SORAN UNIVERSTY

FACULTY OF ENGINNRING
CHIMECAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
THIRD STAGE
SECOND SEMESTER
18/5/2022

Turbine

Prepared by: Supervisor by:

Dilgash Bahri Fato Dr .Arkan Jasim Hadi

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Contents
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................3
Operation theory.......................................................................................................................................4
Main Parts of a Turbine............................................................................................................................7
Types of Turbine.......................................................................................................................................7
Water Turbine.......................................................................................................................................7
Steam Turbine.......................................................................................................................................9
Gas Turbine.........................................................................................................................................12
Wind turbine........................................................................................................................................15
Uses...........................................................................................................................................................18
Example....................................................................................................................................................19
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................22
Reference..................................................................................................................................................22

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 Introduction
Turbine, any of various devices that convert the energy in a stream of fluid into mechanical
energy. The conversion is generally accomplished by passing the fluid through a system of
stationary passages or vanes that alternate with passages consisting of finlike blades attached to a
rotor. By arranging the flow so that a tangential force, or torque, is exerted on the rotor blades,
the rotor turns, and work is extracted.

Turbines can be classified into four general types according to the fluids used: water, steam, gas,
and wind. Although the same principles apply to all turbines, their specific designs differ
sufficiently to merit separate descriptions.

Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to Anglo-Irish engineer Sir Charles
Parsons (1854–1931) for invention of the reaction turbine, and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de
Laval (1845–1913) for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently
employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and
impulse from the blade root to its periphery. Hero of Alexandria demonstrated the turbine
principle in an aeolipile in the first century AD and Vitruvius mentioned them around 70 BC.

The word "turbine" was coined in 1822 by the French mining engineer Claude Burdin from the
Greek τύρβη, tyrbē, meaning "vortex" or "whirling", in a memo, "Des turbines hydrauliques ou
machines rotatoires à grande vitesse", which he submitted to the Academia royal des sciences in
Paris. Benoit Fourneyron, a former student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water
turbine.

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 Operation theory
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). The fluid
may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect
this energy:

Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high

velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the
turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic
energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid or gas in
the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case of a
steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in
the stationary blades (the nozzles). Before reaching the
turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity
head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels
and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse
turbines do not require a pressure casement around the
rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to
reaching the blades on the rotor. Newton's second law
describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where
the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. Figure 1: Schematic of impulse and reaction
turbines, where the rotor is the rotating part, and
the stator is the stationary part of the machine.

Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure of the
gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to
contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the
fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water
turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines
use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness
the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.

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Reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head
(upstream pressure) is low. In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine
applications or for land-based electricity generation, a Parsons-type reaction turbine would
require approximately double the number of blade rows as a de Laval-type impulse turbine, for
the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much
longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the
equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion.

In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees
whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the moving fluid
and impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by
deflecting it at an angle. Turbines with multiple stages may use either reaction or impulse
blading at high pressure. Steam turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move
towards reaction designs similar to those used in gas turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid
medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions, blading
becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is
due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height
increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in
speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction-style tip. Classical
turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related the fluid
flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae
for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient machine can
be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule
of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering
calculations, simplifying assumptions were made Turbine inlet guide vanes of a turbojet Velocity
triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the
stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity V a 1. The rotor rotates at velocity U.
Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is V r 1 . The gas is
turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity V r 2 . However, in absolute terms the
rotor exit velocity is V a 2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity
vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example:
hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean
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performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the
Euler equation:

∆ h=u . ∆ v w

Hence:

∆ h u . ∆ vw
=
T T

Where:

∆ his the specific enthalpy drop across stage.

T is the turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature.

u is the turbine rotor peripheral velocity.

∆ v w is the change in whirl velocity.

∆h
The turbine pressure ratio is a function of and the turbine efficiency.
T

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses
with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer
software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design
over the last forty years. The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed.
This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the
power and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the
fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and
an appropriate turbine design selected. The specific speed, along with some fundamental
formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size
with corresponding performance.

Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic. The number of

blades in the rotor and the number of vanes in the stator are often two different prime numbers in
order to reduce the harmonics and maximize the blade-passing frequency.

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 Main Parts of a Turbine
The main parts of a turbine are:
 Nozzle: It guides the steam to flow in designed direction and velocity.
 Runner: it is the rotating part of the turbine and blades are attached to the runner.
 Blades: It is that part of the turbine on which the fast moving fluid strikes and rotates the
runner.
 Casing: It is the outer air tight covering of the turbine which contains the runner and
blades. It protects the internal parts of the turbine.

Types of Turbine

Water Turbine

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A turbine that extracts energy from moving water and converts it into electrical energy, is called
water turbine or hydraulic turbine.

Types of Hydraulic Turbine:

The hydraulic turbines are classified on the following basis.

1. According to the Type of Energy Available at Inlet.

 Impulse Turbine: If the energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy,
the turbine is known as impulse turbine.
 Reaction Turbine: If the energy available at the inlet of the turbine is kinetic energy as
well as pressure energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine.

2. According to the Direction of Flow.

 Tangential Flow Turbine: If the water flows along the tangent of the runner, the Turbine
is known as tangential flow turbine. For Example: Pelton turbine.

Figure 2: Tangential Flow Turbine.

 Radial Flow Turbine: If the water flows in the radial direction through the runner, the
turbine is called radial flow turbine.

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 Figure 3:Radial Flow Turbine.

3. According to the Specific Speed of the Turbine.

 Low Specific Speed Turbine: it has specific speed less than 50. Eg: pelton turbine.

 Medium Specific Speed Turbine: The specific speed varies from 50 to 250. Eg Francis
turbine.
 High Specific Speed Turbine: The specific speed is more than 250. Eg: Kaplan turbine.

Steam Turbine

In general, a steam turbine is a rotary heat engine that converts thermal energy contained in the
steam to mechanical energy or to electrical energy. In its simplest form, a steam turbine consist
of a boiler (steam generator), turbine, condenser, feed pump and a variety of auxiliary devices.
Unlike with reciprocating engines, for instance, compression, heating and expansion are
continuous and they occur simultaneously. The basic operation of the steam turbine is similar to
the gas turbine except that the working fluid is water and steam instead of air or gas.

Since the steam turbine is a rotary heat engine, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator. Note that about 90% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of
steam turbines. Steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model
was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. Steam turbine is a
common feature of all modern and also future thermal power plants. In fact, also the power
production of fusion power plants is based on the use of conventional steam turbines.

Theory of Steam Turbines – Thermodynamics:

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In 1859, a Scottish engineer, William John Macquorn Rankine advanced the study of heat
engines by publishing the “Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers”. Rankine
developed a complete theory of the steam engine and indeed of all heat engines. Together with
Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), he was a contributor to the
thermodynamics, particularly focusing on the first of the three thermodynamic laws.

The Rankine cycle was named after him and describes the performance of steam turbine systems,
though the theoretical principle also applies to reciprocating engines such as steam locomotives.
In general, the Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a constant pressure heat
engine that converts part of heat into mechanical work. In this cycle the heat is supplied
externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water (in a liquid and vapor phase) as the working
fluid. In contrast to the Brayton cycle, the working fluid in the Rankine cycle undergo the phase
change from a liquid to vapor phase and vice versa. While many substances could be used as the
working fluid in the Rankine cycle (inorganic or even organic), water is usually the fluid of
choice due to its favorable properties, such as its non-toxic and unreactive chemistry, abundance,
and low cost, as well as its thermodynamic properties. For example, water has the highest
specific heat of any common substance – 4.19 kJ/kg K. Moreover it has very high heat of
vaporization, which makes it an effective coolant and medium in thermal power plants and other
energy industry. In case of the Rankine cycle, the Ideal Gas Law almost cannot be used (steam
do not follow PV=nRT), therefore all important parameters of water and steam are tabulated in
so called “Steam Tables”. One of the major advantages of the Rankine cycle is that the
compression process in the pump takes place on a liquid. By condensing the working steam to a
liquid (inside a condenser) the pressure at the turbine outlet is lowered and the energy required
by the feed pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine output power and these factors
contribute to a higher efficiency for

The cycle.

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 Figure 4: Rankine cycle – Ts diagram.

Figure 5: Schema of a steam turbine of a typical 3000MWth PWR.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Turbines

Advantages

 Since the steam turbine is a rotary heat engine, it is particularly suited to be used to drive
an electrical generator.

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  Thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is usually higher than that of a reciprocating
engine.
 Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines.
 Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
 Steam turbines are suitable for large thermal power plants. They are made in a variety of
sizes up to 1.5 GW (2,000,000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity.
 In general, steam contains high amount of enthalpy (espacially in the form of heat of
vaporization). This implies lower mass flow rates compared to gas turbines.
 In general, turbine moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a
reciprocating engine.
 Steam turbines have greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high
power output is required.

Disadvantages

Although approximately 90% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines, they have also some disadvantages.

 Relatively high overnight cost.

 Steam turbines are less efficient than reciprocating engines at part load operation.
 They have longer startup than gas turbines and surely than reciprocating engines.
 Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with gas turbines and with
reciprocating engines.

Gas Turbine

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous and internal combustion
engine. The main elements common to all gas turbine engines are:
an upstream rotating gas compressor
a combustor
a downstream turbine on the same shaft as the compressor.

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A fourth component is often used to increase efficiency (on turboprops and turbofans), to convert
power into mechanical or electric form (on turboshafts and electric generators), or to achieve
greater thrust-to-weight ratio (on afterburning engines).The basic operation of the gas turbine is a
Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid: atmospheric air flows through the compressor that
brings it to higher pressure; energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so
that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas
enters a turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the compressor; the
unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work, such as
directly producing thrust in a turbojet engine, or rotating a second, independent turbine (known
as a power turbine) that can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose
of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the
thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the
working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not reuse the same air.

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Theory of operation

In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes: an isentropic compression,
an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat rejection. Together,
these make up the Brayton cycle. Brayton cycle in a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is
changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy
when the gas is compressed (in either a centrifugal or axial compressor). Heat is added in the
combustion chamber and the specific volume of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss
in pressure. During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible
energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection. If
the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor, the
exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to
overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust. For a turboprop
engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the
most economical operation. In a turbojet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted
from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high-pressure gases
are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft. The smaller the engine, the
higher the rotation rate of the shaft must be to attain the required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed
determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor.
This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In
order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational
speed must double. For example, large jet engines operate around 10,000–25,000 rpm, while
micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.

Figure 6: Brayton cycle.

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Types

1. Jet engines: typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the J85, sectioned for display. Flow
is left to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage
turbine on right Air breathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust
from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines
that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets,
whereas those that generate thrust with the addition of a ducted fan are often called
turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets. Gas turbines are also used in many liquid fuel rockets,
where gas turbines are used to power a turbo pump to permit the use of lightweight, low-
pressure tanks, reducing the empty weight of the rocket.
2. Aero derivative gas turbines: An LM6000 in an electrical power plant application aero
derivative gas turbines are generally based on existing aircraft gas turbine engines, and
are smaller and lighter than industrial gas turbines. Aero derivatives are used in electrical
power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more
quickly than industrial machines. [Citation needed] They are also used in the marine
industry to reduce weight. Common types include the General Electric LM2500, General
Electric LM6000, and aero derivative versions of the Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and
Rolls-Royce RB211.

Advantages

 Very high power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines.

 Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
 Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
 Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher
reliability/availability over its service life.
 Greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high power output is required.

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 Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high-temperature
exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration.
 Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general.
 High shaft speeds in smaller "free turbine units", although larger gas turbines employed in
power generation operate at synchronous speeds.
Disadvantages

 Core engine costs can be high due to use of exotic materials.

 Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed.
 Longer startup than reciprocating engines.
 Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines.
 Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress.

Wind turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy.
Hundreds of thousands of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, now generate
over 650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added each year. They are an increasingly important
source of intermittent renewable energy, and are used in many countries to lower energy costs
and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. One study claimed that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest
relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and... the most
favorable social impacts" compared to photovoltaic, hydro, geothermal, coal and gas energy
sources.

Smaller wind turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for
boats or caravans, and to power traffic warning signs. Larger turbines can contribute to a
domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical
grid.

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 Figure 7: Wind Turbines.

Types

1. Horizontal axis: arge three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the blades
upwind of the tower produce the overwhelming majority of wind power in the world
today. These turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a
tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind
vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most
have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is
more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
2. Vertical axis: Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be
pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind
direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a
building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be
placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based

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 gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. However, these designs produce much
less energy averaged over time, which is a major drawback.

Advantages

Wind turbines produce electricity at between two and six cents per kilowatt hour, which is one of
the lowest-priced renewable energy sources. As technology needed for wind turbines continued
to improve, the prices decreased as well. In addition, there is currently no competitive market for
wind energy, because wind is a freely available natural resource, most of which is untapped.[90]
The main cost of small wind turbines is the purchase and installation process, which averages
between $48,000 and $65,000 per installation. The energy harvested from the turbine will offset
the installation cost, as well as provide virtually free energy for years. Wind turbines provide a
clean energy source use little water, emitting no greenhouse gases and no waste products during
operation. Over 1,400 tons (1,500 short tons) of carbon dioxide per year can be eliminated by
using a one-megawatt turbine instead of one megawatt of energy from a fossil fuel.

Disadvantages

Wind turbines can be very large, reaching over 140 m (460 ft) tall and with blades 55 m (180 ft)
long, and people have often complained about their visual impact. Environmental impact of wind
power includes effect on wildlife, but can be mitigated if proper monitoring and mitigation
strategies are implemented. Thousands of birds, including rare species, have been killed by the
blades of wind turbines, though wind turbines contribute relatively insignificantly to
anthropogenic avian mortality. Wind farms and nuclear power plants are responsible for between
0.3 and 0.4 bird deaths per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity while fossil fueled power stations
are responsible for about 5.2 fatalities per GWh. In 2009, for every bird killed by a wind turbine
in the US, nearly 500,000 were killed by cats and another 500,000 by buildings. In comparison,
conventional coal fired generators contribute significantly more to bird mortality, by incineration
when caught in updrafts of smoke stacks and by poisoning with emissions byproducts (including
particulates and heavy metals downwind of flue gases). Further, marine life is affected by water

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intakes of steam turbine cooling towers (heat exchangers) for nuclear and fossil fuel generators,
by coal dust deposits in marine ecosystems (e.g. damaging Australia's Great Barrier Reef) and by
water acidification from combustion monoxides.

Uses

 A large proportion of the world's electrical power is generated by turbo generators.

 Turbines are used in gas turbine engines on land, sea and air.
 Turbochargers are used on piston engines.
 Gas turbines have very high power densities (i.e. the ratio of power to mass, or power to
volume) because they run at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle main engines used
turbo pumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the
propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion chamber.
The liquid hydrogen turbo pump is slightly larger than an automobile engine (weighing
approximately 700 lb) with the turbine producing nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW).
 Turbo expanders are used for refrigeration in industrial processes.

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Example

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 Conclusion

 The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating electrical power when
combined with a generator. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part
called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts
on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
 Wind turbines can effectively help to create mechanical energy, which can then be used
for multiple purposes, such as the generation of power and electricity.
 Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as
plants using coal, fuel oil or nuclear fuel. Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as
turbine engines. Transonic turbine. Contra-rotating turbines. Stator less turbine. Ceramic
turbine. Shrouded turbine. Shroud less turbine.

Reference

 https://en.wikipedia.org/
 www.renewableenergyworld.com/
 https://www.britannica.com/technology/turbine
 https://www.powermag.com/

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