energies

Article
Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection Method for
Photovoltaic String Using a Projector
Yadong Wang 1,2 , Kazutaka Itako 1, *, Tsugutomo Kudoh 1 , Keishin Koh 1 and Qiang Ge 2
1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Atsugi 243-0292,
Japan; wang2015@ele.kanagawa-it.ac.jp (Y.W.); tsugu@ele.kanagawa-it.ac.jp (T.K.);
koh@he.kanagawa-it.ac.jp (K.K.)
2 Department of Energy and Power Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
yzgeq@yzu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: itako@ele.kanagawa-it.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-046-291-3152

Academic Editor: Tapas Mallick

Received: 30 November 2016; Accepted: 1 February 2017; Published: 15 February 2017

Abstract: This paper proposes a voltage-based hot-spot detection method for photovoltaic (PV) string
using the projector. Hot-spots form in solar cells at defects causing a high carrier recombination rate,
it appears as a high reverse leakage current of p-n junctions when solar cells are partially shadowed.
Using this characteristic, authors previously developed a voltage-based hot-spot detection method to
quickly identify and characterize the severity of a module hot-spot. However, previous experimental
results were shown for just one module. In this paper, experiments are done on plural modules in the
string. From the result, this method works effectively for PV string. Correlations among illuminance,
load resistance, hot-spot temperature, and risk factor are also discussed.

Keywords: hot-spot; photovoltaic (PV) string; crystal defect; detection method

1. Introduction
Introduced in July 2012, Japan’s feed-in tariff (FIT) policy was famously generous and triggered
a surge in solar investment in the country. As photovoltaic (PV) installation density increases, more
systems suffer from various failures. According to the failure reports, hot-spot heating accounts for a
large proportion [1].
Hot-spot heating occurs when, due to some anomaly, such as shadows on cells, the reduced
short-circuit current of affected cells becomes lower than the operating current of the module. This
will force affected cells into a reverse bias condition, acting as an internal load, dissipating the power
generated by other cells in the form of heat [2]. Figure 1 illustrates an infrared (IR) image of a hot-spot
cell. Due to the poor thermal conductivities of cell encapsulation materials, temperatures of 100 ◦ C are
easily attained. Such temperatures degrade the optical and mechanical properties of encapsulation
material, reducing array performance, and operating lifetime [3]. In severe cases, the melting of
interconnections can lead to total failure of the array [4]. Currently, bypass diodes are inserted in
antiparallel with the PV cells to counteract the detrimental effect of shading. However, hot-spot heating
may still occur even if bypass diodes are built-in. Due to crystal defects, some PV cells may exhibit a
large reverse current, even before reaching the breakdown voltage [5–7].
Most of the recent methods of hot-spot inspection are based on I-V characteristics and temperature,
and these methods are hard to locate hot-spot cells in assembled modules. Besides, it has been pointed
out that it is important to classify reverse characteristic of each cell to determine the worst case with
respect to the hot-spot heating [8–11]. Furthermore, compliance with International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) and/or Underwriters Laboratories (UL) standards only requires 8–10 unit samples
during hot-spot testing. The samples used for compliance testing are not representative of the typical

Energies 2017, 10, 230; doi:10.3390/en10020230 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 230 2 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 230 2 of 14

8–10 unit samples during hot-spot testing. The samples used for compliance testing are not
product coming off the production line. Based on these considerations, our lab is striving to develop a
representative of the typical product coming off the production line. Based on these considerations,
new hot-spot inspection method which enables us to determine the hot-spot susceptibility of each cell
our lab is striving to develop a new hot-spot inspection method which enables us to determine the
in all modules
hot-spot coming offofof
susceptibility thecell
each production line. coming off of the production line.
in all modules

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Infrared (IR) image of a hot-spot cell: (a) Hot-spot in a photovoltaic (PV) module caused by
Figure 1. Infrared (IR) image of a hot-spot cell: (a) Hot-spot in a photovoltaic (PV) module caused
crystal defects. The operating temperature at the hot-spot is 78.3 °C versus 45 °C of the rest of the
by crystal defects. The operating temperature at the hot-spot is 78.3 ◦ C versus 45 ◦ C of the rest of
module, which represents a temperature difference of 33.3 °C; (b) Temperature distribution of the
the module, which represents a temperature difference of 33.3 ◦ C; (b) Temperature distribution of the
hot-spot from P1 to P2, enormous power dissipation occurring in a relatively small area results in
hot-spot from P1 to P2, enormous power dissipation occurring in a relatively small area results in
hot-spots, which in turn leads to destructive effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of solder,
hot-spots, which in turn leads to destructive effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of solder, or
or degradation of the solar cell.
degradation of the solar cell.
To achieve this goal, authors previously investigated the hot-spot heating caused by crystal
defects and developed
To achieve a voltage-based
this goal, authors previously hot-spot detection
investigated themethod
hot-spotinheating
the form of a projector
caused by crystalwhich
defects
andenables identification
developed of defective
a voltage-based cells. This
hot-spot method
detection can eliminate
method the modules
in the form with defective
of a projector cells
which enables
due to voltage
identification ratio before
of defective they
cells. aremethod
This assembled into a system
can eliminate which will
the modules hopefully
with defectiveimprove the to
cells due
reliability of PV system. However, crystal defects may also appear in normal cells after
voltage ratio before they are assembled into a system which will hopefully improve the reliability of installation
PVdue to various
system. factors.
However, Apparently,
crystal it is unrealistic
defects may also appearto in
diagnose
normalthe modules
cells by disassembling
after installation them
due to various
respectively. Aiming to avoid this problem and further confirm the practicability of
factors. Apparently, it is unrealistic to diagnose the modules by disassembling them respectively. the voltage-based
hot-spot detection method, we conducted several real field experiments for the PV string. The
Aiming to avoid this problem and further confirm the practicability of the voltage-based hot-spot
experimental process and results will be presented in this paper.
detection method, we conducted several real field experiments for the PV string. The experimental
process and results will be presented in this paper.
2. Theoretical Background
2. Theoretical Background
Before presenting the details of the present study, it will be useful to review the general
background associated with cell hot-spot heating. Crystal defects degrade the electrical
Before presenting the details of the present study, it will be useful to review the general
characteristics of p-n junctions, and, under reverse bias, can act as sites for premature avalanche or
background associated with cell hot-spot heating. Crystal defects degrade the electrical characteristics
Zener breakdown by locally enhancing the electric field. The resulting non-uniform current densities
of p-n junctions, and, under reverse bias, can act as sites for premature avalanche or Zener
produce hot-spots [3].
breakdownAs a by locally enhancing
representative example,thewe
electric field.a The
prepared solarresulting
PV modulenon-uniform currentofdensities
with the purpose accessingproduce
each
hot-spots [3].cells. Figure 2 indicates the reverse leakage current as discrete cells were reverse biased by
one of the
As a representative
a power supply of 10 Vexample, we prepared
in a darkened room. The a solar
normal PVcells
module withdefects
without the purpose
exhibit of accessing
a small each
reverse
onecurrent.
of the cells. Figure 2defective
Conversely, indicatescells,
the reverse
with a leakage current as
high possibility discrete
hot-spot cells were
heating reverse
arising, biased by a
consequently
power supply
present largeof 10 V in
reverse a darkened
leakage current.room.
FigureThe normalthe
3 declares cells without
reverse defects
I-V curve exhibit
of the cellsaindividually.
small reverse
current.
As canConversely, defective
be clearly observed cells, with
in Figure 3, the acurrent
high possibility
of the defecthot-spot
cells hasheating arising, consequently
a linear relationship with the
present
reverselarge
loadreverse leakage
voltage. current.
The cells Figure
numbered 3 declares
6, 24, 26 and 34 reverse I-V severe
thedemonstrate curve of the cells
reverse individually.
current on the
As electrical properties.
can be clearly In other
observed words,3,once
in Figure a solar cell
the current likedefect
of the No. 6 is reverse
cells has abiased
linearby any abnormality,
relationship with the
reverse load voltage. The cells numbered 6, 24, 26 and 34 demonstrate severe reverse current on the
electrical properties. In other words, once a solar cell like No. 6 is reverse biased by any abnormality, its
Energies 2017, 10, 230 3 of 14

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2017, 10, 10,
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small reverse shunt resistance negates the effect of the bypass diode. The thermal images of3defective
of 14
its its
cells are
small
small reverse
reverse
presented
shuntresistance
shunt
inare
Figure
resistancenegates
4. in Figure
negates the
the effect
effect of
of the
the bypass
bypass diode.
diode.The
Thethermal
thermalimages of of
images
its defective cells
small reverse presented 4.
defective cells are shunt resistance
presented negates
in Figure 4. the effect of the bypass diode. The thermal images of
defective cells are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 2. The current value in each cell energized at −10 V in dark conditions. It can be observed that
TheNo.
Figure 2.No. current value in each cell energized at −10 V in dark conditions. It can be observed that
Figure 6,
2. The24, No. 26value
current and No. 34 cells
in each celldemonstrate
energized atsevere
−10 Vreverse
in darkleakage currents.
conditions. It can be observed that
No. 6,Figure
No. 24, No. 26 and No. 34 cells demonstrate severe reverse leakage currents.
2. The current value in each cell energized at −10 V in dark conditions. It can be observed that
No. 6, No. 24, No. 26 and No. 34 cells demonstrate severe reverse leakage currents.
No. 6, No. 24, No. 26 and No. 34 cells demonstrate severe reverse leakage currents.

Figure 3. Reverse bias I-V characteristics of different cells belonging to the test module in dark
conditions. The great dispersion in second quadrant behavior is notorious.
Figure 3. Reverse bias I-V characteristics of different cells belonging to the test module in dark
Figure 3. Reverse
Figure bias
3. Reverse I-VI-Vcharacteristics
bias characteristics of differentcells
of different cells belonging to to
thethe
testtest module in dark
conditions. The great dispersion in second quadrant behaviorbelonging
is notorious. module in dark
conditions. TheThe
conditions. great dispersion
great dispersionininsecond
secondquadrant behaviorisisnotorious.
quadrant behavior notorious.

Figure 4. IR images of fully shaded defective cells. It can be observed that hot-spots tend to occur near
the edge of defective cells.

Figure
Figure 5 images
4. IR is the reverse
of fullybias model
shaded of a crystalline
defective silicon
cells. It can solar cell.
be observed thatThe current
hot-spots flows
tend through
to occur nearthe
reverse
Figure
Figure IRbiased
the4.edge4.images
of solar cell
IR defective
images
of fullycan
ofcells.
fully be expressed
shaded
shaded defectiveas:cells.
defective cells. It
It can
canbebeobserved
observedthat hot-spots
that tendtend
hot-spots to occur near near
to occur
the edge of defective
the edge of defective cells. cells.
Figure 5 is the reverse bias model of a crystalline silicon solar cell. The current flows through the
Figure
reverse biased5 issolar
the reverse
cell canbias model of aas:
be expressed crystalline silicon solar cell. The current flows through the
Figure
reverse 5biased
is thesolar
reverse biasbemodel
cell can of a crystalline
expressed as: silicon solar cell. The current flows through the
reverse biased solar cell can be expressed as:

VR − Irev Rs V − Irev Rs I0 Rsh VR

Irev = IR + Ish = IR + , Irev = I0 + R Irev = + (1)
Rsh Rsh Rsh + Rs Rsh + Rs
Energies 2017, 10, 230 4 of 14

Energies 2017, 10, 230 4 of 14

= + = + , = + = + (1)

Here,IIrev
Here, revisisthe
thereverse
reversecurrent
currentof
ofthe
thesolar
solarcell
cell energized
energized at at reverse
reverse voltage V VRR,,IIRRisisthe
theleakage
leakage
current of diode, and R is the shunt resistance which is process-induced, caused by
current of diode, and Rshshis the shunt resistance which is process-induced, caused by grown-in defects grown-in defects
ofthe
of thematerial.
material.Either Eitherthe
thesaturation
saturationcurrent
current of
of silicon diode II00increases
silicon diode or RRshshdecreases,
increasesor decreases,the thereverse
reverse
currentIIrevrevincreases
current increases[5]. [5].

Rs

-
IR Ish Rsh VR
+
Irev

Figure 5. The reverse bias model of a crystalline silicon solar cell.

Figure 5. The reverse bias model of a crystalline silicon solar cell.

As a microcosmic explanation, the existence of a partially crystal defect region, on the surface or
insideAs thea microcosmic
PV cells, abates explanation,
the lifetimetheand
existence of a partially
accelerates crystal defect
the recombination region,
rate on the(electrons
of carriers surface or
inside
and the PV
holes) cells,these
inside abates the lifetime
regions. Shortand accelerates
carrier lifetimethe recombination
is more prone to rate
causeof soft
carriers (electrons
breakdown and
even
holes) inside these regions. Short carrier lifetime is more prone to cause
under low voltage. Generally, the presence of a high recombination rate has two origins [12–14]. The soft breakdown even under
low is
first voltage. Generally,
the production ofthe presence
crystal defectsof on
a high
the recombination
surface of the solar rate has
cell two origins
during [12–14]. Thewhich
manufacturing, first is
the production of crystal defects on the surface of the solar cell during manufacturing,
results in high carrier recombination at the surface, another origin is when a carrier is trapped and which results in
high carrier recombination at the surface, another origin is when a carrier
recombines in a crystal defect lattice within the semiconductor. For explanation purposes, the first is trapped and recombines
in a can
case crystal defect lattice
be expressed within theequations:
by following semiconductor. For explanation purposes, the first case can be
expressed by following equations:
= , = , = (2)
/ (
pn −) n2i / ( )
1 1
Usur f = , Sp = , Sn = (2)
Here, ni is intrinsic density + n13));+Sp1/S
1/S p (n(1/cm andn (SPn +
areP1surface
) τ p Vp Nt
recombination τn Vn Nt(cm/s); τp and τn
velocity
are hole and electron lifetime (s); vp and vn are hole and electron thermal velocity (cm/s); Nt is trap
Here, ni 3is); intrinsic 3 S and S are surface recombination velocity (cm/s); τ and
density (1/cm p1 and ndensity
1 are hole(1/cm
and ); electron
p density
n when energy level Et of the recombination p
τ are hole and electron lifetime (s); v and v are hole and electron
center and Fermi level Ef are matched. The other case can be explained by Equation (3):
n p n thermal velocity (cm/s); N t is trap
3
density (1/cm ); p1 and n1 are hole and electron density when energy level Et of the recombination
−
center and Fermi level Ef are matched. The = other case can be explained by Equation (3): (3)
τ ( + )+τ ( + )
Considering the theoretical formula for recombination,pn − n2i the reverse leakage current JR is given by
USRH = (3)
the sum of the diode saturation current JO and τ p (nthe+ ngeneration
1 ) + τn ( P + P1 ) JG produced by recombination
current
of the carriers. It is described as Equation (4):
Considering the theoretical formula for recombination, the reverse leakage current JR is given by
the sum of the diode saturation current = JO and
+ ,the generation
= (− )dcurrent JG produced by recombination (4)
of the carriers. It is described as Equation (4):
U means total recombination rate (sum of Usurf and USRH) that occurs in cells. According to
Equations (1)–(3), when the carrier lifetime (τp and Z τn) is shortened by crystal defects, the
recombination rate U increases and the J = J
R leakage
O + J , J
G current
G = q(−U )dx in the reverse direction JR raises.
component (4)
Figure 6 is the equivalent circuit of a solar module. IA is the short circuit current of shaded cell
U means
in cluster A, andtotal IB is recombination
the short circuitrate (sumofof
current theUcell
surf and USRHB.
of cluster ) that occurs
Figure in cells.
6a shows the According
case without to
Equations (1)–(3), when the carrier
shadow, IA = IB and the module output current lifetime (τ and
p ipv flowsτ n ) is shortened by crystal defects, the recombination
through cluster A and B. The bypass diodes
rate U increases and the leakage current component
are all OFF. When partial shadows are added in cluster A, the in the reverse directionof
characteristics JRthe
raises.
respective clusters
Figure 6 is the equivalent circuit of a solar module. IA is the
are different, and IA < IB. In Figure 6b, when the hot-spot cell is shaded, its small shunt short circuit current of shaded cell in
resistance
cluster A, and
negates the effect I is the short circuit current of the cell of cluster B. Figure 6a
B of the bypass diode, the output current ipv of the solar module is smaller than IA, shows the case without
shadow, IA = I B
and the same operation and the as module
in theoutput
Figurecurrent ipv flowsThe
6a is obtained. through cluster
operation A and B.isThe
efficiency bypass diodes
decreased and a
hot-spot arises. When the normal cell is shaded as in Figure 6c, due to its large reverseclusters
are all OFF. When partial shadows are added in cluster A, the characteristics of the respective shunt
are different,
resistance, and IA <larger
ipv becomes IB . Inthan
Figure 6b,current
IA, the when the hot-spot
of cluster cell is shaded,
A becomes its small
short circuit shunt
current IA resistance
as shown
negates the effect of the bypass diode, the output current ipv of the solar module is smaller than IA ,
Energies 2017, 10, 230 5 of 14

and the same operation as in the Figure 6a is obtained. The operation efficiency is decreased and a
hot-spot arises. When the normal cell is shaded as in Figure 6c, due to its large reverse shunt resistance,
Energies 2017, 10, 230 5 of 14
ipv becomes larger than IA , the current of cluster A becomes short circuit current IA as shown in the
figure. As a result,
in the figure. the bypass
As a result, diode of
the bypass diodecluster A turnsAON,
of cluster and
turns theand
ON, difference currentcurrent
the difference ipv and
betweenbetween
IiA flows through it. The bypass diode of cluster B is still OFF. Therefore, only cluster
pv and IA flows through it. The bypass diode of cluster B is still OFF. Therefore, only cluster B
B generates power
and the hot-spot
generates power isand prevented by the isbypass
the hot-spot diode.by
prevented Based on thesediode.
the bypass physical phenomena
Based on thesediscussed
physical
above, a voltage-based hot-spot detection method is developed, and
phenomena discussed above, a voltage-based hot-spot detection method is developed, it enables to inspect defective
and it enables
cells in PV module. This method will be discussed in the following sections.
to inspect defective cells in PV module. This method will be discussed in the following sections.

i PV
Cluster A

IA
VPV

Load
IB
Cluster B

(a)
Partial IA i PV
Cluster A

shadow

VPV

Load

IB
Cluster B

(b)
i -I
PV A

IA Partial IA i PV
Cluster A

shadow
VPV
Load

IB
Cluster B

(c)

Figure 6. The equivalent circuit of a solar module, red dashed lines are operating current path: (a)
Figure 6. The equivalent circuit of a solar module, red dashed lines are operating current path:
Unshaded condition, IA = IB; (b) Partial shadow on hot-spot cell IA < IB, IA ≥ ipv; (c) Partial shadow on
(a) Unshaded condition, IA = IB ; (b) Partial shadow on hot-spot cell IA < IB , IA ≥ ipv ; (c) Partial shadow
normal cell, IA < IB, IA < ipv.
on normal cell, IA < IB , IA < ipv .

3. Proposed Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection Method

3.1. Specification of Experimental Module

Electrical scheme of a PV module is exhibited in Figure 7a. It is a single-crystal silicon PV module
with two series associated groups, each of them made up of 17 cells and a by-pass diode. We consider
Energies 2017, 10, 230 6 of 14

3. Proposed Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection Method

3.1. Specification of Experimental Module

Electrical scheme of a PV module is exhibited in Figure 7a. It is a single-crystal silicon PV module
Energies 2017, 10, 230 6 of 14
with two series associated groups, each of them made up of 17 cells and a by-pass diode. We consider
the
thePV
PVstring
stringscheme
schemeasasshown
shownininFigure
Figure7b.
7b.The
Thestring
stringisiscomposed
composedofofa aseries
seriesofofeight
eightidentical
identical
modules. Table 1 shows the specification of it at 25 ◦ C, air mass (AM) 1.5, 1000 W/m 2 .
modules. Table 1 shows the specification of it at 25 °C, air mass (AM) 1.5, 1000 W/m . 2

(a) (b)

Figure 7. (a) Module constitution; (b) Layout of experimental PV string.

Figure 7. (a) Module constitution; (b) Layout of experimental PV string.

Table 1. PV solar module specifications.

Table 1. PV solar module specifications.
Item Specification
Item
PV solar panel model number Specification
GT133
Maximum power
PV solar panel model number (P m)
GT13350 W
Maximum voltage
Maximum power (Pm ) (V oc) 50 W20.5 V
Maximum current
Maximum voltage (Voc ) (I sc) 3.35 A
20.5 V
Operation
Maximum current (Isc ) (Vpm)
voltage 16.4 V
3.35 A
Operation voltagecurrent
Operation (Vpm ) (Ipm) 16.4 V
3.05 A
Operation current (Ipm ) 3.05 A
3.2. Detection Theory
3.2. Detection Theory
In a general way, the reverse current of crystalline silicon solar cells originates in cell defects and
In a general
impurity center way,
in thethe reverse and
materials current
can ofbecrystalline
represented silicon
by a solar
shuntcells originates
resistance. As in cell defects
complete solar
and impurity center in the materials and can be represented by a shunt resistance.
modules are normally packaged after manufacturing, it is impractical to electrically isolate each cell As complete solar
modules
from its are normally
circuit packaged
and subject after each
it during manufacturing,
of the test runsit is impractical
to reverse biasto electrically
by DC supply isolate each cell
individually.
from its circuit
We apply and subject
a projector it during
to create eachilluminated
dark and of the test runs to reverse
regions bias by of
on the surface DCthe supply
solar PVindividually.
module so
We apply
that a projector
the power to create
generated dark and illuminated
by illuminated regions
solar cells shall on theatsurface
energize of theone.
the shaded solar
Due PVtomodule
the low
soradiation
that the power
intensitygenerated by illuminated
of the projector light solar
source,cells
theshall energize
short circuitatcurrent
the shaded
is tooone.low Dueto todetect
the
low radiation intensity
(approximately 30–50 mA),of themeasuring
projector light source,
the short the current
circuit short circuit current
directly is too in
will result low to detect
large errors.
(approximately
However, the open 30–50 mA),voltage
circuit measuring
is stillthe short circuit
relatively current
large, even underdirectly willintensity.
low light result inThe large errors.
equivalent
However,
circuit ofthe open circuithot-spot
voltage-based voltage is still relatively
detection is shown large, even under
in Figure 8. Thelow light intensity.
shadowed normalThe cellequivalent
behaves as
circuit
a diode of with
voltage-based
large reversehot-spot detection
resistance, is shown
as well as the in Figure 8.
defective The
cell canshadowed
be regarded normal cell resistor.
as a low behaves as
a diode with large reverse resistance, as well as the defective cell can be regarded as a low resistor.
that the power generated by illuminated solar cells shall energize at the shaded one. Due to the low
radiation intensity of the projector light source, the short circuit current is too low to detect
(approximately 30–50 mA), measuring the short circuit current directly will result in large errors.
However, the open circuit voltage is still relatively large, even under low light intensity. The equivalent
circuit 2017,
Energies of voltage-based
10, 230 hot-spot detection is shown in Figure 8. The shadowed normal cell behaves 7 of as
14
a diode with large reverse resistance, as well as the defective cell can be regarded as a low resistor.

(a) (b)
Energies 2017, 10, 230 7 of 14

Figure 8. The equivalent circuit of the solar module: (a) Normal cell shaded condition; (b) Defective
Figure 8. The equivalent circuit of the solar module: (a) Normal cell shaded condition; (b) Defective
cell shaded condition.
cell shaded condition.

Figure
Figure99presents thethe
presents I-VI-V
characteristics of normal
characteristics of normal cell shaded condition
cell shaded and Defective
condition cell shaded
and Defective cell
condition to better understand the theory.
shaded condition to better understand the theory. V 0 is the V0 is the reference voltage of load resistor shadow.
reference voltage of load resistor without without
Since the shaded
shadow. Since thenormal
shadedcellnormal
becomes p-n
cell junctionp-n
becomes diodes with diodes
junction high shunt
withresistance,
high shunttheresistance,
voltage share
the
of the resistor R is low (V ). Meanwhile, shunt resistance of the shaded defective cell is
voltage share of the resistor R is low (V1). Meanwhile, shunt resistance of the shaded defective cell is
1 relatively low,
so that the low,
relatively resistor R shares
so that much higher
the resistor voltage
R shares much(Vhigher
2 ). Accordingly,
voltage (Vthe current of the defect cells has a
2). Accordingly, the current of the
linear
defectrelationship with relationship
cells has a linear the reverse load
withvoltage, the voltage
the reverse share ratio
load voltage, between
the voltage the defective
share cell and
ratio between the
resistor R is generally stable.
defective cell and resistor R is generally stable.

1/R

V1 V2 V0

Figure 9. I-V characteristics of normal cell shaded condition and Defective cell shaded condition.
Figure 9. I-V characteristics of normal cell shaded condition and Defective cell shaded condition.

3.3. Operating Procedure

3.3. Operating Procedure
The detection is started with illuminating an entire module by the projector. Afterward, variable
The detection is started with illuminating an entire module by the projector. Afterward, variable
resistor R is adjusted to an appropriate value. Then the projector displays the animation as shown in
resistor R is adjusted to an appropriate value. Then the projector displays the animation as shown in
Figure 10 on each module individually. The initial voltage value V0 is measured when the module is
Figure 10 on each module individually. The initial voltage value V 0 is measured when the module
fully illuminated as Step 1 in Figure 10. Next, each cell is partially shadowed successively for 5 s to
is fully illuminated as Step 1 in Figure 10. Next, each cell is partially shadowed successively for 5 s
measure another voltage parameter, Vi. Therefore, the risk factor Hot-Spot Index (HSI) of the voltage-
to measure another voltage parameter, Vi . Therefore, the risk factor Hot-Spot Index (HSI) of the
based hot-spot detection method is defined as Equation (5):
voltage-based hot-spot detection method is defined as Equation (5):
− (5)
=V − V
0 i
HSIi = (5)
V0
Figure 10 on each module individually. The initial voltage value V0 is measured when the module is
fully illuminated as Step 1 in Figure 10. Next, each cell is partially shadowed successively for 5 s to
measure another voltage parameter, Vi. Therefore, the risk factor Hot-Spot Index (HSI) of the voltage-
based hot-spot detection method is defined as Equation (5):
Energies 2017, 10, 230 − 8 of 14
(5)
=

Figure 10. Animation procedure of the detection.

Figure 10. Animation procedure of the detection.

As described in Section 3.2, when one defective cell within a series of PV cells is shaded, its low
valueAs ofdescribed
the shunt in Section 3.2,
resistance willwhen one adefective
originate cell within
large voltage share aViseries of PVR.cells
in resistor is shaded,
In other itsiflow
words, the
value of the shunt resistance will originate a large voltage share
HSI of a cell comes out extremely low, it means this cell is high possiblyV i in resistor R. In other words, if the
defective. The flow chart of
HSI of a cell comes out extremely low,
the detection is represented in Figure 11. it means this cell is high possibly defective. The flow chart of
the detection
Energies 2017, 10,is represented in Figure 11.
230 8 of 14

Figure 11. Detection flow chart, which determines the risk factor of each cell inside a PV module.

3.4. Proposed
3.4. Proposed Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection
Voltage-Based Hot-Spot Detection System
System
Our lab
Our lab developed
developed aa detection
detection system
system to to conduct
conduct thethe experiment
experiment automatically.
automatically. As As shown
shown inin
Figure 12a,
Figure 12a, the
the experimental
experimental systemsystem for
for detection
detection consists
consists ofof two
two units
units working
working simultaneously:
simultaneously: the the
projector system displaying the animation to create the dark and illuminated regions
projector system displaying the animation to create the dark and illuminated regions on the surface of on the surface
of the
the solar
solar PVPV module
module and and
thethe measurement
measurement system
system to detect
to detect thethe voltage
voltage of resistor
of resistor R. R.
Figure 12b
Figure 12b is
is the
the prototype
prototype of of the
the developed
developed detection
detection device,
device, itit acts
acts as
as an
an analog-to-digital
analog-to-digital
(ADC) converter measuring the voltage of resistor R and transferring it into personal computer
(ADC) converter measuring the voltage of resistor R and transferring it into personal computer (PC).
(PC).
The projector and detection device are controlled and coordinated by monitor
The projector and detection device are controlled and coordinated by monitor software called software called Solar
Solar
Check inside
Check inside aa PC.
PC. Its
Its interface
interface isis shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 13.13. Quantity
Quantity of of modules
modules and and cells
cells and
and threshold
threshold
of detection can be set inside the software due to the specification of each PV system.
of detection can be set inside the software due to the specification of each PV system. To create the To create the
shadow, we
shadow, we cancan locate
locate each
each specific
specific module
module and and cell
cell by
by entering
entering thethe coordinates.
coordinates. Data from the
Data from the
detection device is processed and represented in the software, too. The detection
detection device is processed and represented in the software, too. The detection result is displayed result is displayed
directly on the right side of the interface in green OK or red No Good (NG). Figure 14 is the picture
of the real field detection for the PV string.
 Figure 12b is the prototype of the developed detection device, it acts as an analog-to-digital
(ADC) converter measuring the voltage of resistor R and transferring it into personal computer (PC).
The projector and detection device are controlled and coordinated by monitor software called Solar
Check inside a PC. Its interface is shown in Figure 13. Quantity of modules and cells and threshold
of detection
Energies can
2017, 10, 230be set inside the software due to the specification of each PV system. To create the
9 of 14
shadow, we can locate each specific module and cell by entering the coordinates. Data from the
detection device is processed and represented in the software, too. The detection result is displayed
directly on
directly on the
the right
right side
side of
of the
theinterface
interfacein
ingreen
greenOK
OKororred
redNo
NoGood
Good(NG).
(NG).Figure 1414
Figure is is
thethe
picture
pictureof
the real field detection for the PV string.
of the real field detection for the PV string.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Voltage-based detection system: (a) Configuration of voltage-based hot-spot detection
Figure 12. Voltage-based detection system: (a) Configuration of voltage-based hot-spot detection
system, which consists of a projector part and measurement part; (b) Prototype of the detection device.
system, which consists of a projector part and measurement part; (b) Prototype of the detection device.
Energies 2017, 10, 230 9 of 14

Energies 2017, 10, 230 9 of 14

Figure 13. Detection monitor interface, all parameters and data of the detection are gathered here.
Figure 13. Detection monitor interface, all parameters and data of the detection are gathered here.
Figure 13. Detection monitor interface, all parameters and data of the detection are gathered here.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 14. 14.
Figure Pictures of of
Pictures real-field
real-fielddetection.
detection.(a)
(a)An
An example
example of
of shaded cell; (b)
shaded cell; (b) Projector
Projectorused
usedinin
Figure 14. Pictures
experiment, one of member
crew real-field
is detection.the(a)monitor
operating An example of shaded cell; (b) Projector used in
software.
experiment, one crew member is operating the monitor software.
experiment, one crew member is operating the monitor software.
4. Results
4. Results
Based on on
Based thethe
detection method
detection methoddescribed
describedabove,
above,several
several sets
sets of experiments
experimentsare
areperformed
performedtoto
investigate thethe
investigate correlations between
correlations between load
loadresistance,
resistance,illuminance,
illuminance, and HSI.
HSI. The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
between
HSIHSI
andandhot-spot temperature
hot-spot temperatureis isalso
alsodiscussed
discussed using
using thermal
thermal camera. Results are
camera. Results aredescribed
describedasas
follows.
follows.
Energies 2017, 10, 230 10 of 14

4. Results
Based on the detection method described above, several sets of experiments are performed to
investigate the correlations between load resistance, illuminance, and HSI. The relationship between
HSI and hot-spot temperature is also discussed using thermal camera. Results are described as follows.

4.1. Resistance and Hot-Spot Index

As an important component of the system, the authors first investigated the influence of load
resistor R on HSI. The characteristics of HSI for resistance R are indicated in Figure 15. It is obvious that
differences of HSI between the normal and defective cells decrease with an increase in the resistance
value. In order to distinguish defective cells from normal cells clearly while maintaining a relatedly
high voltage across the resistance, R shall be set around 910 Ω.
Energies 2017, 10, 230 10 of 14

Figure 15. Correlation between HSI and Resistance at 1000 Lux, the X axis is resistance of insertion
Figure 15. Correlation between HSI and Resistance at 1000 Lux, the X axis is resistance of insertion
resistor and the Y axis is hot-spot risk factor HSI.
resistor and the Y axis is hot-spot risk factor HSI.

4.2. Illuminance and Hot-Spot Index

4.2. Illuminance and Hot-Spot Index
The detailed conditions and parameters of the system are provided in Table 2. To investigate the
The detailed conditions and parameters of the system are provided in Table 2. To investigate the
correlation between HSI and illuminance, a same module is detected under the illuminance of 600
correlation between HSI and illuminance, a same module is detected under the illuminance of 600 Lux
Lux and 6000 Lux respectively. The results are obtained in Figure 16. Although there is an overall
and 6000 Lux respectively. The results are obtained in Figure 16. Although there is an overall decline
decline in HSI, but the general trend of results is similar. It can be seen that HSIs of No. 12, No. 14
in HSI, but the general trend of results is similar. It can be seen that HSIs of No. 12, No. 14 and No. 21
and No. 21 cell still remain extremely low even if the illuminance rises 10-fold. In other word, cells
cell still remain extremely low even if the illuminance rises 10-fold. In other word, cells No. 12, No. 14
No. 12, No. 14 and No. 21 are high possibly crystal defective cells under the risk of hot-spot heating.
and No. 21 are high possibly crystal defective cells under the risk of hot-spot heating. This experiment
This experiment shows that, as the theory described, the detection results of this method are relatively
shows that, as the theory described, the detection results of this method are relatively stable and less
stable and less affected by the intensity of illuminance.
affected by the intensity of illuminance.
Table 2. Key parameters of comparison experiment.
Table 2. Key parameters of comparison experiment.
Module Number Connection Status Insertion Resistor Surface Illuminance Initial Voltage (V0)
Module
No.Number
2 Connection
String (8 in Status
series) Insertion
910Resistor
Ω Surface
6000 LuxIlluminance
(24.6 W/m2) Initial Voltage
18.61 V(V 0 )
No.
No.22 String (8in
String (8 inseries)
series) 910ΩΩ
910 600 Lux
6000 (2.49W/m
Lux (24.6 W/m) )
2 2 8.49VV
18.61
No. 2 String (8 in series) 910 Ω 600 Lux (2.49 W/m2 ) 8.49 V
stable and less affected by the intensity of illuminance.

Table 2. Key parameters of comparison experiment.

Module Number Connection Status Insertion Resistor Surface Illuminance Initial Voltage (V0)
No. 10,
Energies 2017, 2 230 String (8 in series) 910 Ω 6000 Lux (24.6 W/m2) 18.61 V 11 of 14
No. 2 String (8 in series) 910 Ω 600 Lux (2.49 W/m2) 8.49 V

Energies 2017, 10, 230 11 of 14

(a)

(b)

Figure 16. Correlation between HSI and illuminance: (a) Result of No. 2 module at 6000 Lux, the red
Figure 16. Correlation between HSI and illuminance: (a) Result of No. 2 module at 6000 Lux, the red
horizontal line is the threshold HSI value; (b) Result of No. 2 module at 600 Lux.
horizontal line is the threshold HSI value; (b) Result of No. 2 module at 600 Lux.

4.3. Thermal Analysis

4.3. Thermal Analysis
In this section, the result of the thermal investigations are presented in order to further validate
In this section, the result of the thermal investigations are presented in order to further validate
the presence of hot-spot in detected defective cell. As the detection results above, No. 12, No. 14 and
the presence of hot-spot in detected defective cell. As the detection results above, No. 12, No. 14
No. 21 cell are recognized as risk cells. For comparison purposes, the No. 32 cell, whose HSI is
and No. 21 cell are recognized as risk cells. For comparison purposes, the No. 32 cell, whose HSI is
relatively high, is also selected in this experiment. The sunlight intensity during the experiment is
relatively high, is also 2selected in this experiment. The sunlight intensity during the experiment is
from 900 to 1050 W/m . Each cell is shaded respectively under the sunlight for 10 min and switch to
from 900 to 1050 W/m2 . Each cell is shaded respectively under the sunlight for 10 min and switch to
sunlight irradiation state, then the temperatures of two cells are observed by thermography. The
sunlight irradiation state, then the temperatures of two cells are observed by thermography. The results
results are indicated in Figure 17.
are indicated in Figure 17.
As can be clearly observed in the result, hot-spots occurring in cells No. 12, No. 14 and No. 21
versus No. 32 still maintained almost the same temperature as rest of the cell, Moreover, for safety
purposes, we only added the shadow for 10 min. In some severe circumstances, HSIs of the cells
are extremely low, approximately 0%, the temperature reaches about 140 ◦ C even its only covered
for 10 min, which leads to the resin deformation in the cell. Figure 18b gives an example cell of
hot-spot caused resin deformation during the experiment. According to IEC 61215 [15] , cell shall
maintain 50 ◦ C ± 10 ◦ C when it is shaded for 5 h or longer under natural sunlight or Class C or

(a) (b)
 (b)

Figure 16. Correlation between HSI and illuminance: (a) Result of No. 2 module at 6000 Lux, the red
horizontal line is the threshold HSI value; (b) Result of No. 2 module at 600 Lux.
Energies 2017, 10, 230 12 of 14

4.3. Thermal Analysis

better 2 ± 10%). Based on experimental data,
Insteady-state
this section, sunlight
the resultsimulator (irradiance
of the thermal 1000 W/m
investigations are presented in order to further validate
correlation
the presencebetween temperature
of hot-spot in detectedand HSI is presented
defective cell. As theindetection
Figure 19,results the HSI
whenabove, No.of12,
theNo.
cell14
is and
10%
or less, the are
probability of temperature ◦
No. 21 cell recognized as risk cells.exceeding 60 C ispurposes,
For comparison 90%. Therefore,
the No.it32can be whose
cell, judgedHSI thatisa
threshold value of 10% is appropriate for this method. In a word, the IR inspection experiment
relatively high, is also selected in this experiment. The sunlight intensity during the experiment is further
confirmed
from 900 tothe
1050validity
W/m2.ofEach
proposed
cell is method
shaded for the PV string,
respectively undermeanwhile,
the sunlightthefor
threshold value
10 min and can also
switch to
be verified, and initially identified as 10%. However, it is worth noting that this
sunlight irradiation state, then the temperatures of two cells are observed by thermography. Thethreshold is currently
only applicable
results to single
are indicated crystalline
in Figure 17. cells.

(a) (b)

Energies 2017, 10, 230 12 of 14

As can be clearly observed in the result, hot-spots occurring in cells No. 12, No. 14 and No. 21
versus No. 32 still maintained almost the same temperature as rest of the cell, Moreover, for safety
purposes, we only added the shadow for 10 min. In some severe circumstances, HSIs of the cells are
extremely low, approximately 0%, the temperature reaches about 140 °C even its only covered for 10
min, which leads to the resin deformation in the cell. Figure 18b gives an example cell of hot-spot
caused resin deformation during the experiment. According to IEC 61215 [15] , cell shall maintain 50
°C ± 10 °C when it is shaded
(c) for 5 h or longer under natural sunlight or Class C (d)or better steady-state
sunlight simulator (irradiance 1000 W/m2 ± 10%). Based on experimental data, correlation between
Figure 17. IR inspection
temperature results: (a) Hot-spot 19,in No. the
12 cell caused byismicro-defects, theprobability
operating
Figure 17. IRand HSI is presented
inspection in Figure
results: (a) Hot-spot when
in No. 12 HSIcell of the cell
caused 10% or less, the
by micro-defects, the operating
temperature
of temperature at the hot-spot
exceeding 60is°C71.3 °C
is 90%. while the
Therefore, mean
it cantemperature
be judged of
thatthe
a rest cell
threshold is 38.7
value °C, which
of 10% is
temperature at the hot-spot is 71.3 ◦ C while the mean temperature of the rest cell is 38.7 ◦ C, which
appropriatea for
represents this method.
temperature In a word,
difference the°C;
of 32.6 IR inspection
(b) Hot-spot experiment
in No. 14 further
cell; (c) confirmed
Hot-spot inthe
No.validity
21 cell;
represents a temperature difference of 32.6 ◦ C; (b) Hot-spot in No. 14 cell; (c) Hot-spot in No. 21
of proposed
and method
(d) Thermal imageforofthe
No.PV 32 string, meanwhile,
cell, the temperature theisthreshold
40.8 °C onlyvalue can2–3
raises also°Cbeafter
verified,
10 min and
of
cell; and (d) Thermal image of No. 32 cell, the temperature is 40.8 ◦ C only raises 2–3 ◦ C after 10 min
initially identified as 10%. However, it is worth noting that this threshold is currently only applicable
shading.
of shading.
to single crystalline cells.

(a) (b)

Figure 18. Example of resin deformation of defect cell: (a) HSI of this cell is 0% and the temperature
Figure 18. Example of resin deformation of defect cell: (a) HSI of this cell is 0% and the temperature
reached 136 °C; (b) Resin deformation occurred at the edge of the defective cell.
reached 136 ◦ C; (b) Resin deformation occurred at the edge of the defective cell.
 (a) (b)

Figure 18. Example of resin deformation of defect cell: (a) HSI of this cell is 0% and the temperature
Energies 2017, 10, 230 13 of 14
reached 136 °C; (b) Resin deformation occurred at the edge of the defective cell.

Figure
Figure 19.19. Relationship between HSI and
Relationship between and temperature,
temperature, each cell
cell is
is covered
covered under
under natural
natural sunlight
sunlight
2 ◦
(over
(over 900
900W/m
W/m ,, average
2 average environment temperature: 24.4 °C, min, HSI
C, average humidity: 79%) for 10 min, HSI
is
is the
the state
state of
of 5000
5000 Lux
Lux of
of illuminance
illuminanceand 1000Ω
and1000 Ω of
ofinsertion
insertionresistor.
resistor.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The aim
The aim of
of this
this research
research is
is to
to find
find aa reasonable
reasonable and
and sophisticated
sophisticated way
way to
to locate
locate risky
risky hot-spot
hot-spot
cells. The experimental
cells. experimental evidence
evidence accumulated
accumulated during
during this
this research
research shows
shows that
that defects
defects cause
cause hot-spot
hot-spot
heating in reverse biased solar cells, and these defective cells can be detected by the proposed method.
In addition, the real field experiment proved that the proposed method is also effective for the PV
string. This provides the possibility of regular inspection by measuring voltage directly from the
junction box of the solar generation system after installation.
The hot-spot testing methods required in IEC 61215 and ASTM E2481-12 typically take hours
to identify risky cells, which are impractical to test individually (usually 8–10 samples) [15,16].
The proposed method is based on voltage rather than temperature, which only requires 2–3 min
to identify risky hot-spot cells. With the risk factors of each cell, before installation, the hot-spot test
can be conducted more representatively by using those identified defective cell as samples. During
routine maintenance testing after installation, those modules with defective cells should consider
being displaced and further confirmed. It is more accurate at locating hot-spot cells than conventional
ways and greatly improve the testing efficient. Moreover, the proposed method applies a projector
as an illumination light source instead of sunlight, which enables the inspection independent of the
stable solar intensity conditions. By controlling the illumination, this method automatically generates
a partial shadow on each cell instead of covering them manually. Consequently, it is possible to greatly
reduce the failure rate of the solar array by eliminating module with defects using the proposed
method before and after installation.
For further research, the authors will conduct further investigations of the relationship between
temperature and hot-spot index on large-scale photovoltaic power generation plants, we will also
verify the application of the voltage-based inspection method on polycrystalline PV modules from
now on.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant No. 26420253.
Author Contributions: Yadong Wang and Kazutaka Itako conceived and designed the experiment; Yadong Wang
performed the experiments; Yadong Wang, Kazutaka Itako and Qiang Ge carried out the analysis;
Tsugutomo Kudoh, Keishin Koh and Kazutaka Itako contributed material/analysis tools; Yadong Wang wrote
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2017, 10, 230 14 of 14

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