CHEMISTRY

Sarafand Official Secondary School

Secondary Education

First year

Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Unit 1: The Structure Of Matter

Chapter 1: Atoms
Objectives:
1. Define an atom
2. Describe the structure of an atom
3. Apply the rule A = Z + N to calculate the mass number, atomic number,
or number of neutrons.
4. Apply the concept of mole

I. Atoms
 Matter is made of small particles called atoms.
 These atoms are Listed in the periodic table.
 Atoms are created to be the building blocks of matter.

A. What particles are atoms made of?

 Scientists now know that atoms are actually made from even smaller
particles. There are three types:

proton neutron Electron

 The protons and neutrons exist in a dense core at the centre of the atom.
This is called the nucleus.
toton
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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

 The electrons circulate around the edge of the atom. They are found in the
Electronic cloud that is composed of orbitals.

Atoms consist of fixed protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and circulating
electrons in the electronic cloud.

 Nucleons are the particles inside the nucleus

B. Atomic Representation:

A: Mass number A= Z+ N
Z: Atomic number
X: Atomic Symbol
N: Number of neutrons
Directive Training 1:
Determine the number of neutrons found in the nucleus of lead.
Given the adjacent representation of lead

II. The mole

How much is a mole?
 A mole is a quantity used by chemists to count atoms and molecules.
23
A mole of something is equal to 6.02 x 10 “something”.

One mole of marbles would cover the entire Earth (oceans

included) for a depth of 5 Km

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Rules:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
Number of moles =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎

𝒎 (𝒈)
n (mol) = 𝒈
𝑴( )
𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
Number of moles =
𝑨𝒗𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒐′ 𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

𝑵 (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔)
n (mol) = N
A

Directive training 2:
Can you estimate how many atoms are there in this
aluminum Al strip of mass 8.1 g??

 Exercise 7 page 55

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Chapter 2: Molecules
Objectives:
1. Define a molecule.
2. Calculate the molar mass of a molecule.
3. Mole of molecules.

I. Molecule:
Definition: is the combination of two or more atoms of identical or different
elements that can exist in stable state.

Molecules can be classified into two types:

Molecular elements: Molecular Compounds:

The combined atoms are The combined atoms are
identical. different.
Ex.: Oxygen molecule (O2) Ex.: water molecule (H2O)

Molecules can also be classified as:

Diatomic molecule: Polyatomic molecule:

Made up of only two Made up of more than
atoms. two atoms.
Ex.: H2 Ex.: CO2

II. Molar mass of Molecule:

It is equal to the sum of the molar masses of the elements composing the
molecule of the substance, each being multiplied by its subscript.

Example: Molecular mass C12H22O11 = 12(MC) + 22(MH) + 11(MO)

Molecular mass C12H22O11 = 12(12) + 22(1) + 11(16)
Molecular mass C12H22O11 = 342 g.mol-1.
Directive training 1:
Determine the molar mass of the following molecule:
H2SO4 , NO2 .
Knowing that: MC=12 g.mol-1 MH=1 g.mol-1 MO=16 g.mol-1 MN=14
g.mol-1

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III. Mole of Molecules:

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆
A. Number of moles =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆

𝒎 (𝒈)
n (mol) = 𝒈
𝑴( )
𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆

B. Number of moles =
𝑨𝒗𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒐′ 𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

𝑵 (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔)
n (mol) = N𝑨

C. Relation between number of molecule and

number of atom:

For molecule: C2H6O

NC= N (C2H6O)×2 ; NH= N (C2H6O)×6 ; NO= N (C2H6O)×1

Directive training 2:
Given a bag of sugar C12H22O11 of mass 500g.
Calculate the number of hydrogen atom in this bag.
Knowing that: MC=12 g.mol-1 MH=1 g.mol-1 MO=16 g.mol-1
NA=6×1023

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Chapter 3: Ions
Objectives:
1. Define an ion.
2. Distinguish between cation and anion.
3. Name monoatomic and polyatomic anions and cations.
4. Associate the colors of aqueous solutions to the presence of certain ions.
5. Use the mole as a unit for expressing quantity of ions

I. Definition:
An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons and therefore
has a negative or positive charge.

II. Cation And Anion:

 A Cation is an atom that has lost a valence electron and therefore has
more positive protons than negative electrons, so it is positively
charged.

 An Anion is an atom that has gained a valence electron and is

negatively charged.

III. Types of Ions:

Positive ions or cations: mono-atomic cation
+
H :hydrogen ion Cu2+: copper (II) ion or Fe3+:iron (III) ion or
(proton) cupric ion. ferric ion
+ 2+
Li :Lithium ion Zn :zinc ion Al3+: aluminum ion
Na+:sodium ion Co2+:cobalt(II) ion Cr3+:chromium (III)
K+:potassium ion Pb2+:lead(II) ion ion
+ 2+
Cs :cesium ion Ni :nickel(II) ion Au3+: gold ion
Rb+:rubidium ion Mn2+:manganese (II)
Ag+:silver ion ion
+
Cu : copper (I) ion or Mg2+:magnesium ion
cuprous ion. Ca2+:calcium ion
Ba2+:barium ion
Sn2+: tin (II) ion
Fe2+: iron(II) ion or
ferrous ion

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Positive ions or Negative ions or Anions: monoatomic anion

Cations :polyatomic
cation
+
H3O :hydronium ion H-:hydride ion O2-:oxide ion N3-:azide ion
NH4+:ammonium ion F-:fluoride ion O22-:peroxide
Cl-:chloride ion
ion S2-:sulfide
Br-:bromide ion
ion
I-:iodide ion

Negative ions or anions: polyatomic anions

-
HO :hydroxide ion SO42-:sulfate ion
NO3-:nitrate ion SO32-:sulfite ion
NO2-:nitrite ion CO32-:carbonate ion
ClO-:hypochlorite ion Cr2O72-:dichromate ion
ClO2-:chlorite ion PO43-:phosphate ion
ClO3-:chlorate ion
ClO4-:perchlorate ion
CN-:cyanide ion
CrO4-:chromate ion
MnO4-:permanganate ion

IV. Colors of Ions:

Most ions are colorless in aqueous solution ( Na+, K+, Cl-, NO3-, ...), while
some ions possess characteristic colors, such as (
Cu2+ blue, Fe2+ greenish, Cr2O72- yellow-orange, MnO4- violet).

Application 1:
Solution A: Potassium dichromate solution K2Cr2O7
Solution B: Ammonium chloride solution NH4Cl
Ionic K+ Cl- NH4+ Cr2O72-
species
Color Colorless Colorless Colorless Yellow-
orange

1.1. Justify whether the following statements are true or false:

a- The color of solution A obtained is colorless.
b- The color of solution B obtained is orange

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

V. Ionic compounds:(formula unit)

Ionic compounds generally consist of a metal and one or more non-metals.
Ex.: Na+ CN-  compound: NaCN; Name: sodium cyanide
NH4 Br  compound: NH4Br;
+ -
Name: ammonium bromide

Application 2:
Predict the formula unit of each of the following compounds
a. Aluminum carbonate c. Cupric sulfite
b. Barium sulfate d. Amonium nitrate

VI. A. Relation between number of moles of Cations,

Anions and ionic compounds:
Example: CaCl2 water Ca2+ + 2Cl-
nnnn
nCaCl2 = ncation = nnnnnanion
1 1 2

B. Relation between number of Cations, Anions and

ionic compounds:
NCaCl2 NCa2+ NCl-
but , n=N/NA NA 1xN
= =  NCaCl2=NCa2+=NCl-/2
2xNA
A
or
number of cation: Ncation=NF.U× coefficient
number of anion:NAanion=NF.U× coefficient

 Exercise 14 page 100

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Unit 2: Reaction and Solution

Chapter 1: chemical reaction
Objectives:
1. Define chemical reaction.
2. Identify the signs of a chemical reaction.
3. Balance a chemical equation.
4. Write mole ratio in a reaction system.
5. Justify if a reaction system is stoichiometric or not? If not indicate the
limiting reactant and the reactant in excess.
6. Solve stoichiometric calculations in a chemical reaction.
7. Calculate the quantity of matter in moles or mass or volume of products
using mole ratio.
8. Calculate the quantity of matter in moles or mass or volume remained of
the reactant in excess.
9. Calculate the percent yield or purity of a chemical reaction.

Chemical Reactions are Everywhere

Cooking Respiration

I. Definition of a chemical reaction:

Chemical reaction is a transformation during which initial substances are
disappeared (consumed) called reactants and new substances are formed
(obtained) called products.

Reactants → Products

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II. What Happened during a chemical reaction?

 A color change
 Formation of a solid (precipitate) within a clear solution
 Evidence of a gas
 Evolution or absorption of heat

 Exothermic reaction: releasing of heat.

 Endothermic reaction: absorption of heat.

III. Law of Conservation of Matter:

A. Mass
During a chemical reaction mass is conserved then total mass of consumed
reactants is equal to the mass of obtained products.

C + O2 → CO2

12g + 32g = 44g

B. Law of conservation of atoms:

during a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed i.e the
number of atoms for each element in reactants equal the number for each atom
in products.

IV. Symbols used in Chemical Equations

Symbol Purpose
(s) Identifies a solid state
(aq) Identifies that something is dissolved in water

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(l) Identifies liquid state

(g) Identifies gaseous state

V. Balancing a chemical equation

Reactants Products

# of Carbons = 1 # of Carbons = 1

# of Hydrogens = 4 # of Hydrogens = 2

# of Oxygens = 2 # of Oxygens = 3

Total atoms = 7 Total atoms = 6

7 ≠ 6! Where did our atoms go?

Use Coefficients to make the number of atoms of each element equal.

Carbon atom are balanced.

Balance the Hydrogens:

2 H2O

Balance the Oxygens:

CH4 + 2 + 2 H2O

Application 1: Think – Pair – Share

1. + H2O
2.
3.
4. + H2O

WARNING! Don’t ever play around with subscripts (those little

numbers that tell you how many atoms are in a molecule) e.g. C6H22O11

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

VI. Stoichiometry of Reaction:

Reaction stoichiometry allows us to determine the amount of substance that is
consumed or produced by a reaction.

"The coefficients in chemical equations represent numbers of molecules, not

masses of molecules"

Mole-to-mole ratio: relation between reactant and product

aA + bB cC + dD
 During the reaction:

nA(reacted) = nB(reacted) = nC(produced) = nD(produced)

a b c d

 At time=o (initially)

RA= nA(initial) RB = nB(initial)

a b
d

A. Reactant at Stoichiometry :
If RA= RB  the mixture is in stoichiometric ratio (S.T.R)

Interpretation of the graph:

Y-Values Y-Values
20 18
Number of mole of A (mol)

Number of mole of B (mol)

18 16
16 14
14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
time(Sec) time(Sec)

 Both reactants are consumed totally (at end of reaction n=0 mol)
 Final mixture contains only the products.

Note: Since reactant are totally consumed so ninitial=nreacted

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 Exercise 8 page 131

B. Reactant at non-stoichiometry:
If RA= RB  the mixture is not in stoichiometric ratio.

In any stoichiometry calculation involving a chemical reaction, it is essential to

determine which reactant is limiting so as to calculate correctly the amounts of
products that will be formed

 If RA > RB B is limiting and A in excess

 If RA < RB A is limiting and B in excess

Limiting Reactant:
The reactant that runs out first in a chemical reaction, thus determining the
amount of product produced.
Excess Reactant:
The reactant that is a quantity of left over after a chemical reaction
"the excess reactant should be the cheaper reactant since we do not like to waste
unused chemical"
Note: (for limiting reactant ninitial=nreacted)
 Interpretation of the graph:

20
Number of mole of reactant

18
16
14
12
10
(mol)

8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
time(Sec)

 Reactants are partially consumed

One of the reactants was totally consumed (at end of reaction n=0mol)

Other one partially consumed (remain quantity n=2mol)

 Final mixture contains reactant in excess and the products.

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Steps for problem solving:

1. Make sure you have a balanced equation.

2. Calculate molar masses of the compounds you are interested in.

3. Determine the mole-to-mole ratio from the coefficients in the

balanced equation.

4. Compare the two reactant amounts, the lowest one is the limiting
reagent where the other is said to be in excess.

5. Set up and solve the problem.

VII. Molar volume of a Gas:

The molar volume, symbol Vm is the volume occupied by one mole of a
substance at a given temperature and pressure.

The expression for the molar volume of an ideal gas is:

Gases expand and contract with changes in temperature and pressure

-STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

-STP = 1 atmosphere of pressure and a temperature of 0°C or 273.15 K

-At STP 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4L or 24 L/mol

Number of matter ( mole-mass-volume) remain :

nremain= ninitial - nreacted where ( nreacted calculated by STR)

mremain= minitial – mreacted or mremain=nremain ×M

Vremain=Vinitial – Vreacted or Vremain= nremain × Vm

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Application 2:

MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

0.86mol 48.18g

1. Explain why the given mixture is non –stoichiometric mixture.

2. Identify the limiting reactant.

3. Determine the number of mole of manganese chloride produced,

then deduce its mass

4. Determine the volume of chlorine gas produced at STP condition.

5. Determine the mass of substance that in excess, left at the end if

the reaction.

Given (g/mol): MMn=52 , MH=1 , MCl=35.5 , Vm=24 L/mol

Application 3:

36.5g of CS2 reacted with 24.67L of Cl2 gas to produce CCl4 and S2Cl2

1. Show that the reaction system is non-stoichiometric.

2. Answer by true or false then correct the wrong ones:

a. The limiting reactant is CS2

b. The mass in g of carbon tetrachloride CCl4 produced in the

laboratory is 52.36g

3. Determine the remained mass of excess reactant at the end of the

reaction.

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

VIII. The percentage Yield/ Purity:

A. Percent yield:
The percent yield of a reaction is very important as it tells us how efficient a
reaction is. A reaction that has a low percent yield is not very useful in industry

The percent yield can be calculated using:

 The actual yield is the amount of product that is produced when you
carry out the reaction.
 The theoretical yield is the amount of product that you calculate for the
reaction using stoichiometric methods.

Application 4:

15g of gaseous ethane C2H6 is burned with 39.2L of oxygen gas at

S.T.P conditions to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.

1. Write the balanced equation of the reaction.

2. Justify whether the mixture is stoichiometric or not.

3. Determine the volume of the reactant in excess.

4. The actual mass of carbon dioxide obtained is 42g. determine the

yield of the reaction.

Given: MO=16g/mol MH=1g/mol MC=12g/mol Vm=22.4l/mol

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Application 5:

2.7g of aluminum metal are reacted with 40g of sulfur to produce

aluminum sulfide, as shown in the reaction below:

Al + S  Al2S3

1. Justify if the reactant mixture is stoichiometric or not? If not,

indicate the limiting reactant.

2. Give the name of chemical species found at the end of this

reaction.

3. Determine the mass of the product formed knowing that the yield
of the reaction is 82%.

Given: MAl=27g/mol MS=32g/mol

B. Percent Purity:
Percent purity is important since when you make a compound you may have a
small amount of impurity in the sample and you would need to keep this below
a certain level.

 Exercise 14 page 131

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Chapter 2: Liquid Solution

Objectives:
1. Know the role of water as a solvent.
2. Explain the process of dissolution of molecular compounds and ionic
compound
3. Write the equation of dissociation of ionic compounds in water.
4. Define mole/mass concentration and calculate it for dissolved species in
a solution
5. Determine concentration of dissolved species upon mixing solutions
together
6. Determine the mass needed to prepare a solution from solid solute
 Water-Lab Work 1:
1. Recognize that a dissolution process takes place during preparation of
solution from solid solute.
2. Manipulate the preparation of different solutions using solid solute
while following safety precautions.
3. Determine the mass of solute needed to prepare solution from solid
solute
4. List the material needed or glassware to prepare a solution from solid
solute.
5. Describe in details the experimental protocol to prepare such solution.

 Water-Lab Work 2:
1. Recognize that a dilution process takes place during preparation of
solution from another mother solution.
2. Deduce that the number of mole of solute is conserved during dilution
process
3. Manipulate the preparation of different solutions using liquid solutes
while following safety precautions.
4. Determine the volume that should be taken from initial stock solution
to prepare a diluted solution.
5. Determine the factor of dilution ( degree of dilution)
6. List the material needed or glassware to prepare a solution from
mother solute.
7. Describe in details the experimental protocol to prepare such solution

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I. Definition:
Solution: is a homogeneous mixture usually made of a solute and a solvent.
 SOLVENT - any substance that has other substances dissolved in it (often a
liquid) ie. the dissolving medium
- often the substance present in the largest amount.

 SOLUTE - the dissolved substances in a solution (often solids) ie. The

dissolving Particles.

Solution can exist in many concentrations.

CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS have a higher proportion of solute to solvent
than DILUTE SOLUTIONS.

II. Concentration:
 Molar concentration:(Molarity)
Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute that
is dissolved in a given volume of liquid. It is measured
in mol·L.

C : molar concentration of a solution

solute
(mol/L)
n : number of mole of solute (mol)
V : volume of solution (L)

 Mass concentration:
The mass concentration of a solution C m is expressed in g/l. It is given by the
equation
msolute
Cm = V Cm: mass concentration of a solution (g/L)
solution m : mass of solute (g)
V : volume of solution (L)

 Relation between C and Cm:

C= m Cm C= Cm
V ×M Msolute

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 Density: = msolution
vsolution
Application 1:
100ml of aqueous Na2SO4 solution is prepared by dissolving
1.17g of Na2SO4.
a) Calculate the mass concentration of this solution.
b) Calculate the molar concentration of this solution.
c) Calculate the concentration of each ion present in this
solution.
Given: 32S , 23Na , 16O
Ionic species S2- Na+ SO42-

III. Dissociation
1 of ionic compound in water:
Ionic compound are
1 good conductors of electricity when dissolved in water they
give ions. 1
1
Example: KMnO
1 4 K+ + MnO4-
1
STR:
1
1
nKMnO4
1 = nk(cation) = nMnO4(anion)
11 1 1
1 =
1 + -
CKMnO41 = [K ](cation) = [MnO4 ](anion)
1 = 1 1
1 1
1
1
Precautions to be
2 considered:
 Wear gloves 1
1
 Labcoate
1
 Using pipet with propipet
 Robe of cotton
1 if solution release gas

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

IV. Preparation of Solution:(from solid)

 Materials: (note1 glassware)

1-Digital balance 3-Spatula 5-Volumatric flask(V=?)
2-Watch glass 4-glass funnel 6- wash bottle of distilled water

 Procedure:
1. Weigh out using a balance the mass needed of solid solute on a watch
glass by the help of spatula.
2. Introduce them using a funnel into a volumetric flask of known
volume(…mL)
3. Rinse with distilled water all traces of solute on funnel and watch glass
over the flask, to collect all the solid solute.
4. Half fill the flask with distilled water, stopper and shake until complete
dissolution of solute.
5. Slowly keep adding distilled water to the volumetric flask until the
solution reaches the line mark(on the neck of the flask).
6. Stopper, gently swirl and invert several times the flask until all the solute
is dissolved(to homogenize).

 Exercise 8 page 160

To take a precise volume of a solution:
1. Volumetric pipette (if V0 is integer number)
2. Graduated pipette (if V0 is decimal number)
3. Graduated cylinder

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V. Dilution:(Preparation of solution from liquid)

To dilute a solution means to add more solvent without adding more solute.
Inorder to decrease the concentration of a solute in solution.
Stage 1 Stage 2
Shake the flask to Take the required
ensure the solution is volume of stock
well mixed solution using pipet
and pipet bulb

Stage 3
Stage 4 Transfer this volume
Add distilled to a suitable
water to the line volumetric flask
mark.

Stage 5
Close the flask and
shake it to
homogenize

Materials: (note 2 glassware)

1-Volumatric flask (Vf=?) 3-pipet filler /propipet
2-Volumatric pipette (Vi=?) 4- wash bottle of distilled water

Procedure:
1. Withdraw the volume of stock solution(concentrated solution) needed by
using volumatric pipette (Vi=?).
2. Add the stock solution to a volumatric flask(Vf=?).
3. Add distilled water to the volumatric flask up to the line mark and mix.
4. Stopper, swirl and invert several times to homogenize.

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Calculating Concentration:

BeforeDilution After Dilution

Solution1 Solution2

n1 n2
C1 = C2 =
V1 V2

rearrange the equations to find moles:

n1 = C1× V1 n2= C2 × V2

n1 = n2
C1×V1 = C2×V2

C1 is the initial concentration in (mol/L) (stock

Where:
solution)
V1 is the initial volume of the solution in (L)(stock
solution) (determine the used pipette)
C2 is the concentration after dilution in (mol/L)
V2 is the volume after dilution in (L) (determine the
used volumetric flask)

 What stayed the same and what changed between the two solutions?
By adding more water, we changed the volume of the solution. Doing so also
changed it's concentration. But the number of moles of solute did not
change. So, n1 = n2

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

 Dilution factor: time of dilutions

We derive it from: CiVi=CfVf
Ci Vf
 D.F= f = Cf = Vi

The convenient set of glassware depend on:

Vtaken=Volume of Volumetric pipet (from dilution factor)

Vfinal=Volume of Volumetric flask

Extra Exercise
Exercise 1: 10 Students in the lab!!
Ten students are prepared two solutions of copper sulphate, Solution 1 (S1) and
Solution 2 (S2).
Given: M(Cu)=63.5 g/mol, M(S)=32 g/mol, M(O)=16 g/mol
Ions Cu2+ SO42-

I. Solution 1 of copper sulphate is prepared by dissolving 11 grams of

copper sulphate blue crystals CuSO4.5H2O in 100 ml of distilled water.
1. Calculate the mass concentration of the solution (S1), then deduce its
molar concentration.
2. Write the equation of dissolution of copper sulphate crystals
3. Determine the molar concentration of each ion presents in this
solution.
4. List the materials used by the students to prepare (S1).
5. Describe the procedure of this preparation.

II. 200 ml of solution (S2) of copper sulphate is prepared by taking 10 ml

volume of (S1).
6. Name the process of preparing (S2).
7. Calculate the molar concentration of solution (S2).
8. Given in the table below different sets of glassware available in the
lab.

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3

20 ml volumetric pipette 15 ml volumetric pipette 10 ml volumetric pipette
250 ml volumetric flask 500 ml volumetric flask 200 ml volumetric flask
Specify the convenient set of glassware to perform this preparation.
9. List the steps needed to prepare (S2).

Exercise 2: Commercial hydrochloric acid solution

1. Preparation of commercial hydrochloric acid solution (S0):
A commercial hydrochloric acid solution (S0) of volume 500ml is
required to be prepared with mass concentration C m=365 g/L.
Given: molar mass (HCl) =36.5g/mol
1.1. Choose with justification the molar concentration of commercial
solution S0:
a. 3.65 mol/L
b. 10 mol/L
c. 0.1 mol/L
1.2. Calculate the mass needed for the preparation of solution (S 0).
1.3. Give the name of:
i- The material used to weigh out the mass
ii- The glassware in which the solution S0 is prepared.
2. Preparation of diluted hydrochloric acid solution (S):
The list in the table below represents the available materials in the
laboratory:
 Erlenmeyer flasks: 100,200  Graduated pipets: 1, 5 and
and 250 ml 10ml
 Volumetric pipets:1, 5 and 10  Graduated cylinders: 5, 10
ml and 20 ml
 Volumetric flask: 250 ml  Pipet filter
 Beakers: 50, 100 and 150 ml  Distilled water

2.1. A solution (S) of hydrochloric acid of C=0.05 mol/L is required to

prepared by diluting the solution(S0).
Show that the degree of dilution or fold of dilution is 200 times.
2.2. The student prepared the solution S with the required
concentration, but he committed mistakes in the procedure while
working with strong acids as follows:

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 Teacher: Nada H.El-Hajj

 Using 5 ml graduated cylinder, he transferred 2.5 ml of

commercial solution (S0) into 250 ml volumetric flask.
 Then he added distilled water up to line mark.
 Finally he stoppered the flask and shake to homogenize the
solution.
2.2.1. Specify, from the above list, the glassware that are most precise
to prepare solution (S).
2.2.2. Indicate the two mistakes done by the student while preparing
the solution (S).

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