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1. Introduction
Pesticides are natural or synthetic agents that are used to kill unwanted plant or animal pests.
While the term pesticide is now often associated with synthetic chemical compounds, it was not
until relatively recently that synthetic pesticides came into use. Naturally occurring compounds
or natural extracts have been used as pesticides since ancient times. The earliest pesticides were
most likely salt, sulfurous rock, and extracts of tobacco, red pepper, and the like. It is rumored
that the Napoleonic army used crushed chrysanthemums to control lice, with limited
effectiveness. Petroleum oils, heavy metals, and arsenic were used liberally to control unwanted
pests and weeds until the 1940s, when they were largely replaced for many uses by organic
synthetic pesticides, the most famous of which is DDT. Because the broad term pesticide
encompasses a diverse collection of substances, an explanation of pesticide taxonomy and
nomenclature is warranted. Pesticides can be classified either by target pest or by chemical
identity. Classification by target pest is perhaps the most familiar. For example, insecticides are
pesticides that target insects, and herbicides target plants. There are many more examples
(acaricides target ticks, nematocides target nematodes, etc.).
Pesticides can also be organized by their chemical class. A pesticide class is a group of
pesticidal compounds that share a common chemistry. For example, all pesticides in the class
organophosphate (OP) are derivatives of phosphoric acid, and all pesticides in the class organo
chlorine are composed of carbon, chlorine. When discussing a pesticide, it is possible to refer to
the pesticidal compound itself or to the pesticide product or formulation. The compound itself is
also known as the active ingredient—the chemical responsible for killing the target pest. The
formulation is the manner in which the active ingredient is delivered. Typical formulations
include liquids, dusts, wettable powders, and emulsifiable concentrates. The pesticide
formulation includes the active ingredient as well as other ingredients. These other ingredients
may be inert, such as talcum powder, or they can act to enhance the pesticidal properties of the
active ingredient. For example, some pesticide formulations include a synergist that enhances the
toxic activity of the active ingredient. Other ingredients in many pesticide formulations are
solvents. When considering the potential health effects of pesticides, it is important to consider
the toxicity of the active ingredient as well as the other ingredients in the formulation. This is
often a daunting task. Clinical reports of pesticide poisoning provide clues about the toxicity of
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the pesticide formulation or product, while controlled experiments involving laboratory animals
may include the formulation or just the active ingredient alone.
Ethiopia is endowed with unique habitats that harbor many endemic species of plants with the
6500-7000 species of vascular plants in Ethiopia, 12% are endemic (1). Ethiopia is well known
for its significant geographical diversity that favors the formation of different habitat and
vegetation zones (2). Birbira (Milletia ferruginea) is an indigenous plant species found only in
Ethiopia. It is endemic to Ethiopia and widely distributed in the country. It occurs generally
between 1000-2500 m above sea level. The genus Milletia (Leguminosae, Papilonoideae)
constitutes about 200 species in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Australia. It is
commonly used as a fish toxicant.
Using poisons is an age-old method of capturing fish worldwide; the most commonly used
chemical being rotenone. This method has been exercised for ages are poisoning the fish with
powders of birbira seeds (2).
Rotenone is responsible for its toxicity, In developing countries, the losses of crops due to pest,
plant disease and competition from weeds is great (4). Pesticide produced to kill these pests in
order to prevent these damages, and also tend to have adverse effects on humans in various ways
most especially those produced from synthetic materials. Synthetic chemical pesticides are
chemical substances or mixtures used to control pests, including insects, fungi, molds and weed
plant species (5). The synthetic pesticide causes toxicological and environmental problems.
However, birbira compound shows fewer side effects than convectional insecticides. It provides
ecologically sound methods to control fungal and bacterial diseases. birbira based pesticides are
suitable for use in developing countries because the use full chemicals can be easily removed
from the birbira without the use of expensive and complicated equipment. Birbira pesticides are
also systemic and do not induce pest resurgence unlike other synthetic insecticides. Every part of
birbira tree has also pesticide applications. Birbira products are naturally available materials,
cheaper, and also safe for beneficial organisms. There are several methods to obtain birbira oil
from the seeds like mechanical pressing, supercritical fluid extraction, and solvent extraction.
Mechanical extraction is the most widely used method to extract birbira oil from birbira seed (6).
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1.1 Statement of Problem

From current estimate of 100 million Ethiopia’s population; Over 85 percent live in rural areas
and depend on agriculture for food and the challenge of providing enough food and will remain
one of the most pressing and urgent problems in Ethiopia. This is an alarming situation calling
for an integrated approach towards increasing food production, productivity, and protection both
in the field and after harvest. On the other hand, the efforts to increase food production and
protection should be in a way that does not affect public health and the environment adversely.
The impacts of pesticides in Ethiopia are much more aggravated by the limited knowledge
among users on safe practice, toxicological and chemical properties of these substances. Even
worse, less is known about the long term and indirect effects of pesticides on rural and urban
communities as well as on local and national food production. Botanical pesticides are often
active against a limited number of species, biodegradable to non-toxic products and with
minimal persistence in the environment in their nature. Therefore, the use of green pesticides in
food crop pest protection globally seems to be the best resort of the day in organic food
production
1.2. Objectives
1.2.1. General objective

 The general objective of this project was Producing pesticide from Birbira seed
1.2.2. Specific objective

 Identifying best extracting solvent for birbira oil.
 Studying the effect of particle size on the extraction process of birbira oil.
 Studying the effect of time on the extraction process of birbira oil
 Studying the effect of moisture content of birbira seed on extraction process.
 Characterizing some parameters of the oil.
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1.3. The scope of the study

Our study only tries to show the production and use of pesticide from birbira plant seed .using
different solvents (n-hexane, toluene and acetone). To crude extract of birbira and study toxicity
by directly contacting with insects with different concentration of cured extract of birbira with
tap water. The study is performed in Hawassa university chemical engineering laboratory.
1.4. Significance of the study

This project will have a great influence regarding to upgrading the economy and give a good
approach for our country especially for farmers. The ultimate goal of this project is to provide
and support the agricultural sector with an effective pesticide that can be produced by simple
method and endemic plant species. The pesticide will help the farmer to grow various types of
crops without compromising the previous total crop production by using the harmful chemical
pesticide, basically having similar or much better returns with a much lesser inputs. This project
gives the farmers awareness of the agricultural, social, economic and environmental impact of
using bio pesticide. All these significances contribute to the total economic growth of the
country.
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Chapter Two
Literature review
2. over view of Birbira plant

Birbira, Milletia ferruginea is an indigenous plant species found only in Ethiopia. It is endemic to
Ethiopia and widely distributed in the country (4). It occurs generally between 1000-2500 m
above sea level and in the region where water is easily accessible such as streams or in rain
forests (8). The genus Milletia consist about 200 species. It is distributed in the tropical and
subtropical countries belong to Africa, Asia and Australia (9). The Birbira tree is used for fish
poisoning where mature pod and seed are ground to fine powder and is spread over the surface of
water. Furthermore, the tree is extensively used as shade for coffee (Coffee Arabica) in Harare
region, eastern Ethiopia. Rotenone is one of the dominant compounds found in the seed and stem
bark of M. ferruginea (4). Reports indicate that retinoid have been used as insecticides since
1848, when they were applied to plants to control leaf eating caterpillars. It has both contact and
stomach poison to insects and is sold as concentrated spray (4). Birbira has been observed to be
very effective in controlling insect pests and the present study also focuses on how effective
could be the Birbira plant materials compared to other plant materials (4). Birbira has the ability
to reproduce after cutting and to regrow its can occupy after pollarding. Thus it is highly suited
for pole production.
2.1. Reproduction
The tree is easily propagated-both sexually and vegetative. It can be planted using seeds,
seedlings, saplings, root suckers, or tissue culture. However, it is normally grown from seed,
either planted directly on the site or transplanted as seedlings from a nursery. The seeds are fairly
easy to prepare. It drops from the trees by itself; the pulp, when wet, can be removed by rubbing
against a coarse surface; and (after washing with water) then it will be clean. It is reputed that
Birbira seeds are not viable for long. It is generally considered that after 2-6 months in storage
they will no longer germinate. However, some recent observations of seeds that had been stored
in France indicated that seeds without endocarp had an acceptable germinated capacity (42
percent) after more than 5 years.
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2.2. Distribution of Birbira plant in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is located in the tropical region as a result the weather condition makes suitable
environment for the growth of Birbira tree. This plant is known to have two subspecies, namely,
ferruginae and darasana. Sub species ferruginae is known to occur at northern part of Ethiopia
within the range of 1,000 and 2,500 m above sea level, while subspecies darassana is located in
the southern part of the country (particularly in Sidamo) within the range of 1,600 and 2,500 m
above sea level. The hybrid of the two subspecies believed to be found in the central and western
part of Ethiopia, According to the flora of Ethiopia, Millettia ferruginea found in the following
regions: subspecies ferruginea; Tigray, Gondar, Gojam, Shewa, Welega and Harerga. The
subspecies darassana is commonly found in Welega, Shewa, Harega, Bale, Elubabor, Kefa and
Sidamo (3).
Fig 2.1 Birbira tree and seed
2.3. Special Properties of Birbira tree

M. ferruginea is an indigenous plant species found only in Ethiopia. The tree is umbrella-shaped
or flat-topped, and grows up to a height of 25 m to 35 m (4). The trunk of Birbira is mostly
straight, with smooth grey bark. Short brown or golden hairs cover some surfaces of the flowers,
fruits and leaves. Flowering period usually extends from the end of February to the end of
March. Its fruits are normally abundant from early June to end of December. Mostly from
January to February, seeds are usually released by mechanical or explosive mechanisms from the
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pod to the ground. Compound leaves up to 40 cm long; leaflets up to 9 × 2.5 cm; but smaller
ones maybe as small as 3 × 1 cm. Leaflets generally are larger towards the end of the leaf.
Flowers in groups up to 30 cm long including a stem of 5-10 cm (4). The flowers can be white to
pink or rose in color. The pods of the Birbira are large and sometimes open with a loud popping
sound. Pod flat, up to 27 × 3 cm, with 5 to 10 seeds (4). The seed is dark red too range color,
somewhat like flattened disk or almost square with rounded corners.
2.4. Birbira and Environment

Birbira tree is well adapted to stress conditions. It is also known to increase soil fertility, water
holding capacity and nitrogen fixing. Thus the large scale plantation of birbira tree helps to
combat desertification, deforestation, soil erosion and to reduce excessive global warming.
Birbira tree is also used as the sheds for crop, banana, and coffee. Today, modern societies, finds
themselve confounded in the web of their creation, are willing to revert to nature for remedies
and birbira tree provides a promising means in this matter. Birbira has high rate of
photosynthesis and liberates more oxygen than many other tree species, thus it helps to purify the
atmosphere. A marked impact on the areas of micro climate, micro flora, micro fauna and sand
soil properties were noticed. Birbira wood is durable and termite resistant and thus used in
making poles for house construction, furniture etc. In rural part of Ethiopia, birbira is a good
source of firewood and fuel. Its charcoal has high calorific value. Birbira has the ability to
reproduce after cutting and to grow its canopy after pollarding. Thus it is highly suited for pole
production.
2.5. Birbira and Agriculture

Approximately one third of world’s agricultural food stuffs get destroyed by more than 20,000
species of pests. In Ethiopia, pest infestation results in the loss of about million birr worth of
agricultural product every year. To prevent this loss, large amounts of synthetic pesticides are
applied, out of which only 0.1% reaches the target pests and more than 99% contaminates the
ecosystem (10). In addition, synthetic pesticide usage has resulted in development of resistant
pests. Cost-effective, nontoxic, biodegradable, eco-friendly and botanical ‘soft-pesticides’ are the
need of present day agriculture as an alternative to hazardous and recalcitrant synthetic
pesticides. Birbira is regarded as the most reliable source of eco-friendly bio pesticide. The
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insecticides from birbira are non-phytotoxic with good shelf life and effective against a wide
range of insects and pests. Birbira products are effective against more than 350 species of
arthropods, 12 species of nematodes, 15 species of fungi, tick, two species of snails and one
crustacean species.
The dependency on synthetic chemicals during early and middle twentieth century has prompted
the large scale synthesis of newer chemicals. Many times, the side effects of the synthetic
pesticides are more serious than problems to themselves. They are also known to cause health
problems in farmers of both developed and developing countries.
2.6. Veterinary uses of Birbira

Birbira has a wide range of uses such as, biological activities like antiviral, antimicrobial are
traditional uses of the African Milletia species (fabaceae). The soil near Birbira tree is found to
be rich in nutrient. As a nitrogen-fixing species, birbira has been integrated with crops and coffee
growing in Ethiopia. Birbira extracts having anti-tumoral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
antiviral properties are used successfully to treat stomach worms, ulcers, coetaneous diseases,
intestinal helminthiasis. All parts of birbira viz., gum, bark, leaves, fruits, seeds are used to treat
animals. Birbira leaves have been mainly used as antiviral agents against vaccine, variola, foul
fox and new castle disease viruses. The hot infusion of leaves is used to treat swollen glands,
bruises and sprains. Bark is effective against coetaneous diseases (11). Seed and kernel oil are
used as antiseptic, antifungal and antibacterial agents. Birbira oil hasn’t hyperglycemic effect.
Alcohol and aqueous extracts of flowers of birbira exhibits lethal effect against cattle filarial
parasite Seteria cervix. Livestock insects such as maggots, horn flies, blowflies and biting flies
are controlled traditionally using birbira. Birbira leaves contain appreciable amount of proteins,
minerals, carotene and adequate amount of trace minerals except zinc. They also have
appreciable amount of digestible crude proteins (DCP) and total digestible nutrients (TDN). Thus
cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep, camel are fed with birbira leaves. Birbira oil which is rich in long
chain fatty acids is used in poultry feed. De oiled birbira seed cake is rich in essential amino
acids, crude proteins, fiber contents, Sulphur and nitrogen. The processed cake has good
appetizer and wormicidal activity and can be used as an excellent poultry feed (11).
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2.7. Traditional use of Birbira

Ethiopian fisher uses the grained seed and spread it to water and it posing the fish these help
them to easily catch many fish as possible within short period of time it make their life easier and
sat factorial.
2.8. Birbira as excellent source of pesticide

Birbira Contains different active compound such as Salannin, Meliantriol, limonoids and the
main active ingredient rotenone. It exhibits anti feed ant, insect repellent and insect sterilization
properties. Insects treated with rotenone during the larval and pupa stages, comprising 89 to 93
percent of their lives, generally die within 3 up to 7days (11). Unlike chemical insecticides, it
works on the insect’s hormonal system, not on the digestive or nervous system, and it is claimed
that this does not lead to development of resistance in future generations. Because rotenone had a
multi-modal action, it is unlikely that an insect species would develop resistance based on one
mode of action. But in most synthetic pesticides with operating on the insect’s nervous system
and resistance to one chemical leads to resistance to all others with the same reaction path.
A. Limonoids, So far, at least nine birbira limonoids have demonstrated an ability to block insect
growth, affecting a range of species that includes some of the deadliest pests of agriculture and
human health. New limonoids are still being discovered in birbira, but rotenone, salannin,
meliantriol, are the best known and, for now at least, seem to be the most significant.
B. Meliantriol, Another feeding inhibitor, meliantriol, is able, in extremely low concentrations,

to cause insects to cease eating. The demonstration of its ability to prevent locusts chewing on
crops was the first scientific proof for birbira traditional use for insect control on crops.
C. Salannin, Yet a third triter penoid isolated from birbira is salannin. Studies indicate that this
compound also powerfully inhibits feeding, but does not influence insect molts. The migratory
locust, California red scale, striped cucumber beetle, houseflies, and the Japanese beetle have
been strongly deterred in both laboratory and field tests.
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D. Rotenone, is crystalline, slightly soluble in water, poisonous chiefly as active ingredient of

certain insecticide and in medicine in the treatment of chigger of several tropical plants such as
jewel vine, lace pod and hoary pea. It is also found in the genera Milletia. One of the source of
rotenone from Ethiopian plat is M. ferruginea(1). Rotenone is known to be safe to the farmers,
since it is known to be toxic only to cold-blooded animals and less toxic to warm-blooded
creatures. Rotenone is not stable in air, light and alkaline conditions. It is rapidly broken down in
soil and water. Therefore, almost all toxicity may be lost after 2–3 days of summer exposure, so
it is good for the environment and safe for agricultural sector (6). Rotenone is a selective, non-
specific botanical insecticide with some acidic properties. Rotenone is used in home gardens for
insect control, for lice and tick control on pets, and for fish eradications as part of water body
management. Rotenone is a rotenoid plant extract obtained from such species asbarbasco, cub,
haiari, nekoe, and timbo. These plants are members of the pea (Leguminosae) family. Rotenone
containing extracts are taken from the roots, seeds, and leaves of the various plants. The amount
of rotenone of the seed is 0.701+0.02% it can be used as pesticide if production and application
method is well developed.
2.9. Pesticides in environment

Pesticide is a chemical substance that kill or retard the growth of pests which damage or interfere
with the growth of crops, shrubs, trees, timber and other vegetation desired by humans.
Practically all chemical pesticides, however, are poisons and pose long-term danger to the
environment and humans through their persistence in nature or body tissue. Most of the
pesticides are non-specific and may kill life forms that are harmless or useful (12). Pesticides
sprayed onto crops reach their targets, the rest enter the atmosphere by spray drift, volatilization
from soil or water, surface run off, biotransformation by microorganisms, plants, animals, bio
magnification through food chain and photodecomposition. One of the major environmental
aspects is the effect of sunlight that may lead to various photo processes and to photo products
which are mostly different from parent pesticides in the environmental properties and
toxicological significance. The quantum of light energy emitted from the radiation is absorbed by
pesticides in environment and this raises the energy state of the molecule, causes excitation of
electrons leading to formation or disruption of chemical bonds.
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2.10. Synthetic Pesticides Vs Natural Pesticides

Pests refer to the living organisms that occur unwanted or cause damage to the crops. Insects,
mice and other animals, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, and prison etc. are included in pests. By definition, according to Food and Agricultural
Organization [FAO]) and the World Health Organization, pesticide is a substance or mixture of
substances intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or to mitigate any pest including unwelcome
species of plants or animals; during production and storage, transportation, distribution and
elaboration of food; agricultural products or food for animals; or that may be administered to
animals to fight eco parasite. The thermal so includes herbicides and compounds used as growth
regulators, insecticides, fungicides, defoliants, desiccants, and inhibitors of fruit thinning and
germination. Pesticides include wide variety of components and display a broad spectrum of
chemical properties (bio pesticide industryalliance.org). Pesticides are classified in different
ways. According to the source of origin, they may be of synthetic (Chemical) or natural (bio-
pesticide). Another way of naming of pesticides is directly by the type of pests they control, e.g.
 Algaecides to control algae
 Antifouling agents to kill or repel organisms that attach to underwater surfaces
 Antimicrobials to kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses).
 Molluscicides to kill snails and slugs,
 Ovicides to kill eggs of insects and mites.
 Pheromones to disrupt the mating behavior of insects.
 Repellents to repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds.
2.10.1. Synthetic Pesticides

Chemical pesticides are usually classified by their common source or production method. There
are four basic types of chemical pesticides that are most commonly used-
(I) Organophosphate pesticides

(II) Carbonate pesticides
(III) Oregano chlorine pesticides
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(IV) Pyrethroids pesticides.
Both organophosphate and carbonate pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting the
enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. DDT and chlordane are examples of
organochlorides which have been removed from the market due to their health, environmental
effect and their persistence. Pyrethrin, a natural pesticide, is obtained from chrysanthemums.
Pyrethroids pesticides are developed synthetic products of Pyrethrin. Organochlorides (DDT,
diel Drin and Aldrin) have high persistence in the environment of up to about 15 years.
Organophosphates (parathion, carbaryl and Malathion) have an intermediate persistence of
several months Carbonates (Tenik, Zectran and Zineb) have a low persistence of around two
weeks. Synthetic Pyrethroids are non-persistent, contact and residual acting insecticides
(cypermethrin, permethrin) and are suitable for a wide range of crops and target insects. Most
pesticides are broadspectrum, that is they kill all insects in a certain area and may kill other
animals like birds and small mammals.
2.10.2. Natural Pesticides

A bio-pesticide, according to FAO definition is - a compound that kills organisms by virtue of
specific biological effects rather than a broader chemical poison. Differ from bio control agents
in being passive agents, whereas bio control agents actively seek the pest. The idea behind
replacing conventional pesticides with bio-pesticides is that the latter are more likely to be
selective and biodegradable. Bio-pesticides are derived from natural materials like animals,
plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, garlic, pyrethrum, rotenone, mint, neem,
papaya, canola oil etc. have pesticide applications and are considered bio-pesticides. Almost all
bio pesticides are categorized among the following three major groups such as
(I) microbial pesticides

(II) Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs) or Botanical Pesticides
(III) biochemical pesticides
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), at the end of 1998,
there were approximately 175 registered bio-pesticide active ingredients and 700 products. At
the end of 2001, there were approximately 195 registered bio-pesticide active ingredients and
780 products. The most commonly used bio-pesticides are living organisms (bacteria, viruses
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and fungi) which are pathogenic for the pest of interest. These include bio fungicides
(Trichoderma), bio herbicides (Phytopthora) and bio insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis) (11).
2.11. Advantages and disadvantages of bio pesticides and chemical pesticides

Botanical pesticides also offer various means of combating insects resistant to products currently
available. Almost all synthetic pesticides rely on neurotoxin agents, meaning they attack the
nervous system of insects. But tropical plants have over time developed literally Pesticides in the
Modern World – Pesticides Use and Management 194 thousands of weapons that kill insects in
other ways. For example, the makabuhay vine, which grows in the Philippines, burns insects
using a chemical that absorbs sunlight. Synthetic pesticides are rapidly losing their effectiveness.
To date, hundreds of insect species have developed resistance to at least one pesticide formula
and a dozen or so species are immune to them all. Some scientists fear that pesticide
manufacturers will eventually be unable to outwit insects. Chemical pesticides do suffer from
several disadvantages due to these the use of bio-pesticides is preferred. Some of the
disadvantages associated with the chemical pesticides are
I. Environmental pollution
II. Creating health hazards due to the presence of the pesticide residues in food, fiber and
fodder
III. Development of resistance by the insects.
According to World Health Organization estimates, up to 20,000 people die of pesticide

poisoning in the Third World each year. Some synthetic pesticides are accumulating in soil and
groundwater where they threaten the health of entire ecosystems. In contrast, bio-pesticides offer
several advantages over synthetic pesticides which include;-
 Less harmful because bio-pesticides do not leave harmful residues.
 Generally target one specific pest or a small number of related pests in contrast to broad
spectrum chemical pesticides which affect, apart from the pest, other beneficial insects, birds,
mammals or non-target species.
 Effective in smaller quantities, decompose quickly and do not cause environmental problems.
When used in Integrated Pest Management programs, bio-pesticides can greatly reduce the use of
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conventional pesticides, while the crop yield remains high. Bio-pesticides are often cheaper than
chemical pesticides.
2.12 Toxicity measure of pesticides

Chemicals can have a wide range of effects on our health. Depending on how the chemical will
be used, many kinds of toxicity tests may be required. Since different chemicals cause different
toxic effects, comparing the toxicity of one with another is hard. We could measure the amount
of a chemical that causes kidney damage, for example, but not all chemicals will damage the
kidney. We could say that nerve damage is observed when 10 grams of chemical A is
administered, and kidney damage is observed when 10 grams of chemical B is administered.
However, this information does not tell us if A or B is more toxic because we do not know which
damage is more critical or harmful.
Therefore, to compare the toxic potency or intensity of different chemicals, researchers must
measure the same effect. One way is to carry out lethality testing (the LD 50 tests) by measuring
how much of a chemical is required to cause death. This type of test is also referred to as a
"quantal" test because it is measures an effect that "occurs" or "does not occur".
LD stands for "Lethal Dose". LD50 is the amount of a material, given all at once, which causes
the death of 50% (one half) of a group of test animals. The LD50 is one way to measure the short-
term poisoning potential (acute toxicity) of a material. Toxicologists can use many kinds of
animals but most often testing is done with rats and mice. It is usually expressed as the amount
of chemical administered (e.g., milligrams) per 100 grams (for smaller animals) or per kilogram
(for bigger test subjects) of the body weight of the test animal. The LD50 can be found for any
route of entry or administration but dermal (applied to the skin) and oral (given by mouth)
administration methods are the most common.
Based on this information, pesticides can be placed in to four categories I, II, III, IV-Each with
an appropriate signal word or words to indicate the level of toxicity.
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Category I. contains signal word – Danger/poison.in addition a skull and cross bones symbol is
required on labels for all category I pesticides, which are described as highly toxic. These
pesticides have LD50 range of 0 to 50mg/kg
Category II. Contains signal word – warning. Pesticides in this category are described as
moderately toxic and have LD50 range of 50 to 500mg/kg.
Category II. Contains signal word – caution .these are slightly toxic pesticides with LD50 range
of 500 to 5000mg/kg.
Category IV. Contains signal word – caution. These are very low toxicity pesticides that have
LD50 greater than 5000mg/kg.
From the above category rotenone substance has LD50 value of 350mg/kg value therefore it can
be used to make a moderate toxic pesticide.
2.13. Method of Extraction

Extraction is the withdrawing of active agent or a waste substance from solid or liquid mixture
with a liquid solvent. The solvent is not or only partial miscible with the solid or the liquid by
intensive contact the active agent transfer from the solid or liquid mixture (affiant) into the
solvent (extract). After mixing the two phases are separated which happens either by gravity or
centrifugal force. For recovery of the solvent and to get the active agent in pure form furthers
separation process is necessary (rectification or re-extraction)
2.13.1. Traditional extraction method of birbira seed

Birbira oil can be extracted traditionally at home using cold pressed extraction by hand and
around 100 to 150 mgs of oil for every 1 kilogram of birbira seed. To press birbira oil by hand,
the kernels of the birbira seed should be crushed in a mill or pound in a mortar. Then by adding a
small amount of water until the mixture forms a firm paste that can be kneaded. Knead the paste
until oil drops form on the surface and press firmly to extract the oil. The kneading and pressing
should be continued in turn until the maximum amount of oil is removed. The oil content of the
seed kernel is about 25%, even though preparation of the oil at home possible but it is very time
killing and energy consuming [11].
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2.13.2. Mechanical Extraction

Mechanical extraction is physical extraction; it involves crushing of seed to extract oil and
Common method used to extract the birbira oil from the seed, since this method is effective for
seed containing 30-70% oil. The mechanical extraction has several advantages compared to other
methods, such as simple equipment and low investment, low operating cost, and usually the
quality and quantity of the oil obtained by mechanical extraction. However, the oil produced
with this method usually has a low price, since it’s turbid and contains a significant amount of
water and metals contents. Mechanical methods are the oldest methods of oil extraction from the
three modern methods.
2.13.3. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

This technique uses supercritical fluid (SF) as an extraction tool for "drawing out” the organic
compounds from solid matrices. Commonly used for this purpose is CO2, as it has relatively low
critical temperature (310C) and low critical pressure (73 kPa) (6). It is not reactive and is
accessible in a high degree of purity at low cost. Changes in temperature and pressure at which
the supercritical CO2 is held will increase or decrease the "strength" of solvent and thus the
selectivity of extraction performed. At constant temperature which exceeds critical temperature,
the supercritical CO2 will be able to extract analyses of low polarity at low pressure, and high
polarity analyses at high-pressure. SFE with CO2 is usually performed at pressures that are not
high enough to achieve efficient extraction of polar compounds (6).
2.13.4. Solvent Extraction

Solvent Extraction is a process which involves extracting oil from oil-bearing materials by
treating it with Solvent which has a lower boiling point compared to the oil extracted. This
differs from extracting the oils by mechanical pressing methods (such as expellers, hydraulic
presses, etc.).The solvent extraction method recovers almost all the oils and leaves behind only
0.5% to 0.7% residual Oil in the raw material (14).
2.13.5. Comparison between the three most commonly used methods

Solvent extraction, supercritical CO2 and mechanical extraction (screw press and batch hydraulic
pressing) can be compared and evaluated under three main parameters: environmental, economic
and oil yield. The method of extraction by supercritical CO2 is still relatively new and is not
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widely used in commercial scale for the extraction of vegetable oils. It has the advantage of
presenting a pure oil, without the presence of solvent used. The oil yield is close to that obtained
via solvent extraction and quality, close to that obtained via screw press methods. Studies are
still being made in order to optimize the process and reduce costs. Its disadvantage is that it
consume high energy to operate the equipment, due to the complexity of the system skilled labor
is necessary, high investment is needed and it needs large space to operate. The great advantage
of mechanical methods is not using any kind of chemicals, producing a crude oil with high
quality and ready for consumption and other important advantages are low cost of acquisition of
equipment, low power consumption for the operations and do not need skilled manpower.
Despite the environmental advantages, the economics is unfavorable, since the facilities have
lower costs than those in the chemical process. Its disadvantage is low oil yield and turbid can
make the process unprofitable. The traditional method of processing oil was not effective on
percent yield. The use of solvent extraction for the extraction of oil is generally the preferred. It
has several advantages over the other methods, it gives higher yield and less turbid oil than
mechanical extraction, and relative low operating cost compared with supercritical fluid
extraction (13).
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Chapter Three
Material and methods
3.1. Equipment Used in Laboratory

1. Drying oven 2. Electronic balance
3. Miller/mortar 4. Sieve
5. Borosilicate Glasses 6. Test tube
7. Thimble 8. Plate
9. Beak 10. Dropper
11. Water bath 12. Thermometer
13. Soxhlet chamber 14. Boiling Glass
15. Storage of seed and storage of extracted oil are used for extraction and determination of
physio-chemical properties of the oil.
3.2. Chemicals
n-hexane, acetone, and Toluene are used for extraction of oil from powdered birbira seed.
Ethanol sodium hydroxide, distilled water and phenolphthalein indicators are used for
determination of acid value and other parameters.
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3.3 Methods of Extraction
3.3.1 Soxhlet extraction procedure

150ml of solvent was poured into round bottom flask. 26g of the sample was placed in the
thimble and was inserted in the center of the extractor. The Soxhlet was adjusted to the solvents
boiling temperature .This was allowed to continue for specified hours. The experiment was
repeated by placing the same amount of the sample into the thimble again by varying solvent,
particle sizes, moisture content and different extraction time. The weight of oil extracted was
determined for each experiment. At the end of the extraction, the resulting mixture (miscella)
containing the oil was heated by water bath to remove solvent from the oil.
Fig 3.1 Schematic description and pictorial setup of the Soxhlet apparatus
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
2: Still pot (extraction pot) - still pot should not be overfilled and the volume of solvent in the
still pot should be 3 to 4 times the volume of the soxhlet chamber.
3: Distillation path
4: Soxhlet thimble
5: Extraction solid (residue solid)
6: Siphon arm inlet
7: Siphon arm outlet
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8: Expansion adapter
9: Condenser
10: Cooling water in
11: Cooling water out
After the extraction the percent yield of oil is calculated as follow:
%oil yield =
Where m1 is mass of sample before extraction and M2 is mass of residue after extraction and
drying
3.4 Mechanism of Mass Transfer in Solvent Extraction

The transfer of soluble material from a particle by the actions of a solvent is termed leaching or
percolation. Leaching is a complex mechanism involving the transfer of the solvent to the
surface of the solid particles, penetration of the solvent into the solid, dissolution of the solute
into the solvent, diffusion of the solute into the solvent and transfer of the solute to the bulk
solvent (Adu-Amankwa, 2006). Based on the different phenomena for the leaching process, it
becomes virtually impractical to use any one theory to explain or describe the leaching activity.
The dissolution of a sample from the solid to the liquid phase depends on the rate of mass
transfer from the solid surface to the solvent as the controlling factor. The mass transfer rate of a
solute A being dissolved in a solvent of volume V (m3) is;
Where, NA is the kg/mol of A dissolving to the solution per second,
a = inter-surface area of the particles (m2),
kL = mass transfer coefficient (m/s),
CAS = saturation solubility of the solute (kg/mol/m3)
CA = time dependent concentration of the solute.
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The rate of accumulation of A into the solvent by material balance is:
By integration of equation (2) for t = 0, CA = CA0 = 0, t = tf, CA = CAS, we have
OR
These equations aid in the understanding and calculation of the process of leaching of oil or
liquid from a solid substance using a solvent.
3.5. Procedure for characterization birbira oil
3.5.1. Specific gravity of the oil:

The density of the oil is determined using the specific gravity. The specific gravity of extracted
oil is calculated based on the procedure.
Weight of beaker measured was 182.4g
Weight of oil with beaker = 191.3g
Weight of oil =8.9g
Equal volume of water was measured.
Weight of water with beaker = 192.4g
Weight of water = 192.4g - 182.4g =10g
Specific gravity of the oil = (mass of oil/ mass of water)
3.5.2. PH of the oil:

The PH is determined by dropping sample of birbira oil in litmus paper and looking the value of
PH.
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3.5.3. Acid value

The method that used to determine the acid value is by titration. The preparation of 20ml of
ethanol and 3 drops of phenolphthalein is mixed in the 250ml beaker. After that 2ml of oil was
poured in to the mixed solution and was stirred for a few minute. The mixture was titrated by
0.1M solution of NaOH. Then the acid value is calculated as
V=volume of sodium hydroxide
W=mass of the oil
M=molarity of sodium hydroxide
3.5.4. Toxicity of the pesticide

The toxicity of the pesticide will be checked by applying it on grasshoppers in different
concentration.
3.6. How the produced pesticide will work
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Fig 3.2 Production flow diagram of birbira pesticide
3.6.1. For insects

Rotenone is the most active substance. It reduces insect feeding and acts as a repellent. It also
interferes with insect hormone systems, making it harder for insects to grow and lay eggs.
Birbira oil has many complex active ingredients. Rather than being simple poisons, those
ingredients are similar to the hormones that insects produce. Insects take up the birbira oil
ingredients just like natural hormones. Birbira enters the system and blocks the real hormones
from working properly. Insects "forget" to eat, to mate, or they stop laying eggs. Some forget
that they can fly. If eggs are produced they don't hatch, or the larvae don't moult. Obviously
insects that are too confused to eat or breed will not survive. The population eventually
plummets, and they disappear. The cycle is broken. Insects must eat the treated plant to be killed.
Therefore, bees and other pollinators are not likely to be harmed.
The growing accumulation of experience demonstrates that birbira products work by intervening
at several stages of an insect's life. The ingredients from this tree approximate the shape and
structure of hormones vital to the lives of insects. The bodies of these insects absorb the birbira
compounds as if they were the real hormones, but this only blocks their endocrine systems. The
resulting deep-seated behavioral and physiological aberrations leave the insects so confused in
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brain and body that they cannot reproduce and their populations plummet. Increasingly,
approaches of this kind are seen as desirable methods of pest control: pests don't have to be
killed instantly if their populations can be incapacitated in ways that are harmless to people and
the planet as a whole. Birbira seed extracts are known to act on various insects in the following
ways:
 Disrupting or inhibiting the development of eggs, larvae, or pupae
 Blocking the molting of larvae or nymphs
 Disrupting mating and sexual communication
 Repelling larvae and adults
 Deterring females from laying eggs
 "Sterilizing adults;" Poisoning larvae and adults
 Deterring feeding
 Blocking the ability to "swallow" (that is, reducing the motility of the gut);" Sending
metamorphosis awry at various stages
 Inhibiting the formation of chitin.
3.6.2. Effects on Beneficial Insects

Birbira seems remarkably benign to spiders, butterflies, and insects such as bees that pollinate
crops and trees, ladybugs that consume aphids and wasps that act as parasites on various crop
pests. In the main, this is because birbira products must be ingested to be effective. Thus, insects
that feed on plant tissues succumb, while those that feed on nectar or other insects rarely contact
significant concentrations of birbira products
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Chapter Four
Results and discussion

This project work was intended to investigate the influence of different factors such as, solvent
type, Particle sizes, moisture content and time on the quantity of birbira oil. Variability of these
operating conditions is the pre-dominant factors for the quantity and quality of the oil yield. In
addition we have tried to study some characters of the extracted oil. There are different methods
for oil extraction from birbira seed. In the study, soxhlet extraction method was selected.
4.1 Selection of solvent type for birbira oil extraction

In this study, the performance of three extracting solvents (n-hexane, toluene, and acetone) was
evaluated. Extraction is the ability of a solute to distribute itself between an aqueous solution and
an immiscible organic solvent. The organic solvent separates and purifies the solutes by
extracting into the organic phase, leaving undesirable substances in the solid phase. The
extractability of oil depends on the nature of the solvent and oil, extraction temperature and time,
contact time between solvent and the feed, pre-treatment conditions of the oil bearing seed. Key
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properties such as solubility are necessary to evaluate the solvent performance. The objective of
this study was to evaluate the oil yield of the three solvents.
Table 4.1 Effect of solvent
Trial Type of solvent Extraction time(hr) %oil yield
1 Hexane 3 40.8%
2 Acetone 3 31.5%
3 Toluene 3 18.5%
From the study we have observed that hexane solvent has good ability to extract birbira oil with
sufficient quantity and good quality and then acetone but, with low quality of oil.
4.2 The effect of particle size

The size that we have used was ˂ 355µm, 355-750µm and ˃1mm. in the solid liquid extraction
the particle size decrease the oil yield also increase and vise verse. Because the particle size
increases the contacting surface will be high the yield or the amount of oil will become high. But
in our project we have seen as the size particle becomes smaller (˂ 355µm) the oil yield decrease
due to the birbira powder in the thimble become compact and the solvent can’t pass through the
powder and extracting the oil is imposible. Result shows from the table soxhele extraction using
hexane the size changed from 355-750µm to ˂ 355µm the oil yield decrease from 39.78 % to
26.8% and the size changed from 355-750µm to ˃1mm the oil yield decrease from 39.78% to
19.3%.
Table 4.2 Effect of particle size
Trial Particle size Time taken(hr) % yield
1 ˂ 355µm 3 26.8%
2 355-750µm 3 39.78%
3 ˃1mm 3 19.3%
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Therefore during extraction process preparing appropriate particle size is very important to get
high quantity oil.
4.3 Effect of Moisture Content on oil yield

The sample was weighted before and after dried by oven and the initial and final mass is
measured the difference in mass gives the individual moisture content by employing the formula;
%of moisture content =
Where, M1 initial mass and M2 final mass after drying
The effect of moisture content on the efficiency of solvent extraction of oil has not been
previously addressed. However, in studies examining the extraction of lipids from other oilseeds,
an intermediate moisture content of 9–11% w/w results in peak oil yields, while higher levels of
moisture were found to interfere with the solvent penetration and oil diffusion as hexane is
highly insoluble in water. Lower feedstock moisture contents have been observed to result in
lower yields due to the reduced solubility of phosphatides in the absence of water.
Table 4.3 Effect of Moisture
Trial Moisture content (%) Time taken %oil yield
1 8 3 35.94%
2 12 3 41.3%
3 15 3 29.25%
From Table 4.3 one can observe that as the moisture content of birbira seed is very high or very
low the oil yiel is also low, so that preparing a seed with moderate moisture content is very
important to get a high amount of birbira extract.
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4.4 The effect of time

The time that we have used was 2, 3, 5 hours. In our project we have seen that as the time
decrease. The oil yield decreases as time increases, because most of the oil is burned due the
reaction of oil with solvents. So at 2, 4 hours the oil that is obtained is high at 2 hours we have
obtained high oil yield and an optimum yield obtain at 4hours. As time increase the product
would convert to biodiesel rather than oil.
Table 4.4 effect of time
Trial Time taken(hr) Moisture content (%) % oil yield
1 2 12 26
2 3 12 41
3 5 12 41.56
In general, the oil yield increased with increase in extraction time there was no considerable
increase after 4 hour because as time increase beyond 4hr the product would convert to biodiesel
rather than oil.
4.5 Result and Discussion on some characters

Specific gravity of the oil
The density of the oil is determined using the specific gravity. The specific gravity of extracted
oil is calculated based on the procedure.
Weight of beaker measured was 182.4g
Weight of oil with beaker = 191.3g
Weight of oil =8.9g
Equal volume of water was measured.
Weight of water with beaker = 192.4g
Weight of water = 192.4g - 182.4g =10g
Specific gravity of the oil = (mass of oil/ mass of water) = 0.89
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PH value
We tried to check the PH value of the extracted oil by using litmus paper and dropping some
amount of oil on it but the litmus paper does not show any change. Therefore the PH of the oil is
between 5 and 6.
Fig 4.1. Testing of PH value
Acid value
From the titration we found that the solution color was turned from yellow to dark pink color. As
we can saw from the figure below there is a color change during titration. We have used 4 g of
NaOH to prepare 0.1M of NaOH. The titration give us the acid value around 0.42 g NaOH/g oil.
Toxicity of the pesticide
To check the toxicity of our pesticide we have prepared three different samples with different
concentrations with water ( 25%, 50% and 75%) of extracted oil.
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Fig 4.2. Testing of pesticide
To observe its effect we cached grasshoppers around our laboratory and then the pest is applied
on them separately for each concentration, after 12 hour of checking all the grasshoppers were
died. Therefore we conclude that our pesticide can kill pests even in small concentration of
birbira oil in water solution.
Chapter Five
Material and Energy Balance
5.1. Material Balance

We have performed all the material balances based on the experimental work in the laboratory.
From the laboratory analysis the following input and output data were found.
W1= weight of the sample before drying =476g
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W2= weight of sample after drying =321.9g
W3 = weight of sample after grinding and drying for 1 hr at 600c =256g
M1=W1-W2/W1*100%,
Where, M1=Moisture of the sample before drying
M1=476g - 321.9g/476*100% =33.5%
M2=W2-W3/W2*100%,
Where M2=Moisture of the sample after drying for 2 hr at 600c
M2=321.9g-256g/478.2*100% =20.05%
Amount of moisture released =M1-M2 = 33.5-20.05 =13.45%/16hr @ 60oc
= 0.840% moisture /hr at 60oc
Amount of weight reduced by drying =W1 -W2
= 476g-321.9g = 154.1g/14hr = 11g/hr
Amount of weight reduced after grinding =W2-W3
= 321.9-256g = 65.9g/hr
Therefore, drying for fine particle is faster than the courser particle
5.1.1. Material Balance on Grinder
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M1 = 321.9g sample (birbira seed). Grinder 449.3g/30minute Weight of sample after draying =
321.9g. The miller can produce fine particle with different particle size in 30 minute, = 449.6g.
The amount of loss is 478.6g-463.3g=15.3g. This sample will be sieved @ three particle sizes for
the sake of our project.
5.1.2. Material Balance on Soxhlet

All material balances had performed based on the experimental work in the laboratory. From the
laboratory analysis the following inputs and outputs data were found.
 26g of birbira seed powder was used for one experiment.

 150ml of hexane and other solvents were used.
 After extraction of oil the mass of insoluble seed cake was 15.4g.
 Full extraction time used was 2 hours.
Total Material Balance
Accumulation= Output + Consumption – Input – Generation
Since there is no reaction the generation and consumption terms are zero and there is no
accumulation
Input = Output + Loss
M1 = 26g sample (birbira powder)
M2 = (150ml solvent).
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M3 = recovered solvent (93.56ml).
M4 = % of oil yield.
Because the rotary evaporator in our laboratory is not working, we have evaporated the solvent
after measuring its amount with the extracted crude oil by using water bath.
% of oil yield (M4) = 100%
M1 = weight of the sample
M2 = weight of the residue of the sample after drying
M4 = *100% = 40.7%
Mass of sample extracted to oil = 26g – 15.4g = 10.6g/2hr
Mass of solvent lost = 150g – 93.56g = 56.44g/2hours.
Mlost= 10.6g + 56.44g = 67.04g/2hours
Mass in =M1 + M2 =26+150 = 176ml (176g)
Mass out = M3 +M4 + Mlost = 93.5g + M4 + 67.04g
M4 = 175g – 160.54g = 14.46g/2hours of oil produced = 7.23g/hour
By assuming the working time is 300 days in a year and 16hr per day
Mass of produced oil = 7.23g of oil /hr * 300day/year * 16hr/day
= 34704g/year = 34.704kg/year
5.2. Energy Balance Calculations

1. Data and Constants used for birbira oil is from [www.scientificjournals.org]
 Specific heat capacity of birbira oil(Cp)=2053J/kg0C

 Specific gravity at 200C = 0.942
 Kinematic viscosity at 400C=0.926mm2/s
2. Data and constants for n-Hexane
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 Specific heat capacity=2.26kJ/kg0C

 Latent heat of vaporization=365kJ/kg
 Mass of solvent used=150ml, assume 1kg=1L,150ml=0.15kg
 Specific gravity at 200c=0.659
 Molecular weight=86.1754
5.2.1. Energy Balance on Soxhlet

Assumption
1. There is no reaction during the extraction
2. No generation and consumption, but loss is considered
The general equation for energy balance is
Energy output = Energy input + Energy generated - Work done - Accumulation
Energy input = Energy output
Heat Balances
Heat in =Heat out
Heat inputs - Heat brought by feed stream
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-Heat brought by solvent
Heat output -Heat taken by condensing water (Qc)
-Heat taken by extract
Qfeed + Qsolvent= Qextract + QC
Qsolvent=Msolvent*LVsolvent
Where, Q = heat brought by hexane
M = mass of hexane used LV= heat energy added to form 1 kg of hexane from liquid to gas at
700C
The heat required to evaporate 150ml n-Hexane can be calculated as:-
Qsolvent = 150g*365kJ/kg
= 0.15kg*365kJ/kg
= 54.75kJ since the extraction process takes place for about 2 hours,
Qsolvent = 54.75kJ/kg/2hr = 27.37kJ/hr
Qextract = Mextract (LV oil + LV n-hexane)
= 7.23g (192kJ/kg+365kJ/kg)
= 0.00723kg (557kJ/kg)
= 4.08kJ
Therefore, the heat required to produce 7.23g of extract is 4.08kJ
Qfeed = Mfeed*Lf = 26g*1208kJ/kg
= 0.0026kg*1208kJ/kg
= 31.408kJ
Qc =Qfeed +Qsolvent - Qextract
= 31.408kJ + 27.37kJ - 4.08kJ
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= 54.648kJ, for 2 hours operation,
Qc =27.324kg/hr
To find mass flow rate of cooling water Qc Cpw∆T
 Assume the cooling water temperature at the condenser is 350C and inlet temperature of
water at initial condition is 00C
QC = MwCpw∆TW, take Cpw = 4.2kJ/kg0C
Mw = Qc /(Cpw* ∆TW)
=27.324KJ/(4.2KJ/kg0C* (35-0)0C)
=27.324kJ/hr/147kJ/kg0C = 0.186kg/hr
Chapter six
Equipment Specification and sizing
6.1 Equipment Specification

1. Oven
Duty: - Removing the moisture content of seed or raw material
Material of construction: - Carbon steel
Required number:- 1
1. Miller
Duty: - To reduce the size or to increase the surface area for extraction.
Type: - Ball miller
Required number: - 1
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2. Sieve
Duty: - Particle size determination
Type: - Laboratory test sieve
Required number:-2
3. Extractor
Duty: -Preparing solution for extraction
Required number:-1
4. Evaporator
Duty: - Removal of solvent from sample
Type: - Rotary evaporator
6 Condenser
Duty: - is to expose water and cool the vapored solvent for ease of recovery.
Type: - Water condenser
7. Pump
Duty: - to move liquid/ solvent
Type: - Centrifugal pump
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6.2 Equipment Sizing

1. Sizing of birbira oil storage tank
Basis: - 16hr/day
The production capacity is 70,000liter/year of birbira oil with plant operating at 300days/year
volumetric flow rate of oil =
= =14.58 liter/hr
Mass flow rate = Density * volumetric flow rate
Where density of birbira oil is 890kg/m3
Mass flow rate = 890kg/m3 * 14.58litter/hr*1m3/1000L = 12.98kg/hr
Volumetric flow of oil = 12.98kg/hr/890kg/m3 = 0.0146m3/hr
Assume oil is stored for 1hr and the tank is 75% full
Volume = 0.0146m3/hr *hr = 0.0146m3
Volume = 0.0146m3/0.75 = 0.0194m3
Therefore, volume of tank = 19.43litter
2. Storage tank for harvested birbira seed
Take the mass of seed = 550kg/hr = 0.1528kg/sec
Density of Seed =1042kg/m3
Volumetric flow = mass flow of seed/ density of seed = 0.1528kg/sec/1042kg/m3
= 1.466*10-4m3/sec
Assuming seed is stored for 1hr and the tank is 75% full
Volume = 1.466*10-4m3/sec*3600sec = 0.5279m3
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Volume = 0.5279m3/0.75 = 0.704m3
3. Storage tank for cake
Take the mass of cake = 340kg/hr =0.0944kg/sec
Density of Cake = 962kg/m3
Volumetric flow = mass flow of cake/density of cake
= 0.0944kg/sec/962kg/m3 = 9.82*10-5m3/sec
Assume cake stored for 1hr the tank is 90%full
Volume = 9.82*10-5m3/sec*3600sec = 0.3534m3
Volume = 0.3534m/0.9 = 0.3927m3
4. Sizing of water storage tank
Take mass of water = 987kg/hr = 0.2742kg/sec
Density of Water =1000kg/m3
Volumetric flow = 0.2742kg/sec/1000kg/m = 2.7417*10-4 m3/sec
Assume water is stored for 1hr the tank is 90% full
Volume = 2.7417*10-4 m3/sec *3600sec = 0.987m3
Volume = 0.987/0.9 = 1.0967m3 = 1096.7L
5. Sizing of hexane storage tank
Take mass flow rate of hexane = 700kg/hr = 0.1944kg/sec
Density of hexane = 660.6kg/m3
Volume of hexane storage tank =
= 2.982*10-4m3/sec
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Assume solvent is stored for 1hr and the tank is 90% full
Volume = 2.944*10-4m3/sec*3600sec = 1.06m3
Volume of the tank is = 1.06m3/0.9 = 1.18m3
6. Sizing of drying oven
Take mass of seed = 500 kg/hr = 0.1388kg/sec
Density of seed = 1042kg/m3
Volumetric flow = =
= 0.48m3/hr
Assume the moisture of the seed is removed for 2hr and the oven is 80% full
Volume = 0.48m3/hr*2hr = 0.96m3
Volume = 0.96m3/0.8= 1.2m3
7. Sizing of grinder
Take mass flow of dry seed = 400kg/hr
Density of dry seed = 1020kg/m3
Volume of grinder = = 400kg/hr/1020kg/m3
= 0.392m3/hr
Assume the seed is grinded for 1hr and the grinder is 75% full
Volume = 0.392m3/hr * 1hr = 0.392m3
Volume = 0.392m3/0.75 = 0.523m3
8. Sizing of sieve
Take the mass of birbira powder = 1200kg/hr
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Density of birbira powder = 986kg/m3
Volumetric flow = (mass flow of powder)/(Density of powder)
= 1200 kg/hr/986kg/m3
= 1.217m3/hr
Assume the sieve operate for 1 hr and it is 80% full
Volume = 1.217m3/hr*1hr = 1.217m3
Volume = 1.217m3/0.8 = 1.521m3
Chapter seven
7 Economic feasibility
Before initiating the development of a process, at various stages in its development and before
attempts the design of a process and plant is the responsibility of the chemical engineer to make
economic evaluation and feasibility analysis. The evaluation determines whether one should
undertake the project, abandon it, continue with it (but with further research) or take it to the
pilot plant stage. Even if insufficient technical information is available to design a plant
completely, we must still make and economic evaluation to determine if it is economically and
financially feasible. A project is economically feasible when it is more profitable than other
competing projects, and financially feasible when management can raise the capital for its
implementation. This project cost estimation is done by using reference book (Timmer Haus) and
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web sites such as www.alibaba.com, www.matche.com, www.sigmaaldrich.com and

www.ika.com/owa/ika
1$=27.25 ETB
Table 7.1 Storage equipment cost Estimation
Equipment name Quantity Capacity(m3) US Dollar ETB

No
1 oil storage tank 1 1.8 1089 29,675.25
2 Solvent storage tank 1 2.9 1254 34,171.5
3 Water storage tank 1 2.2 1155 31,473.75
4 Mixing tank 1 0.45 858 23,380.5
5 Dried seed storage 1 4.5 1496 40,766

tank
6 Fresh seed storage 1 4.5 1496 40,766

tank
7 Total 6 7348 200,233
Table 7.2 Estimation of equipment cost for fluid pump
Identification No Quantity Capacity(m3/hr) US Dollar ETB
Pump1 1 3.4 $300 8,175
Pump2 1 3.3 $270 7,357.5
TOTAL 15,532.5
Table 7.3 Estimation of unit operation equipment cost
No Equipment Quantity Capacity(m3) US Dollar ETB
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name
1 Oven 1 1.59 $1300 35,425
2 Grinders 1 1.65 $250 6,812.5
3 Sieves 2 1.5758 $125 3,406.25
4 Evaporators 1 3.21m2 $7500 204,375
5 Condensers 1 2m2 $8000 218,000
Total 468,018.75
Table 7.4 Man power of the plant (Manning)
No Job Description Number required Salary per month Annual Salary
1 Plant manager 1 8500 102,000
2 Quality Control 1 3000 36,000

service Head
3 Executive 1 2000 24,000

Secretary
4 Planning and 1 3800 45,600
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Programing
5 Administration 1 4000 48,000

Department
6 Production Head 1 4000 48,000
7 Chemical 1 7000 84,000

Engineer
8 Chemists 1 4000 48,000
9 Sales Head 1 4500 54,000
10 Purchase Head 3 4600 55,200
11 Cleaners 3 800 9,600
12 Operators 2 2500 30,000
13 Guards 2 1600 19,200
14 Drivers 3 3200 38,400
15 Daily laborers 6 1700 20,400
Total 640,800
Source: Self developed
7.1 Direct cost calculation (DC):

1. Total purchased equipment cost (PEC):
PEC= 683,784.25birr
2. Purchased equipment installation cost: is (34- 45) % of PEC, by taking 40%PEC
= 0.4* 683,784.25
= 273,513.7 birr
3. Instrumentation and control is (40 -30) % of PEC, by taking 20% PEC
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= 0.2*683,784.25
=136,756.85 birr
4. Electrical equipment is (8-20) % of PEC, by taking 18% of PEC
= 0.18*683784.25
=123,081.17birr
5. Yard improvement and service facility is (40 -90) % of PEC, by taking 55%
=0.55*683784.25
= 376,081.34birr
Direct cost = the sum of the above Direct cost
= 909,433.06birr
7.2 Indirect cost

I. Construction expense is 41% of PEC
= 0.41*683784.25
= 280351.54birr
II. Engineering and supervision cost is 33% of PEC
= 0.33*683784.25
=225648.8birr
III. Contingency cost is 42% of PEC
= 0.42*683784.25
= 287189.385birr
IV. Contractor fee is 21% of PEC
= 0.21*683784.25
=143594.7birr
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Total indirect cost = the sum of the above Indirect costs
= 936784.42birr
7.3 Fixed capital investment (FCI):

FCI= Direct cost +Indirect cost
=909433.06birr + 936784.42birr
=1846217.48birr
Total capital investment (TCI)
= Fixed capital investment (FCI) + Working capital investment (WCI)
Working capital investment (WCI) = 20% of FCI
= 0.2*1846217.48birr
=369243.496birr
TCI = 1846217.48birr +369243.496birr
=2215460.98birr
7.4 Total Production Cost

Total Cost of Raw Material = 55,000birr
1. Utilities cost=20% of raw material cost
= 0.2*55,000
=11,000birr
2. Maintenance and repair cost =10% of FCI
= 0.1*1846217.48birr
=184621.75birr
3. Operating labor and supervision cost = 5% of Raw material cost
=0.05*55,000birr
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=2,750birr
4. Labor and other service cost =1% of Raw material cost
= 0.01*55,000birr
= 550birr
Direct production Cost = Utilities cost + Maintenance and repair cost + Operating labor and
supervision cost + Labor and other service cost
= (11,000+184621.75+2,750+550) birr
= 198,921.8birr
7.5 Fixed Cost

1. Depreciation= 10% of FCI
= 0.1*184,6217.48birr
= 184,621.75birr
2. Local taxes = 2% of FCI
= 0.02*1846217.48birr
= 36,924.35birr
3. Insurance cost = 3% of FCI
=0.03*1846217.48birr
=55386.53birr
Total Fixed Cost = Depreciation + Local taxes + Insurance cost
=184,621.75birr +36,924.35birr +55386.53birr
=276932.63birr
 Plant Overhead Cost = 100% Labor cost
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= 640,800Birr
Total Production Cost = Direct production Cost + Total Fixed Cost + Plant overhead cost
=198,921.8birr +276932.63birr +640,800birr
=1,124,654.43birr
7.6 Profitability analysis

Assume Production capacity of the plant is 70,000L/year birbira pesticide =233L/day
Working days = 300 days
Unit selling price of pesticide = 45Birr/liter
Total selling price = 70,000L/year *45Birr/L
=3,150,000Birr/year
Gross profit =Total selling cost - Total Production cost
= 3,150,000Birr - 1,124,654.43birr
= 2025345.57 birr
Tax paid = 40% of Gross profit
= 0.4* 2025345.57birr /year
= 810138.23birr
Net Profit = Gross profit - Tax paid
= 2025345.57birr - = 810138.23birr
= 1215207.3 birr
7.7 Rate of return on investment

In Engineering Economics studies, rate of return on investment is ordinarily expressed on an
annual percentage basses. The yearly profit divided by the total initial investment necessary
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represents the fractional return and this fraction times 100 is the standard percent return on
investment (Timmer Haus).
 ROR before tax = Where n is project life
Assume Total year of the project is 15
= 9.12%
 ROR after tax = =
= = 5.5%
7.8 Payback period

It represents the number of years required to recover to original investment. The payback
period is also called payout or payoff period.
Payback period =
= = 2.1year = 2year
Annual depreciation = Depreciation/10
Annual net profit avg = Net profit/10
=1215207.3/10
=121520.73
The project’s initial investment will be fully recovered within 2 year
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8 Conclusions and Recommendation
8.1. Conclusion
There are different methods of oil extraction from birbira seed. In our project we use solvent
extraction method by using hexane. The extracted oil is golden yellow color with odor smell and
the percentage oil yield obtained was 33.5%.the quality of the oil could be affected due to several
reasons, like impurities with birbira seed and solvents. We spray the birbira oil obtained on
grasshopper at different concentration with 25%water and 75%oil, 50%water and 50%oil and
75%water and 25%oil and we kept other grasshopper in a blank beaker to see the effect of the
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cover and then we obtained different mortality rate. by using water as control group, the
mortality zero was recorded on blank beaker and the insects have dead after 5 hour of the
treatment in 75%oil and 25%water and for the 50%oil water mixture it takes 9 hours to kill the
grasshopper but for 75% water and 25% oil mixture the time to kill the grasshopper was 12 hour.
but this not indicate the weakness of birbira oil when compared to roach killer, since birbira oil is
very systematic to work on insects rather than roach killers by entering their hormones and affect
their cycles like to eat, mate, laying eggs.so we conclude that using the 75% water, 25% oil for
agricultural pest control is advisable in case of economy.
8.2 Recommendations
Ethiopian government introduces chemicals pesticide from abroad to control pests. All chemical
pesticides imported from abroad are cost inefficient and have side effect on the environment. The
negative effect of synthetic pesticides especially on non-target organisms and environment lead
to find botanical pesticide to control agricultural pests. To increase the agricultural productivity
and environmental protection the industries producing pesticide from birbira should be installed
in Ethiopia, since the raw material is available in sufficient manner and the operating process is
not complex. Birbira pesticides can be an excellent investment opportunity, in view of eco-
friendly nature of the product, it can be used in relevant and growth oriented sectors such as
pesticides export prospects. Finally, it is advisable to use hexane for the extraction of pesticide
oil because we have tried to compare other solvents like toluene and acetone with hexane but
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hexane is the best solvent quality and quantity extract. Particle size has another effect on
extraction using very fine powder makes difficult for the solvent to pass through the thimble with
the extracted oil. The other main recommendation that we want to give to our university is that
without full resources and material we tried to do this kind of project with different difficulty.
Our department should provide enough materials, equipment and chemicals. And the Soxhlet
which is found in the laboratory doesn’t operate above 1000C, it makes difficult in selection of
solvents that operate above this working temperature.
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1.1 Statement of Problem

1.2.1. General objective

1.2.2. Specific objective

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1.3. The scope of the study

1.4. Significance of the study

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2. over view of Birbira plant

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2.2. Distribution of Birbira plant in Ethiopia

Fig 2.1 Birbira tree and seed

2.3. Special Properties of Birbira tree

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2.4. Birbira and Environment

2.5. Birbira and Agriculture

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2.6. Veterinary uses of Birbira

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2.7. Traditional use of Birbira

2.8. Birbira as excellent source of pesticide

B. Meliantriol, Another feeding inhibitor, meliantriol, is able, in extremely low concentrations,

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D. Rotenone, is crystalline, slightly soluble in water, poisonous chiefly as active ingredient of

2.9. Pesticides in environment

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2.10. Synthetic Pesticides Vs Natural Pesticides

 Algaecides to control algae

 Antifouling agents to kill or repel organisms that attach to underwater surfaces

 Antimicrobials to kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses).

 Molluscicides to kill snails and slugs,

 Ovicides to kill eggs of insects and mites.

 Pheromones to disrupt the mating behavior of insects.

 Repellents to repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds.

2.10.1. Synthetic Pesticides

(I) Organophosphate pesticides

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(IV) Pyrethroids pesticides.

2.10.2. Natural Pesticides

(I) microbial pesticides

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2.11. Advantages and disadvantages of bio pesticides and chemical pesticides

According to World Health Organization estimates, up to 20,000 people die of pesticide

 Less harmful because bio-pesticides do not leave harmful residues.

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2.12 Toxicity measure of pesticides

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2.13. Method of Extraction

2.13.1. Traditional extraction method of birbira seed

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2.13.2. Mechanical Extraction

2.13.3. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

2.13.4. Solvent Extraction

2.13.5. Comparison between the three most commonly used methods

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Material and methods

3.1. Equipment Used in Laboratory

5. Borosilicate Glasses 6. Test tube

9. Beak 10. Dropper

11. Water bath 12. Thermometer