FLUID MECHANICS LAB NABEEL IRSHAD

UW-18-ME-BSC-044
LAB NO#01
Objective:
 To study the type of flow and investigate the transition with reference to the Reynolds
number (Re)
Hardware used:
 Reynolds Number and Transitional Flow Apparatus – H215
 Thermometer
 Measuring tank
 Stop watch

Introduction:
Reynolds number:
The Re no. is a dimensionless quantity that helps to predict the flow patterns in different fluid
flow situations. At low Re no., flows tend to be dominated by laminar flow while at higher
Re no. flows tend to be turbulent. It is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces..
 They are also used to characterize different flow regimes.
There are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes
 laminar
 turbulent
 transient
 Laminar flow:
In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles following smooth paths in
layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing.

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The fluid flow in which the adjacent layers of the fluid do not mix with each other and moves
parallel to each other is called laminar flow.
 Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion. Laminar flow generally happens when
dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities.
 Turbulent flow:
Turbulent flow type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular
fluctuations, or mixing in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in smooths or
layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes
in both magnitude and direction.
The fluid flow in which the adjacent layers of the fluid cross each other and do not moves
parallel to each other is called turbulent flow.
 Turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces,
which tend to produce vortices and other flow instabilities.
 In turbulent flow vortices, make the flow unpredictable. Turbulent flow happens in
general at high flow rates and with larger pipes.

Transitional flow:
 Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center
of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges.

Reynolds Number:
1. laminar when Re < 2300
2. transient when 2300 < Re < 4000
3. turbulent when 4000 < Re
Difference between the laminar, turbulent and transitional flow:

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Laminar flow is orderly turbulent flow is “random” and “chaotic”. It is also found that a flow
in a pipe is laminar if the Reynolds number (based on the diameter of the pipe) is less than
2100 and turbulent if it is greater than 4000.trnsitional flow prevails between these two limits.

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Table:

Procedure:
 I filled the reservoir with dye.
 I positioned the apparatus on the bench and connected the inlet pipe to the bench feet.
 I opened the bench inlet valve and slowly filled head tank to the overflow level, then
closed the inlet valve.
 I opened the bench inlet valve and slowly filled head tank to the overflow level, then
closed the inlet valve.
 Then I opened and closed the flow control valve to admit water to the flow visualization
pipe.
 I opened the inlet valve slightly until water traveled from the outlet pipe.
 I fractionally opened the control valve and adjusted dye control valve until slow flow with
dye indication is achieved.
 At low flow rates dye was drawn through the center of the pipe.
 I increased the flow rate that produce eddies in the dye until the dye completely dispersed
into the water.
 I visually observed the three types of flow.
 When the dye was looking like a line then I categorized it as Laminar flow. When
looking dispersed I categorized it as Turbulent flow. When looking like a line at some
instant and dispersed at sometimes I categorized it as Transitional flow.
Conclusion:

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Following conclusions are drawn from the lab that the flow of a fluid can be characterized
to be laminar, turbulent and transitional. In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of s
fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel
to that surface. Flow is laminar then its Reynolds number is below 2300.in turbulent, the
motion of the particles is chaotic and there is lateral mixing. Flow is turbulent then its
Reynolds numbers of above 4000.between the Reynolds number of 2300 and 4000 then
flow is in transition. So the Reynolds number as a function of flow rate .as the flow rate
increases then Reynolds number also increases.Reynold number is directly proportional
to diameter. If the diameter increases then Reynolds number increases. But Reynolds
number is inversely proportional to the kinematic viscosity. And the dynamic viscosity
and kinematic viscosity depends on temperature. The Reynolds number increases, the
continuous turbulent-flow moves closer to the inlet and the intermittency in
between increases, until the flow becomes fully turbulent at ReD > 2900.it is used to
determine whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent.

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LAB NO#02
Objective:
 To determine the center of pressure of fully submerged Vertical Plate and calculate the
moment applied by the hydrostatic force on it at different heights of fluid.
Introduction:
Hardware used:
 Center of Pressure Apparatus (TQ H11)
 Weight hanger
 Weights
Hydrostatic force:
Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting on
submerged surfaces.
 Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting
on submerged surfaces.
Center of gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of an object is the point at which weight is evenly dispersed and
all sides are in balance
For example: a human’s center of gravity can change as he takes on different positions,but in
many other objects, it’s a fixed location.

Center of Pressure:
A point on a plane surface through which the resultant force due to pressure passes .such a
surface can be supported by a single mounting fixture at its center of pressure if no other
forces act.
For example: a water gate in a dam can be supported by a single shaft at its center of
pressure.

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 The point, through which this resultant pressure acts, is known as center of pressure and
is always expressed in terms of depth from the liquid surface.
 The intensity of pressure on an immersed surface is not uniform, but increases with depth.
As the pressure is greater over the lower portion of the figure, therefore the resultant
pressure, on an immersed surface, will act at some point below the center of gravity of the
immersed surface.
Procedure:
 Set the Center of Pressure apparatus on the Volumetric Bench and level the base of
apparatus with leveling screws.
 Make sure the main water tank and trim tank are empty and there are no weights attached
with the hanger.
 Add weights to the hanger and water in trim tank to balance the beam at an angle of 0 0

with the help of a line drawn on the tank.

 After balancing, fill the main water tank with enough water to fully submerge the plate.
As a result the tank will tilt clockwise.
 Now add the weights to the hanger to counterbalance the moment applied by hydrostatic
force and bring the tank to its initial position. Note down water level in tank and the
weight added to hanger.
 Repeat the procedure by increasing the water level in tank and note down the values of
weight added for counterbalancing.
 Use the formulas and initial given conditions to calculate the moment and center of
pressure of plate at different heights of water level.

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Observations and calculations:

Table:
Mass(kg) force moment Water Water Height Ycp
height height from CP
from CG

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00.42 4.116 0.8232 0.126 0.0765 0.087 0.0106
0.35 3.43 0.686 0.11 0.0605 0.060 0.0001
0.65 6.37 1.274 0.170 0.1205 0.798 0.677

Conclusion:
Following conclusions are drawn from the lab that the hydrostatic pressure acting at the
center of pressure. The weight of body acts on the center of gravity. Center of pressure is lie
on the object bottom because the pressure increases in bottom so the value of center of
pressure is greater than the center of gravity. So in depth the center of pressure is increases.
The center of pressure is affected by the depth of water by increasing the water level the
center of pressure increases (i.e. direct downward) but the center of area is constant so the
differences between the two centers in increasing with increase of water level. The
hydrostatic force acting on the fully submerged vertical rectangular surfaces increases as the
height of the fluid also increases. So the depth of immersion affects the center of the pressure
system.Hydrostatic force acting on both partially and fully submerged vertical
rectangular surface increases as the height of the fluid (water) in the chamber increases.

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LAB NO#03
Objective:
 To determine the center of pressure of fully submerged Plate Inclined at an angle of 30 o

and calculate the moment applied by the hydrostatic force on it at different heights of
fluid.
Hardware used:
 Center of Pressure Apparatus (TQ H11)
 Weight hanger
 Weights
Introduction:
Hydrostatic force:
Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting on
submerged surfaces.
 Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting
on submerged surfaces.
Center of gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of an object is the point at which weight is evenly dispersed and
all sides are in balance.
For example: a human’s center of gravity can change as he takes on different positions,but in
many other objects, it’s a fixed location.

Center of Pressure:
A point on a plane surface through which the resultant force due to pressure passes .such a
surface can be supported by a single mounting fixture at its center of pressure if no other
forces act.
For example: a water gate in a dam can be supported by a single shaft at its center of
pressure.

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 The point, through which this resultant pressure acts, is known as center of pressure and
is always expressed in terms of depth from the liquid surface.
 The intensity of pressure on an immersed surface is not uniform, but increases with
depth. As the pressure is greater over the lower portion of the figure, therefore the
resultant pressure, on an immersed surface, will act at some point below the center of
gravity of the immersed surface.
Procedure:
 Set the Center of Pressure apparatus on the Volumetric Bench and level the base of
apparatus with leveling screws.
 Make sure the main water tank and trim tank are empty and there are no weights attached
with the hanger.
 Add weights to the hanger and water in trim tank to balance the beam at an angle of 30 0
with the help of a line drawn on the tank.
 After balancing, fill the main water tank with enough water to fully submerge the plate.
As a result the tank will tilt clockwise.
 Now add the weights to the hanger to counterbalance the moment applied by hydrostatic
force and bring the tank to its initial position. Note down water level in tank and the
weight added to hanger.
 Repeat the procedure by increasing the water level in tank and note down the values of
weight added for counterbalancing.
 Use the formulas and initial given conditions to calculate the moment and center of
pressure of plate at different heights of water level.

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Table:
Mass(kg) force moment Water Water Height Ycp
height height from CP
from CG
0.41 4.02 0.6962 0.11 0.067 0.0793 0.01217
0.6 5.88 0.99 0.137 0.0875 0.8923 0.0234
0.68 6.664 1.328 0.15 0.1005 0.1013 0.0137

Conclusion:
Following conclusions are drawn from the lab that when the plane is fully submerged, the
water covers the full area of the plane and the moment applied should be inversely proportional to
the water height. The magnitude of the force is independent of the angle θ and depends only
on the specific weight of the fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the area
below the surface.Hydrostatic force acting on both partially and fully submerged vertical
rectangular surface increases as the height of the fluid (water) in the chamber increases.
For both partially and fully submerged surfaces, the center of pressure decreases
towards the centroid of the quadrant as the height of water in the chamber increases

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LAB NO#04
Objective:
• To study flow through venturi meter in relation to Bernoulli’s 1-Dimensional flow equation.
• To measure flow rate through venturi and determine co-efficient of discharge.
Hardware used:
The following equipment is required for the Bernoulli’s equation experiment:
 Bernoulli’s apparatus equation equipment
 A stopwatch for timing the flowmeter
 Bernoulli’s principle apparatus:
The Bernoulli’s test apparatus consists of a tapered (duct) venturi , a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head and a hypodermic probe that can be used
traversed along the center of the of the test section to measure the total load.

Introduction:
Bernoulli’s equation:
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.

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Bernoulli’s Principle Formula:

Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy of a fluid in container.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as:
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𝑝+ 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2

Venturi meter:
Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section of pipe to
give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the
flowrate can be deduced.
It is a device that is based on Bernoulli’s theorem and is used for measuring the rate of flow
of liquids through the pipes.

Venturi effect:
The venturi effect is that where the fluid flows through a tube that is narrow.the velocity of
the fluid increases as it flows through the narrower tube while the pressure decreses,due to
conservation of energy.

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The static pressure in the first measuring tube (1) is higher than at the second (2) and the fluid
speed at “1” is lower than at “2” because the cross-sectional area at “1” is greater than at “2”.
 Procedure:
 Set the venturi meter apparatus on the volumetric bench and level it with adjusting
screws.
 Open the air valve of the manifold to ensure the atmospheric pressure in piezometer
tubes.
 Connect the pipe to the venturi inlet and outlet section with clamps.
 Switch on the water supply and gradually increase the discharge with the help of control
valve on the other end.
 Now maintain the constant discharge through the venturi in order to remove air bubbles
from the piezometer tubes.
 When the flow is maintained and water level is kept steady note down the height of water
level in the piezometer tubes.
 Fill the tank of volumetric bench up to 1.5 liters and record the time taken.
 Change the flow rate through the control valve and repeat the same procedure.

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Conclusion:
Following conclusion are drawn from the lab that the static pressure in the first measuring
inlet tube is higher than at the throat and the fluid speed at inlet is lower than at throat
because the cross-sectional area at inlet is greater than at throat at the point D (throat) the
velocity is high but the pressure is low. So velocity and pressure depend upon the cross
sectional area of the pipe. When there are different cross sections, the pressure is low
through the convergence and the velocity is high through the convergence. The discharge co-
efficient increase as the flow rate increases for the venture meters.

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LAB NO#05
Objective:
 To calibrate the Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge using a dead weight pressure
gauge calibrator.
 To use water over mercury U-Tube Manometer to determine the pressure and
compare results with dead weight and bourdon tube pressure gauges,

Hardware used:

The following equipment is required for this lab is follow as:

 Hydrostatics Bench
 Bourdon Tube Gauge
 U-Tube Manometer
 Weights

Introduction:
Bourdon tube gauges:
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges can be used to measure a wide range of pressure from
vacuum to pressure as high as few thousand psi.It is basically consisted of a C-shaped
hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to the pressure tapping while the other
end is fee to rotate. The cross section of the tube is elliptical.
 When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (bourdon tube) tries to acquire a circular
cross section, as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus the
free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and
indicating mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer and indicates
the pressure reading.
 The bourdon tube gauge is most widely used instruments for measuring the pressure of
liquid and gases of all kinds, including steam, water and air up to pressures of 100,000
pounds per square inch (70,000 newtons per square cm).
 It consists of a circular dial and needle. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in
an arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a
connecting link that is usually adjustable.

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Valve connections:

There are actually three valves connections in bourdon tube gauge. These are,

• V-1 (Inlet valve)

• V-2 (Air trap valve)
• V-3 (Manometer valve)

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U-tube manometer:

This manometer is very easily constructed. It consists of a tube of glass bent into a U shape. It
is ten filled with a fluid. The density of the fluids indicated the range of pressure of pressures
that can be measured. Both ends of the are pressure ports. The simplest form of manometer
consists of a U-tube glass containing liquid. The principle of the manometer is that the
pressure to be measured is applied to one side of the tube producing a movement of liquid.

Measuring pressure: The tube is filled until both sides are approximately half full. When the
pressures are equal, the column of liquid on each side will be at the same height. This is
usually marked as zero on a scale. When the both sides of the manometer open to the
atmosphere, the fluid level on one side will be the same as the level on the other side because
P1 equals to P2.one end of the U-tube manometer is connected to an unknown pressure P1
whose value must be determined. The other end is left exposed to the atmosphere pressure
P2.the difference in the height of the liquid on the two sides of the tube is the differential
pressure.

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Procedure (Part-1):

1. Set up the dead weight gauge apparatus on the bench and connect the tube to bourdon
tube gauge.
2. Remove the piston and fill the cylinder with water until it is full up to the overflow level.
Ensure that the tubes connecting the gauge are fully primed with water and there is no
trapped air.
3. Place the piston in the cylinder and note the rise in pressure on the bourdon gauge. Gently
rotate the piston in the cylinder and allow the bourdon gauge’s needle to settle down at a
value. Once settled, note down the reading from the bourdon gauge in mH2O and bars.
4. Now gently add the weights on piston and note down the readings from bourdon
gauge with each increment of weight.
5. Repeat the same procedure by removing the weights from piston one by one and
note down the value from bourdon gauge.
6. Calculate the values of pressure applied by the dead weights, compare them with
the value of bourdon gauge and determine the error.

Procedure (Part-2):

1. Connect the dead weight gauge tube to the bourdon gauge and the limb of u-tube
manometer containing mercury.
2. Close the valve V2 and open valve V3.
3. Remove the piston and fill the cylinder with water until it is full up to the overflow level.

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4. Place the piston in the cylinder and note the rise in pressure on the bourdon gauge and
rise in the level of mercury. Gently rotate the piston in the cylinder and allow the
bourdon gauge’s needle and mercury level to settle down at a value. Note down the
readings from both the bourdon gauge and manometer.
5. Now gently add the weights on piston and note down the readings from bourdon gauge
and manometer with each increment of weight. Keep rotating the piston to avoid sticking.
6. Convert the value of mmHg into bars and compare them with the value of bourdon gauge
and dead weight.

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Conclusion:

Following conclusion are drawn from the lab that the pressure measured by the U-tube
manometer is more accurate but the pressure measured by the bourdon gauge is less accurate
because due to the deflection in the needle of the bourdon gauge pressure tube. The error in
the readings of the bourdon tube gauges due to the defection of the bourdon gauges. If
neglect the error in the bourdon tube gauge and needle start from the zero then the value
from of pressure from the bourdon tube gauge and U-tube manometer are equal. The
calibration of the pressure gauge using a dead weight gauge was carried out. Based on the
experimental results obtained a deviation in the calibrated reading was compared to
theoretical values.
Therefore the applied load is directly proportional to the obtainable pressure gauge
calibration meter readings.

LAB TASK

Types of manometer:

A manometer is a continuous pressure measuring instrument. The manometer measures the

pressure by balancing against the gravitational forces of the liquid head. Pressure applied to a
liquid column of the manometer affects the liquid level in the column.

1. Simple manometer:

A simple manometer is the one which consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to
a point where the pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere.

This manometer is very easily constructed. It consists of a tube of glass bent into a U shape. It
is ten filled with a fluid. The density of the fluids indicated the range of pressure of pressures
that can be measured. Both ends of the are pressure ports. The simplest form of manometer
consists of a U-tube glass containing liquid. The principle of the manometer is that the
pressure to be measured is applied to one side of the tube producing a movement of liquid.

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2. Micro-manometer:

The one leg of the micro-manometer is the well and the other is the inclined tube consists of
magnifier. The meniscus in the inclined tube is located at a reference level fixed by the
hairline viewed through the magnifier.

Initially both the well and magnifier are the same pressure, application of pressure at the well
,end moves off the hairline but it can be restored in the initial position by raising or lowering
the well(mercury sump) the difference in the initial and final micro meter readings gives the
height of the mercury column and hence the pressure

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3. Differential manometer :

A differential manometer is a device that measures the difference in pressure between two
places. Differential manometers can range from devices simple enough to be built at
home to complex digital equipment.

4. Inverted U-tube differential manometer:

Inverted U-tube differential manometer will be used for measuring the vacuum
pressure. Inverted U-tube differential manometer will have one inverted U-tube contained
with light liquid. These two pipes are filled with different specific gravity liquid.

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5. Inclined manometer:
An inclined manometer is a slightly curved tube with a liquid inside, typically a form
of oil mixture. Along the tube's middle portion are graduations. The graduations are
commonly hundredths of an inch, depending on the manometer's manufacturer. A user
places the manometer in a gas draft flow. The pressure exerted by the flow presses
against the internal liquid. The amount of liquid displacement is viewed and measured
through the tube's graduations, producing a pressure value.

 Gauge Pressure:
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is positive
for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it. In fact,
atmospheric pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a rigid container.
 Atmospheric pressure:
Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is
the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit
of pressure defined as 101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa; 1,013.25 mbar), which is equivalent to 760
mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi.
 Vacuum pressure:
Vacuum is an air pressure measurement that is less than Earth's atmospheric pressure, about
14.7 psi. A perfect vacuum, by definition, is a space where all matter has been removed. This
is an idealized description. Vacuum pressures that come close to the “almost no matter” point
are difficult and expensive to create.
 Absolute pressure:
Absolute Pressure. Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
For reasons we will explore later, in most cases the absolute pressure in fluids cannot be

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negative. Fluids push rather than pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero. (A
negative absolute pressure is a pull.)