INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

Landslide Monitoring Systems - An Overview

Nirmala Vasudevan1 Arun Balakrishnan1 Maneesha V Ramesh1
1
Amrita Center for Wireless Networks and Applications
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham (Amrita University), Amritapuri, Kollam, Kerala
(nirmalav@am.amrita.edu, arunkumar@am.amrita.edu, maneesha@am.amrita.edu)

ABSTRACT: A landslide is a disaster which causes rampant loss to life, property and ecosystems. With
increased awareness and technological development, the number of monitoring stations near hazardous regions
has increased. To give a warning prior to the occurrence of a landslide, the soil/rock mechanics of the underlying
bed needs to be studied and understood. This paper examines the current literature and elucidates some features
of state-of-the-art landslide monitoring systems.
1 INTRODUCTION
Advancements in technology have helped us understand nature better than before, yet the geotechnical
parameters causing a landslide cannot be quantified accurately. The efforts taken in predicting landslides are
clearly moving towards this objective and this can be seen by the number of monitoring stations that have been
setup in landslide prone areas around the world. The data that is obtained at each location is important in
understanding landslides. Each location is unique in terms of soil properties, groundwater, inclination of the
slope and weather conditions and consequently, each deployment is unique.
The rest of this paper aims to examine the instrumentation used in successful deployments around the globe.
This paper is organized as follows. The following section talks about landslides and landslide prone areas in
India. Section 3 talks about the current geotechnical instrumentation and their merits. Following that, in Section
4 we talk about the influence of rainfall on landslides. In Section 5 we talk mainly about rainfall and pore
pressure correlation. In Section 6 we discuss the relevance of different systems for different scenarios and then
conclude this paper.
2 LANDSLIDES IN INDIA
Landslide hazards affect about 15% of India, covering over 0.49 million square kilometres. The landslides
occur especially in the Himalayan belt and the Western Ghats region, and nearly 22 states are affected by
landslide hazards (Fig. 1). The landslides that occur in the Himalayan belt are far more dangerous in terms of
frequency of occurrence. The Himalayan belt is an active seismic zone, and during heavy rainfall is especially
vulnerable to landslides. Some major incidents that have happened in the past are the massive landslides that
occurred on the 11th and 17th of August 1998 when nearly 380 people were killed. The heap of the debris formed
was as high as 15 m. An approximate number of 500 human lives were lost in the year 2005 alone (Disaster
Management in India 2011).

Fig. 1 Landslide hazard zones in India (Source: BMPTC1)

(1Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council,
Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India)
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

The month of September 2012 saw many landslides and rockslides in the Himalayan belt, in the states of
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, and Jammu and Kashmir. More than 300000 people were
displaced. Landslides cause damages to roads, highways, property and lives. To make matters worse, pilgrims
visit the places of religious importance during the monsoon periods of August and September, when the
frequency of landslides is at its peak. The pilgrims become stranded with all the communication and land routes
blocked or washed away. It is estimated that 30% of the world’s landslides occur in the Himalayas.
Landslides are common in the Western Ghats as well. In the Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, close to a hundred
landslides occurred, causing severe damage to communication lines, tea gardens and other cultivated crops. A
valley in the Nilgiris is called Avalanches Valley. A rough estimate of the monetary loss in India due to
landslides is of the order of 12 crore to 150 crore per annum (National Disaster Management Guidelines 2009,
Disaster Management in India 2011).
3 INSTRUMENTATION
There are many factors that can cause the occurrence of a landslide, depending upon the nature of the soil,
rainfall pattern and human activity (Cruden and Varnes 1996). Different locations require different sensors
suitable for that particular location. Some of the principal parameters that need to be monitored continuously are:
• Rainfall
• Groundwater conditions
• Soil movement
There are different instruments that are used to measure these parameters. Some of them are discussed in the
following subsections.
3.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is a recognized trigger for landslides, and some monitoring stations simply record the precipitation
and predict the occurrence of landslides, as discussed further in Section 4. Rainfall can be measured using the
tipping bucket rain gauge, and this is one of the most widely used equipment. The resolution of the tip can be as
high as 0.2 mm (USGS – United States Geological Survey – web references).
3.2 Groundwater Conditions

Fig. 2 Dielectric Moisture Sensor Fig. 3 Piezometers Fig. 4 Water Potential Sensor

Investigation into groundwater conditions is crucial in understanding landslide phenomena. Rainwater

infiltration rate, soil moisture and pore water pressure are important parameters that need to be measured or
monitored. Several devices are used to determine infiltration rate, such as permeameters (specifically, disc,
Guelph, and cone permeameters) and infiltrometers (specifically, single-ring, double-ring, tension and Guelph
infiltrometers). Both single-ring and double-ring infiltrometers only measure infiltration under ponded
(saturated) conditions. So, when these instruments are used in soil with distinct macropores, preferential flow
will dominate – however, this preferential flow often does not accurately reflect rainwater infiltration. Tension
infiltrometers, on the other hand, are designed to measure the unsaturated hydraulic properties of soils. Tension
infiltrometers maintain a small negative pressure on the water as it infiltrates through the soil, and consequently
water infiltrates at a slower rate than when it is ponded on the soil surface. Bagarello and Sgroi (2004) describe a
study in which single-ring infiltrometers were installed permanently in the field for a study period of 1.5 years.
Soil moisture can be measured using a dielectric moisture sensor (Ramesh and Vasudevan 2011, Ramesh
2012). This instrument (Fig. 2) measures the dielectric constant of the soil, which is higher in the presence of
moisture. While monitoring data from an Amrita University deployment in Munnar (Ramesh and Vasudevan
2011), it was observed that, as the rain persists, the dielectric moisture sensors installed at the toe of the hill
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

show constant saturated values, while at the crown of the hill the sensor readings fluctuate with rainfall intensity.
Pore water pressure is the pressure exerted by water present in the soil. This pressure is measured with
respect to the groundwater table. The water table is the surface where the water pressure head is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, or the gauge pressure is zero. However, the soil may remain saturated even above the
water table due to the capillary action of the soil. When water continues to seep into soil in the event of heavy
rainfall, the water table rises. The pore pressure of the water increases. This increase in pressure can be measured
by pressure sensors such as,
• Piezometer
• Water Potential Sensor
• Tensiometer
Piezometers can be grouped into those that have a diaphragm between the transducer and the pore water and
those that do not. Instruments in the first group are piezometers with pneumatic, vibrating wire and electrical
resistance strain gauge transducers (Fig. 3). Instruments in the second group are open stand pipe and twin type
hydraulic piezometers. The vibrating wire piezometer can measure negative pore pressures, up to –50kPa.
Although some pneumatic piezometers can measure negative pressures, they are generally unsuitable for this
purpose (Dunnicliff 1993, Mikkelsen and Green 2003).
Normally, to determine negative water pressures, a water potential sensor (Fig. 4) or a tensiometer (Fig. 5) is
used. Both these sensors measure the matric water potential, which quantifies the tendency of water to move
from one area to another due to matric effects such as surface tension. (The other three distinct components of
the water potential are the osmotic, gravimetric and pressure components. In unsaturated soils, the matric
potential and osmotic potential are important. The matric potential arises from the cohesive forces between the
water and the soil particles, while the osmotic potential arises from dissolved solutes (salts) in the soil water. In a
non-saline soil, the osmotic potential is negligible.)

Fig. 5 Tensiometers Fig. 6 Inclinometer Fig. 7 Strain Gauges fixed

to a vertical column
3.3 Soil Movement
The movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope is defined as a landslide (Cruden 1991). This
movement originates at some depth below the surface of the soil; this is called the slip surface. When the
landslide occurs, the cohesive force that holds the soil together at the slip surface becomes weak. So the
examination of the geologic materials of the soil becomes very important, even though landslides occur in
virtually any kind of geologic material. Some of the instruments that are used to monitor the slope movement are
• Inclinometer or Tiltmeter
• Accelerometer
• Strain gauge
• Extensometer
• Time Domain Reflectometer
• Geophone
Determining the depth and thickness of the shear zone is instrumental in determining the extent of damage a
landslide can cause. Also, observing an initial slow movement along the slope could be critical in issuing a
warning beforehand. Inclinometers in casings are installed vertically in boreholes, and any movement in the soil
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

causes the inclinometer casing to bend. Inclinometers are used to monitor slope movements and determine the
slip or shear surface (Lollino et al. 2002). They come in two types, traversing-type inclinometers (Fig. 6) and the
in-place or stationary inclinometers (Transportation Research Circular 2008).
Accelerometers can measure both dynamic acceleration and static tilt. Most modern accelerometers,
especially those used in the geotechnical field, are MEMS (micro electro-mechanical systems) based devices.
Some research groups (e.g. Kotta et al. 2011) have used surface mounted accelerometers for discrete surface
based movement detection of a landslide, with limited results. These systems employ the dynamic acceleration
component of accelerometer output data and require extensive signal processing techniques to filter out noise,
spurious signals and to isolate movement event data.
High quality MEMS accelerometers are also one of the types of sensing elements used inside inclinometers
to sense the tilt angle of the inclinometer. The advantage of MEMS sensors is their low-cost and small size.
Previously, angular resolutions were low for accelerometer based inclinometers, but they are improving and are
now comparable in performance with some of the other sensing technologies. Another type of commonly used
sensing element is the electrolytic or "bubble" tiltmeter.
Another way of determining soil movement is by the use of strain gauges. In Ramesh and Vasudevan (2011)
columns, with strain gauges fitted at strategic positions on their outer surfaces (Fig. 7), were deployed to
determine soil movement. This installation is much cheaper than using an inclinometer or a tiltmeter, because
strain gauges are relatively inexpensive. The disadvantage of this installation is the need to calibrate the sensor
reading to match the bending of the column. There is also an increase in the number of wires from the sensor-
embedded column to the interfacing circuits.
An extensometer is used to determine the change in the length of an object (Fig. 9). The fixed end of the
extensometer is anchored to stable ground, while the moveable sensor arm is attached to the unstable region. In
case of non-contact type extensometers, either laser or videography is used to capture the surface (in laser or
light), and the surface’s tensile and compression deformation is measured. In the case of landslides the contact
type extensometer is used, owing to the size of the area that needs to be monitored.

Fig. 8 Single-axis Geophone Fig. 9 Wire and Sensor arm Extensometers

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a relatively new concept which has been explored to determine slope
stability. This instrument is used to locate faults in metallic cables. In landslide systems, a metallic wire or fiber
optic cable can be lowered down into a column and placed in a mixture of grout. With the soil movement, the
metallic wire or fiber optic cable in the column also experiences a bend. Using TDR the location of the soil
movement can be determined. This is a promising and inexpensive way of monitoring soil movement.
Pore pressure and soil movement are important parameters and can be viewed as analogous to the 1st and 2nd
order moments of a dataset. Just as these statistics give a fair idea about how the data could be oriented, these
parameters can be considered as fair indicators of the soil conditions in that particular location.
3.4 Photogrammetric and Remote Sensing Techniques
The instruments discussed so far capture geotechnical parameters of the subsurface soil to predict impending
landslides. The deployment of a landslide monitoring system is expensive. It might take time to setup such
systems, and moreover these systems are often deployed in locations where landslides have happened in the past.
So, invariably the first landslide and the associated loss are inevitable. To circumvent this disadvantage, much
literature is available which suggests the effective use of remote sensing and satellite monitoring (Savvaidis
2003). These topics are beyond the scope of this paper, but the authors would like to highlight the fact that even
though remote sensing and satellite monitoring are applicable in theory, the following points undermine their use
on a site (such as Munnar) that is vulnerable to sudden landslides.
• The repeat cycle of the remote sensing satellites is suitable for slow moving landslides, but is far less
than what is necessary for continuous monitoring of regions that could experience sudden and
catastrophic landslides.
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

• GPS enabled devices have limited accuracy and are not as sensitive as the other movement sensors
described above. GPS enabled devices can more easily detect slow moving landslides, while landslides
that occur with torrential downpour are much more difficult to detect.
Some deployments use ground based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to track the slope continually. Casagli
et al. (2003) describe ground based SAR interferometry that was used in the aftermath of the Cortenova
landslide, in the Italian Alps. GPS and SAR based systems only monitor the surface of the landslide and have no
ability to determine the subsurface conditions. In addition, in order for SAR to function, radio waves must be
bounced off a reflective surface. Rock and bare soil surfaces reflect well, while vegetation does not. Thus, if a
hill side is largely covered with vegetation, then corner reflectors, which are large and precisely shaped
geometric reflectors made of metal, must be installed at select locations on the hill to reflect back the SAR radio
waves. However, only these discrete points can then be measured for movement. As such, GPS and SAR based
systems are often used in conjunction with other instruments.
4 MONITORING SYSTEMS WITH RAINFALL THRESHOLDS
Rainfall is a well known landslide trigger. As the saturation of the soil increases, the likelihood of a
landslide occurrence increases. The land may become unstable due to the buildup of pore pressure within the
soil. The rate of pore pressure buildup depends upon the geotechnical properties of the soil. These can vary both
between locations within the same site and between different sites.
In countries where mountains that are prone to landslides are many, it is infeasible to drill all the landslide
prone regions to install instrumentation. So, to employ a more feasible method, rainfall threshold methods are
studied, which do not require any invasive study of the soil (Ramesh and Ushakumari 2008).
Installing a monitoring system in a country such as Italy, which has faced about 9000 landslides in the last
80 years, requires extensive coverage using sensors and monitoring stations. In this case, it is more convenient to
also rely on rainfall thresholds taken from similar regions of landslide activity. The rainfall thresholds that are
usually discussed in the literature are empirical in nature, that is, data is collected from regions where landslides
have occurred in the past and a lower bound on the data is calculated. The most common type of threshold is the
Intensity-Duration threshold (IRPI – Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica or Research Institute for
Hydrogeological Protection – web reference) and it is usually of the form

(1)

where is the rainfall intensity, is the rainfall duration and , and are all non-zero parameters. To calculate
the thresholds and express them in a comparable manner, the rainfall intensity is normalized by dividing it by the
Mean Annual Precipitation for that region.
Many different thresholds have been evaluated – some local thresholds, some continental and some global.
Currently there are more than 150 thresholds available in the literature (Guzzetti et al. 2007, Chien-Yuan et al.
2005, Aleotti 2004, Caine 1980, Onodera et al. 1974).The IRPI web reference presents a comprehensive list of
all thresholds that are currently present in the literature. This staggering number of rainfall thresholds can be
easily explained by the diversity of each individual location, in terms of climate, man-made development and
occasionally natural calamities. In fact, it is not surprising that even a single region can have different rainfall
thresholds that trigger landslides during the different seasons of the year. The nature of the soil plays a key role.
Sometimes water that infiltrates through the soil accumulates in the soil, while other times this water drains
away. Thus, the probability of a landslide depends on the antecedent rainfall, but the extent of this dependence is
again dictated by the nature of the soil. So, it is essential to know the kind of soil present in the region.
A system called SIGMA uses the rainfall threshold from a test site in Northern Italy to predict any landslide
within Italy. In systems such as this, as the observation period increases, the prediction accuracy increases. Also,
monitoring a wider area is helpful, since significantly more data is accumulated, making the system more robust.
It is important to note here that rainfall threshold based systems can only be reliably established with extensive
data collection and landslide records over many years.
5 UNDERSTANDING SENSOR DATA
After equipment has been installed, the sensors begin measuring various geotechnical parameters and relay
the data to monitoring stations. Making sense of the data can be crudely called data analysis. There are two ways
of approaching this problem; the superior approach is geotechnical; that is, extracting soil samples,
understanding the composition and profiling the underground soils, and then coming to an understanding about
the nature of the soil to draw conclusions.
The second approach is a statistical one, wherein the changes in the sensor data are quantified and
conclusions are drawn. To illustrate the latter approach, we may consider just the rainfall and pore water pressure
data. A realistic assumption, namely that the pressure buildup within the soil is due to rainfall, is made. Now the
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

question to be asked is what is the response time of the pressure buildup to the rainfall intensity? This can be
answered by calculating the maximum correlation between rainfall intensity and pore pressure data over time.
Equation 2, which calculates this statistical correlation, is estimated for various values of τ ranging from 0 to .
This function attains a maximum for a particular value of τ, which is the response time of the corresponding
sensor. Based on this approach, an understanding of the soil can be obtained (Lollino et al. 2006).

(2)

The correlation functions for different combinations of sensor data can be obtained, and from these correlations,
certain conclusions may be drawn.
So far, the number of successful landslide predictions are still far less than the number of landslides that
occur. Even though warnings are issued, they are usually issued within a large window of probability, making
the predictions weak. The best system need not necessarily be in terms of quality of the equipment alone, but
should ensure that the predictions are accurate. The objective of the problem should be clear, which is to
minimize the loss of lives, property and ecosystems.
In mountains, such as the Himalayas, where the soil is not very compact, the drilling of holes into the
mountain, to investigate subsurface conditions and install equipment within the soil, is more difficult. Care has
to be given to soil sampling, safety of the drilling team and preventing the collapse of boreholes. In such cases
the use of ground based SAR, GPS or rainfall thresholds can be employed as supplementary methods for
monitoring and predicting landslides. These systems do not monitor the subsurface conditions and therefore can
only provide limited warnings.

Table 1 Instrumentation Overview

Instrumentation Parameters Measured Comments

Rain Gauge Rainfall intensity and duration
Can be used at ground surface (e.g.
Infiltrometer/Permeameter Groundwater infiltration rate certain tension infiltrometers) or in
boreholes (e.g. borehole permeameters)
Can be easily installed at shallow depths,
Dielectric Moisture Sensor Soil water content
unrealistic to deploy below depths of 2 m
Strain gauge Generally unsuited for measuring
Positive pore water pressure
type negative pore water pressures
Piezometer Can measure negative pore water
Vibrating wire pressures up to –50kPa, requires VW
Pore water pressure
type excitation and signal conditioning
electronics
Can measure negative pore water
Negative pore water pressure
Water Potential Sensor pressures up to –500kPa, generally less
(soil matric potential)
accurate than tensiometers
Negative pore water pressure
Tensiometer
(soil matric potential)
Surface and subsurface slope
Inclinometer/Tiltmeter
movement
Accelerometer Surface movement
Surface and subsurface slope
Strain Gauge Correlation with slope movement needed
movement
Extensometer Surface movement
Surface and subsurface slope
Time Domain Reflectometer Requires sophisticated electronics
movement
High bandwidth continuous sampling rate
Geophone Seismic vibration
required
GPS Surface slope movement
INDOROCK 2013: Fourth Indian Rock Conference 29 – 31 May 2013

Entire slope/discreet points, depending

Ground Based SAR and LIDAR Surface slope movement
upon the terrain

6 DISCUSSION
Some noteworthy landslide monitoring systems are briefly discussed in this section. These systems mostly
use a combination of the sensors described earlier in this paper.
The Amrita University system is the first comprehensive wireless sensor network (WSN) based landslide
monitoring system. The monitoring system deploys approximately 150 sensors that include piezometers,
dielectric moisture sensors, strain gauges, tiltmeters, geophones (Fig. 8) and a weather station (Ramesh and
Vasudevan 2011, Ramesh 2012). The Amrita system has been collecting data continuously since 2009 and has
issued landslide warnings.
Turtle Mountain, Canada, which had seen a catastrophic landslide in 1903, has a monitoring system in place.
The system consists of tiltmeters, surface-wire extensometers and crack gauges as the primary reliable sensors. A
secondary set of sensors include prisms with distance measurements and single-frequency GPS receivers. This
system also monitors the rain, wind, temperature and barometric pressure in the region. Subsurface micro-
seismic sensors and surface passive micro-seismic stations (geophones) are in place to locate the potential sliding
mass. Vibrating wire piezometers and thermistors are also installed to measure pore pressure and temperature in
the soil (Moreno and Froese 2005).
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has monitoring stations deployed at various landslide prone
mountains such as Highway 50 in California; Chalk Cliff in Colorado; Lincoln County, Eliot State Forest and
Portland in Oregon; and Seattle in Washington State. These monitoring stations record the precipitation using a
tipping bucket rain gauge and the pore pressure using both vibrating wire and strain gauge type piezometers. In
the state of Oregon, water potential sensors and tensiometers are used along with piezometers to monitor the
pore pressure. Other sensors that are installed to aid the monitoring systems are geophones and contact-type
extensometers. Additionally, Chalk Cliff, Colorado, has a video camera installed to oversee the mountain, which
sends feed continuously to the base station (USGS web references).
There are numerous monitoring stations in Italy, where steep mountains and hills cover over 75 percent of
the country. The monitoring systems range from entirely relying on instrumentation to systems using rainfall
thresholds. The instrumentation usually involves a combination of sensors such as piezometers, tiltmeters,
surface extensometers and strain gauges for monitoring debris flow. SAR and GPS based systems are also used.
Videography is also used in places to monitor the region continuously. Local rainfall thresholds are a reliable
metric used to issue landslide warnings in the region. The SIGMA and MoniFLaIR monitoring systems in Italy
are examples of monitoring systems that rely only on rainfall thresholds.
7 CONCLUSION
The objective of any landslide monitoring system is to predict impending landslides as accurately as
possible. This paper provides a fairly exhaustive list of sensors, but there is active on-going research to develop
sensors that are smaller, easier-to-deploy, more accurate and sensitive, longer-lasting and inexpensive. For the
design, deployment and sustained operation of an effective landslide monitoring system, expertise is needed in
several disciplines such as geology, hydrology, soil mechanics; instrumentation, mechanical, electrical,
electronics and communication engineering, and computer science; statistics and modelling. An effective
landslide monitoring system has substantial benefits – the vast amounts of data that can be collected provide a
deep understanding of landslide phenomena and subsurface hydro-geological processes. The public can be
alerted in the event of an impending landslide, and human lives can be saved.
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the motivation and inspiration that our team derives from our
beloved Chancellor, Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, whose vision and direction have been instrumental in the
establishment of our Center.
The authors would like to thank the landslide team members Mr. Joshua D Freeman, Mr. Sangeeth Kumar,
Mr. Vijayan Selvan, Mr. Mukundan T Raman and Dr. Venkat P Rangan for their valuable assistance. The
authors are also thankful to the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of the Government of India for
their funding in part towards this project.
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