north-sloping insulated surface on the
roof. Between the roof and the insulation, an air pocket is formed, which is
heated by solar radiation. A moveable insulation can be used to reduce heat loss
through glazed panes during nights. There could be variations in detailing of roof
air beating systems. In the Himachal Pradesh State Cooperative Bank building,
south-glazing is in the form of solar collectors warming the air and a blower fan
circulating the air to The interior spaces.
Source: Implementing energy efficiency in buildings

19
Sunspaces
A sunspace or solarium is the combination of direct and indirect gain systems.
Solar radiation heats up the sunspace directly, which, in turn, heats up the living
space (separated from the sunspace by a mass wall) by convection and
conduction through the mass wall. In the northern hemisphere, the basic
requirements of buildings heated by sunspace
are (1) a glazed south-facing collector space
attached yet seperated from the building and
(2) living space separated from the sunspace
by a thermal storage wall. Sunspaces may be
used as winter gardens adjacent to the living
space. The Himura building in Shimla has a
well-designed solarium on the south wall to
maximize solar gain.

Solar chimney
A solar chimney is a type of passive solar heating and cooling system that can be
used to regulate the temperature of a building as well as providing ventilation.
Like a Trombe wall or solar wall, solar chimneys are a way to achieve energy
efficient building design.

20
Wind tower
In a wind tower, the hot air enters the tower through the openings in the tower,
gets cooled, and thus becomes heavier and sinks down. The inlet and outlet of
rooms induce cool air movement. In the presence of wind, air is cooled more
effectively and flows faster down the tower and into the living area. After a
whole day of air exchanges, (he tower becomes warm in the evenings. During the
night, cooler ambience air comes in contact with the bottom of the tower through
the rooms. The tower walls absorb heat during daytime and release it at night,
warming [he cool night air in
(he tower. Warm air moves up,
creating an upward draft, and
draws cool night air through the
doors and windows into the
building. The system works
effectively in hot and dry
climates where diurnal
variations are high. The Jodhpur
Hostel, designed by Dr Vinod
Gupta, uses wind tower for
summer cooling. A wind rower
works well for individual units
not for multi-storyed
apartments. In dense urban
areas, the wind tower has to be
long enough to be able [0 catch
enough air. Also protection from
driving rain is difficult.

Courtyard effects
Due to incident solar radiation
in a courtyard, the air gets
warmer and rises. Cool air from
the ground level flows through
the louvred openings of foams surrounding a courtyard, thus producing air flow.
At night, the warm roof surfaces get cooled by convection and radiation. If this
heat exchange reduces roof surface temperature to wet bulb temperature of air,
condensation of atmospheric moisture occurs on the roof and the gain due to
condensation limits further cooling. If the roof surfaces are sloped towards the
internal courtyard, the cooled air sinks into the court and enters the living space
through low-level openings, gets warmed up, and leaves the room through
21
higher-level openings. However, care should be taken that the courtyard does not
receive intense solar radiation, which would lead to conduction and radiation heat
gains into the building. Intensive solar radiation in the courtyard also produces
immense glare.

Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling lowers indoor air temperature by evaporating water. It is
effective in hot and dry climate where the atmospheric humidity is low. In
evaporative cooling, the sensible heat of air is used to evaporate water, thereby
cooling the air, which, in turn, cools the living space of the building. Increase in
contact between water and air increases the rate of evaporation. The presence of a
water body such as a pond, lake, and sea near the building or a fountain in a
courtyard can provide a cooling effect. The most commonly used system is a
desert cooler, which comprises water, evaporative pads, a fan, and pump.
Evaporative cooling has been tried as a roof-top installation at the Solar Energy
Centre, Gurgaon. However, the system has now become defunct due to poor
water supply in the area.

Passive downdraught cooling

In this system, wind catchers guide outside air over water-filled pots, inducing
evaporation and causing a significant drop in temperature before the air enters the
interior. Such wind catchers become primary elements of the architectural form
also. Passive down draught evaporative cooling is particularly effective in hot
and dry climates. It has been used to effectively cool the Torrent Research Centre
in Ahmedabad.

22
 Source: Implementing energy efficiency in buildings

Daylighting
Daylighting has a major effect on the appearance of space and can have
considerable energy-efficiency implications, if used properly. Its variability and
subtlety is pleasing to the occupants in contrast to the relatively monotonous
environment produced by artificial light. It helps to create optimum working
conditions by bringing out the natural contrast and colour of objects. The
presence of natural light can bring a sense of well being and awareness of the
wider environment. Daylighting is important particularly in commercial and
other non-domestic buildings that function during the day. Integration of
daylighting with artificial lighting brings about considerable savings in energy
consumption. A good daylighting system has a number of elements, most of
which must be incorporated into the building design at an early stage. This can be
achieved by considering the following in relation to the incidence of daylight on
the building.
• Orientation, space organization, and geometry of the space to be lit
• Location, form, and dimensions of the fenestrations through which daylight will
enter
• Location and surface properties of internal partitions that affect daylight
distribution by reflection
• Location, form, and dimensions of shading devices that provide protection from
excessive light and glare
• Light and thermal characteristics of the glazing materials.

23
DESIGN STATERGIES FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES

Hot and Dry Climate

Hot and dry climatic regions are characterised by very high radiation levels,
ambient temperatures and relatively low humidity.

The design objectives in such a climate should be aimed at:

(A) Resisting heat gain:
Heat gain can be resisted by:
 Decreasing the surface of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
 Providing buffer spaces between the living areas and the outside.
 Decreasing ventilation during daytime in the summers.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
(B) Promoting heat loss:
Some measures to promote heat loss are:
 Providing for ventilation of various appliances used.
 Increasing ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night time.
 Providing for evaporative cooling (e.g. roof surface evaporative cooling).
 Using earth coupling systems like earth-air pipes. 

General recommendations for the climate are:

(1) Site
(a) Landform:
 Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
 In case of an undulating site, constructing on the leeward side of the slope
is preferred.
This protects the building from direct impact of hot winds which can be quite
uncomfortable.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Building in a depression is preferable in cases where ventilation is assured.
24
 Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be used for
evaporative cooling. They humidify the air and make it comfortable inside.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in cooling.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(c) Street width and orientation
Streets must be narrow so that they cause mutually shade the buildings. Streets
need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

25
(d) Open spaces and built form:
 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back at
night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot summer
winds.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(2) Orientation and planform

 An east-west orientation is preferred in hot and dry climatic regions. 

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

South and north facing walls are easier to shade than east and west walls. During
summer, the south wall with significant exposure to solar radiation in most parts
of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-west rooms. Hence, shading of
the south wall is imperative.
26
  The surface to volume (S/V) ratio should be kept as minimum as possible
to reduce heat gains.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures during this

period are low.

(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 Flat roofs or vaulted roofs are ideal in this climate. Nonetheless, a vaulted
roof provides a larger surface area for heat loss compared to a flat roof.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 The material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced cement concrete

(RCC) slab is preferred to asbestos cement (AC) sheet roof.
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots is
also suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs is favourable as the space
between the two acts as a heat buffer. Thermal insulation over false ceiling
further increases the buffer action.
 Insulation of roofs makes the buildings more energy efficient than
insulating the walls.

27
  Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night time radiative cooling can
also be employed.
 Incase of evaporative cooling, it is better to use a roof having high thermal
transmittance.

(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat
gain.
 The control of heat gain through the walls by shading, thus, becomes an
important design consideration.
 A wall that transmits less heat is hence feasible.

(c) Fenestration
 In hot and dry climates, reducing the window area leads to lower indoor
temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as
compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation throughout
the year
 All openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading
devices such as chhajjas and fins.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can also be
used.
 Ventilators are preferred at higher levels as they help in throwing out the
hot air.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows should
be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night-time to admit
cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be
considered as it they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation.
Scheduling air changes (i.e. high ventilation rate at night and during cooler
28
 periods of the day, and lower ones during daytime) can significantly help in
reducing the discomfort.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.

(D) Colour and textures

 Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours that absorb less heat should be used to paint the external surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
 The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self
shading.

Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be
designed such that they encourage direct gain during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and
admit sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if the
glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well-shaded.
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and
high percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions as
the building will tend to act like a green house with the insulated walls
preventing the radiation from the windows from escaping into the environment.
 Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in evaporative
cooling and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively in
this climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized,
they can help in achieving comfort levels.

Warm and Humid Climate

In hot and humid climatic regions, high temperatures are accompanied by very
high humidity levels leading to immense discomfort. Cross ventilation is hence
very essential here. Adequate shading measures are also necessary to protect the
building from direct solar radiation.

29
The main design objectives should be:

(A) Resisting heat gain

Measures that are convenient to resist unwanted heat gain are:
(a) Decreasing surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
(b) Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
(c) Providing buffer spaces between the outside and the inside.
(d) Increasing shading of the building in general.
(e) Using materials that reflect heat.

(B) Promoting heat loss

To promote heat lost it is essential to ensure:
(a) Appliances used are well ventilated.
(b) Proper ventilation occurs throughout the day.
(c) Humidity levels are reduced as much as possible.

General recommendations for building design in warm and humid climate

are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 For flat sites, design considerations for the landform is immaterial.
 Incase of slopes and depressions, the building should be located on the
windward side or crest to take advantage of cool breezes.

30
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(b) Waterbodies
 Water bodies are not essential as they would tend to further increase the
humidity.
(c) Open spaces and built form
 Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces in between for
unrestricted air movement.

 In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation and cause cooling at the
ground level.
(d) Street width and orientation
 Major streets should be oriented parallel to or within 30 of the prevailing
wind direction during summer months to encourage ventilation in warm and
humid regions.
 A north-south direction is ideal from the point of view of blocking solar
radiation.
 The width of the streets should be such that the intense solar radiation
during late morning and early afternoon is avoided during the summers.
(2) Orientation and Planform
 As temperatures are not very high, free plans can be evolved as long as the
house is under protective shade.
 An unobstructed air path through the interiors is important to ensure proper
ventilation.
 The buildings could be long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation. For
example, a singly loaded corridor plan (i.e. one with rooms on one side only) is
preferable over a doubly loaded one.

31
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Heat and moisture producing areas like toilets and kitchens must be
ventilated and separated from the rest of the structure.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Semiopen spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches can be used

advantageously for daytime activities as well as give protection from rainfall.
 In multistoreyed buildings a central courtyard can be provided with vents at
higher levels to draw away the rising hot air.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(3) Building Envelope

32
(a) Roof
 In addition to providing shelter from rain and heat, the form of the roof
should be planned to promote air flow.
 Vents at the rooftop effectively induce ventilation and draw hot air out.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Insulation does not provide any additional benefit for a normal RCC roof in
a non-conditioned building.
 However, very thin roofs having low thermal mass, such as AC sheet
roofing, require insulation as they tend to rapidly radiate heat into the interiors
during daytime.
 A double roof with a ventilated space in between can also be used to
promote air flow. The space in between can also act as a heat buffer.
(b) Walls:
 The walls must also be designed to promote air flow so as to counter the
prevalent humidity.
 Baffle walls, both inside and outside the building can help to divert the flow
of wind inside.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 They should be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such areas.
33
  If adequately sheltered, exposed brick walls and mud plastered walls work
very well by absorbing the humidity and helping the building to breathe.

(c) Fenestration
 Cross-ventilation is of utmost importance in warm and humid climatic
regions.
 All doors and windows should preferably be kept open for maximum
ventilation for most of the year.
 These must be provided with venetian blinds or louvers to shelter the rooms
from the sun and rain, as well as for the control of air movement.
 Openings of a comparatively smaller size can be placed on the windward
side, while the corresponding openings on the leeward side should be bigger for
facilitating a plume effect for natural ventilation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 The openings should be shaded by external overhangs.

 Outlets at higher levels serve to vent hot air.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Examples illustrating how the air movement within a room can be better
distributed
34
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(d) Colour and texture

 The walls should be painted with light pastel shades or whitewashed, while
the surface of the roof can be of broken glazed tile (china mosaic flooring) to
reflect the sunlight back to the environment, and hence reduce heat gain of the
building.
 The use of appropriate colours and surface finishes is a cheap and very
effective technique to lower indoor temperatures.
 The surface finish should be protected from/ resistant to the effects of
moisture.
Remarks

35
  Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of
climate.
 Desiccant cooling techniques can also be employed as they reduce the
humidity level.
 Careful water proofing and drainage of water are essential considerations of
building design due to heavy rainfall.
 In case of airconditioned buildings, dehumidification plays a significant
role in the design of the plant.

Moderate Climate
In regions with a moderate climate, prevalent temperatures are neither too high
nor too low. Techniques such as shading, cross ventilation, orientation, reflective
glazing, etc. need to be incorporated into buildings so as to maximise their
energy efficiency. The thermal resistance and heat capacity of walls and roofs
need not be very high as the prevalent temperatures are generally within human
comfort levels.

The main objectives while designing buildings in this zone should be:
(A) Resisting heat gain
To resist heat gain the measures that can be adopted are:
(a) The exposed surface area of the building be reduced.
(b) Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
(c) Adequately shading the building.
(B) Promoting heat loss
Heat loss can be promoted through 
(a) Proper ventilation of appliances used.
(b) Increasing the rate of ventilation in the building.

In this region, the general recommendations are:

(1) Site
(a) Landform
 Building the structure on the windward slopes is preferable for getting cool
breeze

36
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(b) Open spaces and built form
 An open and free layout of the buildings is preferred.
 Large open spaces in the form of lawns can be provided to reduce reflected
radiation.

(2) Orientation and Planform

 It is preferable to have a building oriented in the north-south direction.
 Living areas like bedrooms may be located on the eastern side to allow for
heat penetration in the mornings, and an open porch on the south south east side
allows heat gain in the winters while providing for shade in the summers. The
western side should ideally be well-shaded.
 Humidity producing areas must be isolated.
 Sunlight is desirable except in summer, so the depth of the interiors need
not be excessive.

(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 Insulating the roof does not make much of a difference in the moderate
climate.

(b) Walls
 Insulation of walls does not give significant improvement in the thermal
performance of a building.
(c) Fenestration
 The arrangement of windows is important for reducing heat gain.
 Windows can be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and south
should be smaller.
37
  All the windows should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths.
 Glazing of low transmissivity should be used.
(d) Colour and texture
 Pale colours are preferable; dark colours may be used only in recessed
places protected from the summer sun.

Cold Climate
Regions that fall under the cold climate experience very cold winters. As such,
trapping the sun’s heat whenever possible is a major design concern. At the same
time, the buildings in such regions need to be properly insulated so that the
internal heat is retained with minimum loss to the environment. Exposure to cold
winds should also be minimised.
The main objectives of building design in these zones are:
(A) Resisting heat loss
To resist heat loss, the following measures may be taken into consideration:

 (a) Decrease the exposed surface area of the building.

 (b) Using materials that heat up fast but release heat slowly.
 (c) Providing buffer spaces between the living area and the outside.
 (d) Decreasing the rate of ventilation inside the building.
(B) Promoting heat gain
Heat gain can be promoted by

 (a) Avoiding excessive shading.

 (b) Utilising the heat from appliances.
 (c) Trapping the heat of the sun.
The general recommendations for these climatic regions are
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be located
on the south slope of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation.

38
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Exposure to cold winds can be minimised by locating the building on the

leeward side. Incase the southern side is the windward side. The building
should be glazed in such a manner that minimum wind enters the building.
 Parts of the site which offer natural wind barrier can be chosen for
constructing a building.
(b) Open spaces and built forms
 Buildings can be clustered together to minimise exposure to cold winds.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Open spaces between buildings must be such that they allow maximum
solar rays to be incident on the building.
 They should be treated with a halt and reflective surface so that day reflect
solar radiation onto the building.

39
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(c) Street width and orientation
 In cold climates, the street orientation should be east-west to allow for
maximum south sun to enter the building.
 The street should be wide enough to ensure that the buildings on one side
do not shade those on the other side (i.e. solar access should be ensured)

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(2) Orientation and Planform
 Buildings must be compact with small surface to volume ratios to reduce
heat loss.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

40
  Windows should face south to facilitate direct gain.
 The north side of the building should be well-insulated.
 Living areas can be located on the southern side while utility areas such as
stores can be on the northern side.
 Air-lock lobbies at the entrance and exit points of the building reduce heat
loss.
 Heat generated by appliances in rooms such as kitchens may be used to
heat the other parts of the building.
(3) Building Envelope
(a) Roof
 False ceilings with internal insulation such as polyurethane foam (PUF),
thermocol, wood wool, etc. are feasible for houses in cold climates.
 Aluminium foil is generally used between the insulation layer and the roof
to reduce heat loss to the exterior.
 A sufficiently sloping roof enables quick drainage of rain water and snow.
 A solar air collector can be incorporated on the south facing slope of the
roof and hot air from it can be used for space heating purposes.
 Skylights on the roofs admit heat as well as light in winters.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.

(b) Walls
 Walls should be made of materials that lose heat slowly.
 The south-facing walls (exposed to solar radiation) could be of high
thermal capacity (such as Trombe wall) to store day time heat for later used.
 The walls should also be insulated.
 The insulation should have sufficient vapour barrier (such as two coats of
bitumen, 300 to 600 gauge polyethylene sheet or aluminium foil) on the warm
side to avoid condensation.
 Hollow and lightweight concrete blocks are also quite suitable.
 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.

41
  On the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be
adopted.
(c) Fenestration
 It is advisable to have the maximum window area on the southern side of
the building to facilitate direct heat gain.
 They should be sealed and preferably double glazed to avoid heat losses
during winter nights.
 Condensation in the air space between the panes should be prevented,
 Movable shades should be provided to prevent overheating in summers.
(d) Colour and texture
 The external surfaces of the walls should be dark in colour so that day
absorb heat from the sun.

Composite Climate
Regions having a composite climate display characteristics of hot and dry, warm
and humid as well as cold climates. Design of buildings here should be guided by
longer prevailing climatic conditions. Uncomfortable periods in each season need
to be prioritised to generate the necessary guidelines for design.
The objectives of building design should be:
(A) Resisting heat gain
Unwanted heat gain can be reduced by
 Decreasing the surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
 Providing buffer spaces.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
(B) Promoting heat loss
To promote heat loss, the following measures need to be undertaken:
 Ventilating appliances used.
 Providing evaporative cooling systems like roof surface evaporative
cooling.
 Using earth coupling systems like earth air pipe system.
(C) Promoting ventilation
 Increasing the rate of ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night-
time and during the humid periods is a necessity in composite climatic areas.
General recommendations for the climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
42
  Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be used for
evaporative cooling.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in

cooling.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 However, it has to be ensured that these water bodies do not increase the
relative humidity during the humid seasons.
(c) Street width and orientation
 Streets must be narrow so that buildings mutually shade each other. They
need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.

43
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(d) Open spaces and built form
 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back at
night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot summer
winds.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(2) Orientation and Planform
 An east-west orientation is preferred as northern and southern walls are
easier to shade.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

44
  During summer, the south wall which gets significant exposure to solar
radiation in most parts of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-west
rooms. Hence, shading of the south wall is imperative.
 The surface to volume ratio should be kept as minimum as possible to
reduce heat gains.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures during

this period are low.

(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 Flat roofs may be used in this climate.
 A massive roof structure like a reinforced cement concrete RCC slab is
preferrable over an asbestos cement AC sheet roof.
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots is
quite suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs can help in reducing the
discomfort level.
 Provision of roof insulation yields greater lifecycle savings compared to
walls in this climate.
 Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night-time radiative cooling are
measures that can also be employed to improve comfort levels.
 Incase the former is used, it is better to have a roof that will cool down fast.

(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat
gain. So, the control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an important
consideration in building design.
45
  A wall that takes a longer time to heat up reduces the heat gain.

(c) Fenestration
 Minimising the window area leads to lower indoor temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as
compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation during the
year.
 All openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading
devices such as chhajjas and fins.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can also be
used.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows should
be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night time to admit
cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be
considered as they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation. Measures to
control ventilation of the building as and when required makes it more
comfortable indoors.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.

(d) Colour and texture

 Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours having low absorptivity should be used to paint the external
surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
46
  The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self
shading.

Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be
designed such that they encourage direct gain of solar heat during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and
admit sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if the
glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well shaded.
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and
high percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions.
 Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in evaporative
cooling and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively in
this climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized,
they can help in achieving comfort levels.

47