Lec 1

▶ Classical established electric power systems, feed electrical power from large
central generators up through generator transformers to a high voltage
interconnected network, known as the transmission grid.
▶ Each individual generator unit, whether powered by hydropower, nuclear
power or fossil fueled, is large with a rating of up to 1000 MW.
▶ This power is then extracted and passed through a series of distribution
transformers to final circuits for delivery to the end customers.

Fig. 1.1 Classical electrical power

systems [1].
‫هنا التواصل بيكون ضعيف ومحدود عكس الشبكات الذكية بيكون التواصل على درجة عالية وبيتم تحديد التحكم‬
.‫عن طريق بيانات يتم الحصول عليها من المستخدم‬

1
The large generating units and the transmission grid
‫التواصل بيكون موجود لكن محدود‬
▶ Good communication links
• Effective operation:‫بيحقق تشغيل مثالي و بيقدر يفهم بعض األعطال ويتعامل لوحده‬
• Enable market transactions:‫تحديد سعر الوقود اللي يقدمهولك‬
• Maintain the security of the system:
‫بيقدر يعطي نوع من األمان ويحس بالعطل ويفصل عن طريق ريالي‬
• Facilitate the integrated operation of the generators and the transmission
circuits ‫بيسهل دخول مولدات ومحطات جديدة للشبكة‬
▶ Automatic control systems
limited to local, discrete functions to ensure predictable behavior by the generators
and the transmission network during major disturbances.
‫التواصل في حالة التوليد والنقل موجود ولكن محدود‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
The distribution system, feeding load
• Loads entirely passive with little communication and only limited local
controls. Other than for the very largest loads (for example, in a steelwork or
in aluminum smelters).
‫أغلب االحمال احمال استهالكية ويكون قدرتها علي التواصل مع الشبكة محدودة‬
• There is no real-time monitoring of either the voltage being offered to a load
or the current being drawn by it.
‫ال توجد قياسات لحظية في الوقت الفعلي للجهد الذي يتم تقديمه للحمل أو للتيار الذي يتم رسمه بواسطته‬
• There is very little interaction between the loads and the power system other
than the supply of load energy whenever it is demanded.
The cost of delivered power depend on the time of day its used, Electricity is costly
at peak times, because additional and probably not efficient power plants must be
run to meet the higher demand.
‫في حالة الشبكات التقليدية بيحاسبك بسعر أعلي لو كنت شغال في أوقات الذروة وال يوجد تواصل جيد بين‬
‫المستهلك والشبكة بحيث يمكن تحديد أوقات الذروة وتجنب االستهالك خاللها وهذا ما توفره الشبكات الذكية عكس‬
‫الشبكات التقليدية‬

2
Existing grids face main challenges globally: )‫(تحديات تواجه الشبكة الحالية‬
• Ageing assets ‫تقادم األصول‬
• Electricity demand rising ‫ارتفاع الطلب على الكهرباء‬
• Lack of circuit capacity
‫قلة سعة وقدرة الشبكة علي انتاج كميات اكبر الن اغلبها بيعمل علي الحمل الكامل‬
• Distributed generation (DG) integration
• Thermal constraints ‫القيود الحرارية‬

1.
• In many parts of the world, the power system expanded rapidly from the
1950s and the transmission and distribution equipment that was installed then
is now beyond its design life and in need of replacement.
• The capital costs of like-for-like replacement will be very high and it is even
questionable if the required power equipment manufacturing capacity and the
skilled staff are now available.
• The need to refurbish the transmission and distribution circuits is an obvious
opportunity to innovate with new designs and operating practices.
‫وهي في توسع مستمر وبالتالي الكثير منها وصل‬1950 ‫معظم المحطات الموجودة تم انشاءها من زمن بعيد من‬
‫لنهاية عمره االفتراضي ونضطر إليجاد وحدات إضافية ولكن استبدال تلك الوحدات بوحدات مماثلة يكون صعب‬
‫ومكلف جدا وصعوبة إيجاد تلك التكنولوجيا القديمة باإلضافة الي عدم وجود الخبرات القادرة على تشغيل وتركيب‬
.‫تلك الوحدات وبالتالي يكون ذلك فرصة واضحة لالبتكار بتصميمات وممارسات تشغيل جديدة‬
2.
• Electricity demand is rising faster than any other final energy source (2% per
year until 2040), and testifying around peak times because of the progressive
shift in consumption from steady industrial base load to variable household
and commercial demand.
• Also, the energy demand is rapidly increased owing to new technologies such
as electric vehicles.
• As a result, networks are being both reinforced to increase existing capacity
and extended to reach larger customer bases.
‫ بسبب الزيادة المستمرة لألحمال الصناعية‬،)2040 ‫ سنويًا حتى عام‬٪2( ‫الطلب على الكهرباء يرتفع بشكل كبير‬
.‫ كما أن الطلب على الطاقة يزداد بسرعة بسبب التقنيات الجديدة مثل السيارات الكهربائية‬.‫والمنزلية وغيرها‬

3
‫ يتم تعزيز الشبكات لزيادة السعة الحالية وتوسيعها للوصول إلى قواعد عمالء أكبر عن طريق استخدام‬،‫نتيجة لذلك‬
.‫اجهزة ذكية تزيد من السعة وتستبعد الزيادة في الطلب علي الكهرباء‬
3.
• Some of the existing power transmission and distribution lines are operating
near their capacity and some new generation systems cannot be connected.
• This calls for more intelligent methods of increasing the power transfer
capacity of circuits dynamically and rerouting the power flows through less
loaded circuits.
‫خطوط النقل والتوزيع تعمل علي اقصي سعة لها وبالتالي ال يمكن إضافة انظمة توليد جديدة وبالتالي يجب استخدام‬
‫طرق لتقليل السعة المستخدمة في النقل وكذلك عن طريق توزيع جيد لألحمال عن طريق نقل األجزاء اللي متحملة‬
‫باألحمال القصوى إلي األجزاء المحملة بأحمال خفيفة لنصل إلي توزيع جيد لألحمال‬
4.

• Distributed generation refers to the numerous small, modular electricity

generators, preferably new and renewable energy technologies which are
located at LV lines, often close to the point of end use.
‫ صغيرة بشكل ملفت وهي مولدات معيارية وعادة تكون مبنية علي تكنولوجيا الطاقة‬:)‫التعريف ( مهم االمتحان‬
‫ وتكون قريبة من المستهلك‬LV lines ‫المتجددة وتكون موجودة في‬
• Distributed generation provides clear economic, environmental, and resilience
benefits. ‫المولدات الصغيرة دي بتقدم حلول اقتصادية وبيئية ومرونة واضحة‬
• High renewable penetration also poses challenges to operation of a grid
originally designed to rely on large base load resource to balance supply and
demand on the grid.
‫كل دا يمثل تحدي للشبكة لصعوبة تعاملها مع هذا النوع من المولدات‬

• When power equipment carries current in excess of its thermal rating, it

becomes over-heated and its insulation deteriorates rapidly.
• This leads to a reduction in the life of the equipment and an increasing
incidence of faults.
• Thermal constraints depend on environmental conditions that change through
the year.
• Hence the use of dynamic ratings can increase circuit capacity at times.

4
 ‫من التحديات أيضا القدرة العالية المسحوبة والتي تؤدي لتيار عالي والذي يمثل حمل زائد وقد يضر بالعزل وكل دا‬
‫يقلل من العمر االفتراضي ويزيد من احتمالية حدوث أخطاء ويؤدي الي مشاكل بيئية ونتيجة لذلك يجب علي الشبكة‬
.‫القدرة علي فهم االحمال وسرعة نقل الضغط العالي من االحمال في مكان ونقله لمكان ذو احمال خفيفة في الشبكة‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
The Smart Grid is an opportunity to use new ICTs (Information and
Communication Technologies) to revolutionize the electrical power system.
‫الشبكة الذكية هي عبارة عن استخدام التواصل بين التوليد والمستهلك بحيق تقدر تعرف استهالكه امتي وشكله أي‬
‫واي األجهزة الموجودة عنده ومينفعش افصل عنها الكهرباء ومن خالل ذلك بقدر أنظم مولداتي انها تعمل وفقا‬
.‫لألحمال دي وبالتالي أقدر اوزع التحميل على محطات التوليد وفي نفس الوقت أوفر للمستهلك احتياجاته‬
Smart Grid ‫بعض تعريفات الـ‬
The Ontario Smart Grid Forum has defined the smart grid as follows:‫تعريف كندا‬
• A smart grid is a modern electric system. It uses communications, sensors,
automation and computers to improve the flexibility, security, reliability,
efficiency, and safety of the electricity system.
• It offers consumers increased choice by facilitating opportunities to control
their electricity use and respond to electricity price changes by adjusting their
consumption.
• A smart grid includes diverse and dispersed energy resources and
accommodates electric vehicle charging. It facilitates connection and
integrated operation.
• In short, it brings all elements of the electricity system production, delivery
and consumption closer together to improve overall system operation for the
benefit of consumers and the environment.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has suggested the definition of smart grid
as follows:
• An automated, widely distributed energy delivery network the Smart Grid
will be characterized by a two-way flow of electricity and information and will
be capable of monitoring everything from power plants to customer
preferences to individual appliances.
• It incorporates into the grid the benefits of distributed computing and
communications to deliver real-time information and enable the near
instantaneous balance of supply and demand at the device level.

5
The main difference between Ontario and US definition for smart grid:
The US definition characterized by a two-way flow of electricity and information

• General definition of smart grid

• a smart grid is the combination of a traditional distribution network and a
two-way communication network for sensing, monitoring, and dispersion of
information on energy consumptions.

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
LEC 2
a Smart Grid employs innovative products and services together with intelligent
monitoring, control, communication, and self-healing technologies.
(self- ‫تقدم منتجات وخدمات مبتكرة جنبًا إلى جنب مع تقنيات المراقبة والتحكم واالتصاالت والشفاء الذاتي‬
‫ انها بتقدر تعرف مكان العطل وتفصله من الشبكة وتحمل االحمال اللي‬self-healing ‫) والمقصود بـ‬healing)
‫كانت متحملة علي المولد ده لمولدات اخري وبالتالي تحافظ علي امداد المستهلك بالكهرباء اغلب االوقات‬
Smart Grid Characteristics:
1.Smart Grid allows consumers to play a part in optimizing the operation of the
system and provides consumers with greater information and choice of supply.
‫تسمح للمستهلك انه يكون له دور في النظام ويعطي معلومات أكثر للشبكة بحيث تقدر توفر له احتياجاته وتجنبه‬
‫العمل في أوقات الذروة‬
‫ دي بتكون موجوده في اخر منشأة او مبني في خط الشبكة (عند االحمال) ودي‬Demand side management
smart ‫ للقياس و‬smart meters ‫اللي بتتحكم في أوقات تشغيل االحمال داخل المبني نفسه وبيكون معاها‬
applications and devices
2. It better facilitates the connection and operation of generators of all sizes and
technologies, accommodates intermittent generation and storage options.
‫هنا بتكون مرنة ولها القدرة علي ادخال مولدات في شبكتها بسهولة عكس الشبكة التقليدية واللي بيكون دخول‬
. ‫المولد فيها استثنائي في أوقات الذروة فقط‬

6
3. It optimizes and efficiently operates assets by intelligent operation of the delivery
system (rerouting power, working autonomously) and pursuing efficient asset
management.
‫بتوفر كفاءة عالية ألنها تتجنب ساعات الذروة وبالتالي أغلب شغلها ال يكون تحت ضغط وذلك يعطي كفاءة ويزيد‬
‫من عمرها االفتراضي‬
4. It assures and improves reliability and the security of supply by anticipating and
responding in a self-healing manner, and strengthening the security of supply
through enhanced transfer capabilities.
‫بتقدم مرونة وامان للمستهلك بحيث انها بيكون عندها علم ان فيه أحمال ومينفعش تفصل عنها الكهرباء مثل‬
‫أجهزة عالج مريض وبالتالي بتوفر له امداد دائم بالكهرباء‬
5. It provides power quality of the electricity supply to accommodate sensitive
equipment that enhances with the digital economy.
‫يوفر جودة الطاقة إلمدادات الكهرباء الستيعاب المعدات الحساسة التي تعزز االقتصاد الرقمي وده بيوفر فرص عمل‬
6. It opens access to the markets through increased transmission paths aggregated
supply and demand response initiatives and ancillary service provisions
‫بيزيد من مسارات امدادات الطاقة فبدل ما يكون مولد او محطة واحدة بتغذي كل االحمال بيوزع االحمال على‬
.‫مولدات صغيرة بحيث أن اوزع االحمال ولو حصل عطل في مكان باقي األماكن ال تتأثر‬
Functions of Smart Grid components:
1. Smart Devices Interface Component
2. Monitoring and Control Technology Component
3. Transmission Subsystem Component
4. Storage Component
5. Intelligent Grid Distribution Subsystem Component
‫العناصر الذكية التي تقيس احتياجات العملة ولكن من خالل شبكة التوزيع وليس المنشأ نفسه‬
6. Demand Side Management Component
‫العناصر الذكية التي تقيس احتياجات العملة ولكن من خالل المنشأ نفسه‬
7. Electric Transportation

7
‫‪Smart Grid components‬‬

‫‪1) Represent Generation side‬‬

‫‪2) Represent transmission side‬‬
‫‪3) Represent distribution side‬‬
‫)‪1‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Wide area monitoring and control‬‬
‫•‬ ‫)‪PMU (phasor measurement unit‬‬
‫•‬ ‫)‪Distribution automation (detect the fault‬‬
‫•‬ ‫)الجروزم علشان يطلع افضل انتاج(‪Predictive algorithms‬‬
‫)‪2‬‬
‫)معوضات الشبكة للقدرة غير الفعالة( ‪• FACTs‬‬
‫(أغلب الخرج من محطات طاقة متجددة فبيكون أفضل انقلها علي تيار مستمر ) ‪• HVDC‬‬
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‫‪8‬‬
Functions of Smart Grid components: ‫الدكتورة سبتهم نقراهم احنا ولكن مطلوبين‬
1. Smart Devices Interface Component
Smart devices for monitoring and control form part of the generation components’
real time information processes. These resources need to be seamlessly integrated in
the operation of both centrally distributed and district energy systems.
‫األجهزة الذكية في القياس والتحكم تكون جزء مهم من مكونات التوليد وبالتالي يجب دمجها في أنظمة توزيع‬
‫الطاقة‬
2. Monitoring and Control Technology Component
Intelligent transmission systems/assets include a smart intelligent network, self-
monitoring and self-healing, and the adaptability and predictability of generation
and demand robust enough to handle congestion, instability, and reliability issues.
This new resilient grid has to withstand shock (durability and reliability), and be
reliable to provide real - time changes in its use.
‫تتضمن أجهزة قادرة علي المراقبة الذاتية والتعامل مع األعطال والتنبؤ بها والقدرة علي حلها ونقل االحمال التي‬
‫فصل عنها الكهرباء لمولدات اخري والحد من ساعات الذروة وتوزيع االحمال والقدرة علي التعامل مع التحميل‬
.‫المفاجئ‬
3. Transmission Subsystem Component
Transmission lines must tolerate dynamic changes in load and contingency without
service disruptions.
Strategies to achieve smart grid performance at the transmission level include the
design of analytical tools and advanced technology with intelligence for performance
analysis such as dynamic optimal power flow, robust state estimation, real - time
stability assessment, and reliability and market simulation tools.
Real – time monitoring based on Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU), state
estimators’ sensors, and communication technologies are the transmission
subsystem’s intelligent enabling tools for developing smart transmission
functionality.
‫خطوط النقل أيضا يجب أن تتمتع بالمرونة والقدرة علي التعامل مع التغييرات الطارئة في االحمال دون انقطاع‬
‫الخدمة‬

9
4. Storage Component
Due to the variability of renewable energy and the disjoint between peak availability
and peak consumption, it is important to find ways to store the generated energy for
later use.
Options for energy storage technologies include pumped hydro, advance batteries,
flow batteries, compressed air, super - conducting magnetic energy storage,
supercapacitors, and flywheels.
Associated market mechanism for handling renewable energy resources, distributed
generation, environmental impact and pollution has to be introduced in the design
of smart grid component at the generation level.
‫ من المهم إيجاد طرق لتخزين الطاقة المولدة‬،‫نظرا لتنوع الطاقة المتجددة واختالف ذروة التوافر وذروة االستهالك‬
ً
ً
،‫ والبطاريات المتدفقة‬،‫ والبطاريات المتقدمة‬،‫ تشمل خيارات تقنيات تخزين الطاقة ضخ الماء‬.‫الستخدامها الحقا‬
‫ وتخزين الطاقة المغناطيسية فائقة التوصيل وغيرها‬،‫والهواء المضغوط‬
7. Intelligent Grid Distribution Subsystem Component
The distribution system is the final stage in the transmission of power to end users.
At the distribution level, intelligent support schemes will have monitoring
capabilities for automation using smart meters communication links between
consumers and utility control energy management components, and Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI).
The automation function will be equipped with self - learning capability,
including modules for fault detection, voltage optimization and load transfer,
automatic billing, restoration and feeder reconfiguration, and real – time pricing.
8. Demand Side Management Component
Demand side management (DSM) options and energy efficiency options
developed for effective means of modifying the consumer demand to cut
operating expenses from expensive generators and defer capacity addition.
DSM options provide reduced emissions in fuel production, lower costs, and
contribute to reliability of generation. These options have an overall impact on
the utility load curve.
A standard protocol for customer delivery with two - way information highway
technologies as the enabler is needed.

10
 Plug and play, smart energy buildings and smart homes, demand side meters,
clean air requirements, and customer interfaces for better energy efficiency will
in place.
7. Electric Transportation
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles PHEVs represent the most promising approach
to introducing the significant use of electricity as transportation fuel.
To this blend of technologies, PHEVs add the ability to charge the battery using
low-cost, off-peak electricity from the grid. PHEVs draw only about 1.4-2 kW of
power while charging—about what a dishwasher draws.
The primary challenges to widespread use of PHEVs, challenges that will require
direct utility involvement to overcome, include specification of the local energy
network and development of a mass market to lower battery costs.
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

The term microgrid indicates to the concept of single electrical power subsystems
connected to a small number of DG resources, both renewable and/or conventional
sources, together with a cluster of loads.
A microgrid can operate in parallel to the grid (grid-connected) or islanded mode
and hence increase the reliability of energy supplies by disconnecting from the grid
in the case of network faults or reduced power quality.

11
Fig. 1.3 shows a microgrid connected to a larger electrical system with a disconnect
switch that “islands” the DG units to protect sensitive loads. Such a disconnect
switch is necessary to achieve the high reliability and power quality that microgrids
offer. Microgrid is connected to the power system at the point of common coupling
(PCC), consequently the microgrid appears as a controllable single subsystem to the
main grid.
The configuration of microgrid systems depends on the nature and size of the micro-
generation units in the microgrid, as well as the site and the availability of the
primary energy resources on the microgrid, especially for renewable power sources.
Meanwhile, in terms of energy security, multiple small generators are more efficient
than depending on a single large generator.
‫ عبارة عن مجموعة من المولدات بتغذي مجموعة من االحمال وبتكون برده لها القدرة علي‬Micro •
Isolation switch ‫التوصيل بالشبكة الرئيسية عن طريق‬
:‫• ليها حالتين تشغيل‬
Grid connection mode
Isolation mode
‫• كل ميكرو جرد هي سمارت وليس كل سمارت ميكرو‬

The new grid will be capable of:

• Enhancement of power system infrastructure ‫البنية التحتية‬
(Sensors, communications, computational facilities, etc.);
• Different entities share the benefits of Smart Grid;
‫ بحيث لو ميكرو وقعت الباقي يشيل أحملها‬super grid ‫ممكن أوصل كذا ميكرو مع بعض وأكون‬
• Creation of new business opportunities.
• Enhancement of SQRAE (Security, Quality, Reliability, Availability,
Efficiency) features of power system.
• Mitigation of emission; ‫التخفيف من االنبعاثات‬
• Establishment ‫ انشاء‬of optimized ‫ محسن‬and perfect power system;
• Vast deployment of emergent technologies; ‫التطور السريع للتكنولوجيا الموجودة‬
• Asset Management and Cost Control; ‫إدارة األصول ومراقبة التكاليف‬
• More competitive ‫ تنافسية‬electricity market with Open Access;
• Integrating of variety of stakeholders of Smart Grid.
• Accommodating ‫ استيعاب‬renewables

12
 ‫‪CHALLENGES OF SMART GRID‬‬
‫‪▶ Lack of policy and market uncertainty‬‬
‫عدم وجود اقبال وسوق لهذا النوع من الشبكات خاصة مع كبار السن الذين يجدون صعوبة في التعامل معها‬
‫عيب عدم انتظام اإلنتاج ألنها مصادر متجددة‪▶ Regulation barriers‬‬

‫ضعف االستثمار في األبحاث في هذا الباب‪▶ Lack of investment towards research‬‬

‫ندرة الموارد البشرية القادرة علي التعامل معها‪▶ Lack of human resources‬‬

‫‪13‬‬
‫في ناس مش بيكون عندها القدرة علي انشاء ‪ smart grid‬كاملة وبالتالي تستثمر في بعض األجزاء منها كبند‬
‫القياسات الذكية وهكذا‬

‫‪14‬‬
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

‫‪Renewable Energy Systems‬‬

‫▶‬ ‫‪Such as‬‬
‫‪1. Photovoltaic Systems‬‬
‫‪2. Solar Thermal Power Plants‬‬
‫‪3. Wind Energy Generation Systems‬‬
‫‪4. Biomass‬‬
‫‪5. Geothermal Energy Systems‬‬
‫‪6. Ocean Energy Systems‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
▶ Photovoltaic (PV) modules are solid-state devices that convert sunlight,
directly into electricity without an intervening heat engine or rotating equipment.

▶ Advantage
1.PV equipment has no moving parts and, as a result, requires minimal
maintenance and has a long life.
‫• ال تحتوي على أجزاء دوارة وبالتالي تحتاج صيانة أقل ويكون عمرها أكبر‬
2. It generates electricity without producing emissions )‫ (ملوثات‬of
greenhouse or any other gases
3. its operation is virtually silent. ‫صامتة ال تصدر أصوات وال تسبب إزعاج‬
4. Photovoltaic systems can be built in virtually any size, ranging from
milliwatt to megawatt, and the systems are modular, i.e., more panels can
be easily added to increase output.
5. Photovoltaic systems are highly reliable and require little maintenance.
They can also be set up as stand-alone systems.

▶ A silicon solar cell consists of a thin layer or wafer of silicon that has been doped
to create a PN junction.
The silicon wafer is doped so that the N region is much thinner than the P region to
permit light penetration as shown in Fig. 2.1
▶ A grid – work of very thin contact strips is deposited on top of the wafer

▶ After the contacts are incorporated, an antireflective coating is placed on top the
contact grid and n region as shown in Fig. 2.1.
This allows the solar cell to absorb as much of sun’s energy as possible by reducing
the amount of light energy reflected away from the cell surface.
▶ Finally, a glass or transparent plastic is attached to the top of the cell with
transparent adhesive to protect it from the weather.
16
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▶ The electrical output from a single cell is small, so
multiple cells are connected and encapsulated (usually
glass covered) to form a module (also called a panel).
The PV panel is the main building block of a PV
system, and any number of panels can be connected
together to give the desired electrical output.
▶ The main applications of PV systems are in either stand-alone (water
pumping, domestic and street lighting, electric vehicles, military and
space applications) or grid-connected configurations (hybrid systems,
power plants).

1. Unfortunately, PV generation systems have two major problems: the

conversion efficiency of electric power generation is very low (9 -
16%), especially under low irradiation conditions.
2. The amount of electric power generated by solar arrays changes
continuously with weather conditions.
3. Despite achieving a mass-production scale and lower manufacturing
costs, utility-scale PV is still more expensive than both fossil fuels and
other renewable energies.

17
▶ PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
When a photon enters a photovoltaic material, it can be reflected,
absorbed, or transmitted through. When this photon is absorbed by a
valence electron of an atom, the energy of the electron is increased by the
amount of energy of the photon. If, now, the energy of the photon is greater
than the band gab of the semiconductor, the electron, which has excess
energy, will jump into the conduction band, where it can move freely.
Therefore, when the photon is absorbed, an electron is knocked loses from
the atom.
Electrons accumulate in the P region, producing a potential difference
across the cell. When an external load is connected, the electrons flow
through the semiconductor material and provide current to the external
load.
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Lec 3
PV cell characteristics:

• When solar energy (photons) hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked
loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material, creating
electron–hole pairs.
• If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative
sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons are captured in the
form of electric current, called photocurrent, Iph.
• As can be understood from this description, during darkness the
solar cell is not active and works as a diode, i.e., a p–n junction that
does not produce any current or voltage. If, however, it is connected

18
 to an external, large voltage supply, it generates a current, called the
diode or dark current, ID.
• A solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-
diode model, shown in Fig. 2.4.
• This circuit can be used for an individual cell, a module consisting of
a number of cells, or an array consisting of several modules.
• Fig. 2.5 shows the nonlinear I–V characteristic curve of a solar cell
for a certain irradiance (Gt) at a fixed cell temperature, TC.
• The current from a PV cell depends on the external voltage applied
and the amount of sunlight on the cell.
• When the cell is short-circuited, the current is at maximum (short-
circuit current, Isc), and the voltage across the cell is 0.
• When the PV cell circuit is open, with the leads not making a circuit,
the voltage is at its maximum (open-circuit voltage, Voc), and the
current is 0.
• In either case, at open circuit or short circuit, the power (current
times voltage) is 0. Between an open circuit and a short circuit, the
power output is greater than 0.

19
 Iph ‫ لما بيسقط عليها الشمس (فوتونات) بيمر فيها تيار‬PN junction ‫الخلية عبارة عن‬ •
‫الخلية في الظالم ال تولد تيار ولكن تعمل كدايود فلو تم توصيل عليها جهد خارجي هتمر تيار‬ •
I DARK or diode
‫عند اختبار الخلية الزم توافر شروط معينه الوقت يكون في الظهر بحيث أقصى طاقة للشمس‬ •
25 C ‫ وتكون درجة حرارة الخلية‬1000 w/m2 ‫وتكون كمية االشعاع‬
‫ بيعتمد علي كمية االشعاع من الشمس ولو فيه جهد خارجي مسلط علي الخلية ويكون‬Iph ‫التيار‬ •
O.C ‫ ويكون عندها الجهد بصفر ويكون قيمته بصفر في حالة‬S.C ‫اقصي تيار في حالة الـ‬

• The maximum power passes from a maximum power point (point C

on the Figure, at which point the load resistance is optimum, Ropt, and
the power dissipated in the resistive load is maximum and given by:
• Point C on the Figure is also called the maximum power point, which
is the operating point Pmax, Imax, Vmax at which the output power
is maximized. Given Pmax, an additional parameter, called the fill
factor, FF, can be calculated such that:
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑰𝒔𝒄 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒄 ∗ 𝑭𝑭
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∗ 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑭𝑭 = =
𝑰𝒔𝒄 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒄
• The fill factor is a measure of the real I–V characteristic. For good
cells, its value is greater than 0.7. The fill factor decreases as the cell
temperature increases.
Isc - Voc ‫يتم حسابهم بالقياس‬
I max V max P max (FF collect them in a law)
‫ بتكون عند منطقة الركبة‬power ‫أقصي‬
‫ هي القيم اللي عندها‬I max V max ‫ ولكن المقصود بـ‬SC ‫ وأقصي تيار هو‬OC ‫أقصى جهد هو جهد‬
‫أقصى قدرة‬

20
▶ Efficiency is defined as the maximum electrical power output divided by
the incident light power.
▶ Efficiency is commonly reported for a PV cell temperature of 25 C and
incident light at an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with a spectrum close to that
of sunlight at solar noon.
▶ The efficiency of a single silicon solar cell reaches 14–15%
Another parameter of interest is the maximum efficiency, which is the ratio
between the maximum power and the incident light power, given by:
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∗ 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑨 ∗ 𝑮𝒕

Where: A = cell area (m2). G radiation (W/m2)

▶ In general, there is a point called the Maximum Power Point (MPP)
according to the knee of the V/I output curve, at MPP the entire PV system
produces its maximum output power and operates with maximum
efficiency.

The influences of these two parameters on the cell characteristics are

shown in Fig 2.6. As shown in Fig 2.6 (a), the open-circuit voltage
increases logarithmically by increasing the solar radiation, whereas the

21
short circuit current increases linearly. The influence of the cell
temperature on the cell characteristics is shown in Fig 2.6 (b).
▶ The main effect of the increase in cell temperature is on open- circuit
voltage, which decreases linearly with the cell temperature; thus the cell
efficiency drops. As can be seen, the short circuit current increases slightly
with the increase of the cell temperature.
‫• االشعاع لو زاد الجهد بيزيد بمقدار صغير والتيار بشكل كبير وبالتالي الباور يزيد‬
‫• حرارة الخلية لو زادت التيار بيزيد بمقدار بسيط والجهد يقل بمقدار كبير وبالتالي الباور يقل‬

In practice solar cells can be connected in series or parallel.

▶ Fig 2.7 shows how the I–V curve is modified in the case where two
identical cells are connected in parallel and in series. As can be seen, when
two identical cells are connected in parallel, the voltage remains the same
but the current is doubled; when the cells are connected in series, the
current remains the same but the voltage is doubled.

(a) Parallel connection. (b) Series connection

22
Maximum power point trackers (MPPTs)
‫ أقصي نقطة بيكون عندها قدرة ودي مش بتكون ثابت لكن بتتغير علي مدار اليوم لتغير مقدار‬MPP •
‫االشعة وكذلك تتغير من مكان الخر ومن فصل الخر من فصول السنة‬
▶ The Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a charge controller that
compensates for the changing voltage / current characteristic of a solar cell.
▶ MPPTs utilize some type of control circuit or logic to search for this point and,
thus, allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a
cell. In fact, the trackers optimize the operating voltage of a PV system to maximize
the current
• Several inverter systems convert or transform the DC into AC for grid
connected PV systems. The output of the inverter can be single or three phase.

‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

Solar thermal power systems

23
 ‫ باتباع تقنية الكهرباء الحرارية الشمسية‬،‫يمكن توليد الكهرباء باستغالل الحرارة المباشرة ألشعة الشمس‬
‫ وهذه المحطات البخارية تقوم بتركيز أشعة الشمس فوق مساحات شاسعة‬. solar thermal electricity
‫ وتركز األشعة الشمسية لتقع فوق مستقبالت خاصة بها سائل‬،‫بواسطة مرايا مقعرة أو عدسات المة هائلة‬
‫ وهذا البخار يدير توربينات توليد‬،‫كالزيت يمتص الحرارة ويدور في األنابيب لتسخين الماء وتحويله لبخار‬
.‫ ويمكن االستعانة في األيام الغائمة أو بالليل بالمحروقات التقليدية كالفحم والنفط والغاز الطبيعي‬.‫الكهرباء‬
‫ يتم فيه تخزين‬،‫ويتم بهذه الطريقة تقليل استخدام الوقود الملوث للبيئة وبعض المحطات تمتلك خزان ملح مذاب‬
‫الطاقة الحرارية الناتجة عن الشمس خالل النهار لتبقى المحطة عاملة حتى في ساعات عدم وجود الشمس‬

The major components of the systems are the collectors, the fluid transfer pumps,
the power generation system, Boilers, auxiliary subsystem, and the controls
1. SOLAR COLLECTOR
▶ The basic component of the solar field is the solar collector assembly. Such an
assembly is an independently tracking parabolic trough collector made of the metal
support structure on which the parabolic reflectors (mirrors) are installed, together
with the receiver tubes and supports. The tracking system includes the drive,
sensors, and controller.
▶ Tracking of the collectors is controlled by sun sensors that utilize an optical
system to focus solar radiation on two light-sensitive diodes.
▶ Any imbalance between the two sensors causes the controller to give a signal to
correct the positioning of the collectors; the resolution of the sensor is 0.5_.
▶ There is a sensor and controller on each collector row, which rotate about
horizontal north–south axes, an arrangement that results in slightly less energy

24
incident on them over the year but favors summertime operation when peak power
is needed.
The benefits include:
• The provision of the lowest-cost solar-generated electricity for many years of
operation;
• Daytime peaking power coverage and with hybridization the ability to provide
firm power, even during cloudy periods and night;
• Enhanced environmental protection, because no emissions occur during solar
operation; and
• Positive impacts on local economy because systems are labor intensive during
both construction and operation
The negative impacts include:
• Heat transfer fluids could spill and leak, which can create problems in the
soil;
• Water availability can be a significant issue in the arid regions that are best
suited for trough plants. The majority of this water is required for the cooling
towers;
• Parabolic trough plants require a considerable amount of land that cannot be
used concurrently for other purposes; and
• Emissions occur when plants are operated with conventional fuels during
hybrid operation.
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Wind energy conversion system
‫المكونات الرئيسية لتوربين الرياح هي ريش دوارة تحمل على عمود ومولد يعمل على تحويل الطاقة الحركية‬
،‫ فعندما تمر الرياح على الريش تخلق دفعة هواء ديناميكية تتسبب في دوران الشفرات‬،‫للرياح إلى طاقة كهربية‬
‫ كما جهزت تلك التوربينات بجهاز تحكم في دوران الريش لتنظيم‬،‫وهذا الدوران يشغل المولد فينتج طاقة كهربية‬
.‫معدالت دورانها ووقف حركتها إذا لزم األمر‬
• Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines used to
produce electricity. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind turbines
scattered over a large area.
• Choosing the location of a wind farm is known as sitting a wind farm. The
wind speed and direction must be studied to determine where to put the
turbines.
25
 • As a rule, wind speed increases with height, as well as over open areas with no
windbreaks. Turbines are usually built-in rows facing into the prevailing
wind.
• Placing turbines too far apart wastes space. If turbines are too close together,
they block each other’s wind.
‫ تعني أن التربينات علي األرض‬On shore •
‫ تعني أن التربينات علي سطح البحر‬Off shore •
on ‫ عن الـ‬off ‫أسباب تميز الـ‬
• The wind blows stronger and steadier over water than over land.
• There are no obstacles on the water to block the wind.
• There is a lot of wind energy available offshore.
• Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow waters off the coast of major
lakes and oceans.
• Offshore turbines produce more electricity than turbines on land, but they
cost more to build and operate.

WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS COMPONENTS

26
 ‫ وتشتمل‬،‫ لكل المعدات‬Housing‫ وتشتمل على المولد والتروس فهى بمثابة‬Nacelle ،‫غرفة القمرة التى تسمى‬
،‫ حيث يمكنها تغيير زاوية ميل الريشة بالنسبة للريح بواسطة موتور‬،‫أيضا على المعدات التى تتحكم فى الريش‬
‫متر فى‬5 ‫ثانية متأثرة بسرعة الريح والتى يجب أال تقل عن‬/ ‫وبالتالي تتحكم فى سرعة الدوران التى تقاس بلفة‬
‫ث‬/‫م‬30 ‫ ويجب أال تزيد عن‬.‫الثانية‬
a) Wind Turbine
▶ Wind turbines capture the power from the wind by means of aerodynamically
designed blades and convert it to rotating mechanical power. The number of blades
is normally three. As the blade tip-speed typically should be lower than half the
speed of sound the rotational speed will decrease as the radius of the blade
increases.
b) Gearbox
▶ The common way to convert the low-speed, high-torque mechanical power to
electrical power is using a gearbox and a generator with standard speed. The
gearbox adapts the low speed of the turbine rotor to the high speed of the generator,
though the gearbox may not be necessary for multipole generator systems.
:‫وتربط بين‬Gear Box ‫صندوق تروس‬
‫لفة فى الدقيقة‬30 ‫• محور السرعة البطيئة الذى تركب عليه الريش وهو يدور بسرعة حوالي‬
‫لفة فى الدقيقة‬1500 ‫• محور السرعة العالية وهو الذى يصل مباشرة للمولد ويدور بسرعة‬

27
 ‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
a) Wind Turbine Generator
▶ The generator converts the mechanical power into electrical power, which being
fed into a grid possibly through power electronic converters, and a transformer with
circuit breakers and electricity meters. The two most common types of electrical
machines used in wind turbines are induction generators and synchronous
generators.
▶ There are two types of induction generator used in the wind industry depending
on how the rotor is manufactured and its conductors are connected. These are the
squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) where the rotor conductors are shorted
and the wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) where the rotor conductors are
connected to slip rings allowing access to the rotor circuitry.
transient ‫ ولكن مشكلته فيه‬Induction ‫أغلب التربينات بتستخدم‬
▶ Synchronous generator wind turbine systems allow a great flexibility and
controllability, a wide speed range, and avoid a gearbox, which is traditionally seen
as source of torque transient disturbances.
▶ There are many wind turbine topologies but they can be divided into three main
types:
• Fixed-Speed,
• Variable-Speed with Full Converter
• Variable-Speed with Doubly- Fed Induction Generator

28
Fixed Speed Wind Turbines
Historically, the typical wind turbine configuration has been consisting of an
induction generator with two or three pole pairs, directly connected to the grid.

Fig. 2.13: Fixed-speed wind turbine.

The advantages of wind turbines with fixed speed induction generators are
• the simple and cheap construction
• no synchronization device is required.
• These solutions are attractive due to cost and reliability.
▶ The disadvantages are:
1) the wind turbine has to operate at constant speed;
2) it requires a stiff power grid to enable stable operation;
3) it may require a more expensive mechanical construction in order to absorb high
mechanical stress, since wind gusts may cause torque pulsations on the drive train.
4) there is no capability of reactive power or power factor control which means it
requires controllable reactive power sources in the system.
B) Variable Speed Wind Turbines
▶ variable speed wind turbines are equipped with voltage source converters (VSC).
▶ Focusing on the converter, two types of turbines have to be distinguished: full
converter machines and doubly-fed induction machines.
▶ The wind turbines with a full-scale power converter between the generator and
grid give the added technical performance. Usually, a back-to back voltage source
converter (VSC) is used in order to achieve full control of the active and reactive
power.

29
B) Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
▶ DFIG is one of the most commonly used technologies nowadays, as these offer
advantages such as the decoupled control of active and reactive powers and
maximum power tracking. These capabilities are possible due to the power
electronic converters used in this type of generator.
▶ The control system of a variable-speed wind turbine with DFIG mainly functions
to [19]:
1)Adjust the power drawn from the wind turbine in order to track the optimum
operation point;
2)Limit the power in the case of high wind speeds;
3)Regulate the reactive power exchanged between the wind turbine and the grid.

‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫لالطالع فقط‬
Small and micro hydropower
▶ Hydropower is by far the largest renewable source of power/energy.
▶ Small hydropower systems vary from 100 kW to 30 MW while micro hydropower
plants are smaller than 100 kW.
▶ Small hydropower generators work in variable speed because of water flow.
▶ Induction motors provide a generator for a turbine system.
▶ The hydraulic turbine converts the water energy to mechanical rotational energy.

30
 Geothermal heat pumps
▶ This form of power is based on accessing the underground steam or
hot water from wells drilled several miles into the earth.
▶ Conversion occurs by pumping hot water to drive conventional steam
turbines which drive the electrical generator that produces the power.
The water is then recycled back into earth to recharge the reservoir for a
continuous energy cycle.
Biomass – bioenergy
Bioenergy is the energy derived from organic matter such as corn, wheat,
soybeans, wood, and residues that can produce chemicals and materials.
▶ Biopower is obtained from a process called gasification, converting gas
to gas turbines to generate electricity.
▶ Biomass can be converted directly into fluid fuels such as ethanol,
alcohol or biodiesel derived from corn ethanol.
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

CH.3 (Storage technologies)

Introduction:
• The smart grid not just meet economical disturbance and some environmental
challenges but also give the sustainable energy system that is more efficient
and more reliable.
‫• باإلضافة ان الشبكات الذكية تواجه المشاكل االقتصادية والتحديات البيئية فهي أيضا توفر أيضًا نظا ًما‬
.‫للطاقة المستدامة أكثر كفاءة وموثوقية‬
• Due to some mismatch of peal hour demand consumption of power it is
necessary to store the energy.
‫• بسبب عدم انتظام استهالك وإنتاج الطاقة والتوافق بينهم فممكن يكون اإلنتاج موجود وال يوجد استهالك‬
‫وممكن يكون فيه احتياج للطاقة ووقتها غير متاح اإلنتاج وكل دا ادي الي ضرورة تخزين الطاقة‬
• If we see that energy storage system is not latest idea but it is the fundamental
idea for generation and transmission and distribution system also.
‫• فكرة تخزين الطاقة موجوده مسبقا في شبكات اإلنتاج والتوزيع لكن الشبكات الذكية قامت بتطوير االمر‬

31
 • The smart grid will provide the power quality and less economy, give the
storage option, and enable the active participation by consumers.
‫توفر الشبكات الذكية جودة طاقة عاليا وقلة تكلفة اقتصادية وتعطي خيار تخزين الطاقة وتوفر مشاركة المستهلكين‬
‫في النظام‬

Storage technologies:
• Energy storage system useful for the consumer such as industrial user for
peak shaving and minimize the electricity bill and that varies according to
their highest power demand.
‫• يعمل نظام التخزين علي تجنب العمل في ساعت الذروة من الشبكة ويعوض عنها بالطاقة المخزنة في‬
.‫البطاريات وبالتالي يقلل التكلفة والفاتورة‬
• Basically, the grid energy storage system is collection of the different type of
energy storage which is used when the power fall down and need for the
power.
battery bank ‫• نظام التخزين بيكون عبارة عن عدة أنواع مستخدمة معا وال تعتمد علي نوع واحد مثل‬
with super capacitor
• The energy storage may be large scale storage and some time it is short scale
storage basically, it depends on the storage system.

32
 • Mostly energy storage divided to the 4 categories
1. Device large power (750MWH) 2. Storage device (>100MWH)
3. Medium power storage (1-50MWH) 4. Storage capacities (5-100MWH)

SELECTION OF STORAGE TECHNOLOGY

The selection of the proper storage technology is based on the following parameters:
• Unit Size: Scale of technology. Storage technologies have an associated range
for application, for example, large units support grid - connected RER
technologies.
• Storage Capacity: Total store of available energy after charging.‫سعة التخزين‬
• Available Capacity: Average value of power output based on the state of
charge/depth of discharge.‫ عمق التفريغ‬/ ‫متوسط قيمة خرج الطاقة بنا ًء على حالة الشحن‬
• Self - discharge Time: Time required for a fully charged, non – interconnected
storage device to reach a certain depth of discharge (DOD), this is contingent
on the operational condition of the system.‫زمن التفريغ‬
• Efficiency : Ratio of energy output from the device to the energy input issue of
conversion technology and design of RER and storage and conversion needed.

33
 • Durability or Life - cycle: Number of consecutive charges – discharge cycles a
storage installation can undergo while maintaining the installations and other
specifications within limited ranges. Life - cycle specifications are made
against a chosen DOD depending on the applications of the storage device.
‫ دورات التفريغ التي يمكن أن تخضع لها وحدة التخزين مع الحفاظ على التركيبات‬- ‫• عدد الشحنات المتتالية‬
‫والمواصفات األخرى ضمن نطاقات محدودة‬
• Autonomy: Ratio between energy capacity and maximum discharge power;
indicates the maximum amount of time the system can continuously release
energy.
• Mass and Volume Densities: Amount of energy accumulated per unit mass or
volume of the storage unit.
• Cost: Cost of installation, operation, and maintenance of storage technology;
cost should be analyzed throughout system lifespan.
• Feasibility: Degree of adaptability to the storage applications.
‫• درجة القدرة على التكيف مع تطبيقات التخزين‬
• Reliability: Guarantee of service. ‫ضمان الخدمة‬

STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES TYPES

1. Batteries
.‫• البطارية هي جهاز يخزن الطاقة الكيميائية ويحولها إلى طاقة كهربائية‬
• The chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of electrons from one
material (electrode) to another, through an external circuit.
• The flow of electrons provides an electric current that can be used to do work.
• To balance the flow of electrons, charged ions also flow through an electrolyte
solution that is in contact with both electrodes.
.‫ تتدفق األيونات المشحونة أيضًا عبر محلول إلكتروليت مالمس لكال القطبين‬،‫• لموازنة تدفق اإللكترونات‬
• Different electrodes and electrolytes produce different chemical reactions that
affect how the battery works, how much energy it can store and its voltage.
• Batteries storage capacities are mostly in 100 watts to several megawatt in
their own requirement to fulfill that place.
• Batteries is placed in different areas as like generation and distribution,
transmissions, customer vice, for inverter charging and provide the supply,
batteries playing a very good role in their field.

34
 • Most of the electric vehicle is used the batteries for starting and running on
road of the vehicle
• I n a battery bank number of batteries is connected together in face of series
and parallel and both are together and individually according to the
requirement.
• The grid scale Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) consist the battery
bank, control system and power electronic equipment for interfacing with the
circuit. And situated transformer convert the required voltage of a battery for
sending end voltage.
• In last years the use of lead acid battery is much slower that’s why more new
batteries with new technologies are coming in to the market, which has long
life, less cost and last longer than the lead acid batteries.
• Some new batteries with new technologies are lithium ion, lithium polymer,
nickel metal hydride (NI-MH), sodium sulfur (NaS).

Battery types:
‫• بطاريات القلم (الزنك) ال يتم شحنها مره اخري‬
1.lead acid battery

2. Advanced Batteries
• Advanced batteries include lithium - ion, polymer ion, nickel metal hybrid
and sodium sulfur type.
• Advantages: Use less space than lead acid batteries and produce more power
• Disadvantages: Too expensive for large scale applications

35
3. Flow Batteries
• A flow battery is a rechargeable
battery in which electrolyte
flows through one or more
electrochemical cells from one or
more tanks. With a simple flow
battery, it is straightforward to
increase the energy storage
capacity by increasing the
quantity of electrolyte stored in
the tanks.

‫النوع السابق كان بيحط شريحة انود ثم كاثود بالتبادل ويمرر فيهم المحلول لكن في هذا النوع انود وكاثود متغلفين‬
‫وكمان انود وكاثود متغلفين ثم يمرر عليهم المحلول االلكتروليتي مره واحده‬
‫• بطارية التدفق هي بطارية قابلة إلعادة الشحن يتدفق فيها اإللكترونية عبر خلية كهروكيميائية واحدة أو أكثر من‬
‫ من السهل زيادة سعة تخزين الطاقة عن طريق زيادة كمية‬،‫ باستخدام بطارية تدفق بسيطة‬.‫خزان واحد أو أكثر‬
.‫اإللكترو ليت المخزن في الخزانات‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
(2) Ultra-capacitor
Ultra-capacitor is also known as the super capacitor and electric double layer which
main work to store the electric energy in their bank without any chemical reaction
as like batteries

36
 permeable ‫ ويتم ذلك عن طريق احط مادة زي الشاش كده‬D ‫ واقلل‬A ‫ الزم ازود‬C ‫علشان ازود الـ‬
‫ وفي نفس الوقت تسمح بمرور االلكترونات‬D ‫ ودا دورها تقلل‬separator
‫ طبقتين طبقة خارجية وطبقي داخلية كلها تعاريج وبكده أكون كبرت المساحة‬plate ‫ بعمل الـ‬A ‫وعلشان ازود‬
‫وحافظة علي حجم المكثف صغير‬
The main part of this is electrolyte and electrodes which taking a part to store the
energy in the form of electrical energy E which is stored in the form of charge Q
with the voltage of V and the rising formulas are
𝟏 𝟐 𝑸
𝐄 = 𝑪𝑽 𝑪=
𝟐 𝑽
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Virtually unlimited cycle life 1. Linear discharge voltage prevents use
2. Low impedance of the full energy spectrum
3. Rapid charging 2. Low energy density
‫بيشحن بسرعة ويخزن طاقة اعلي‬ 3. Cells have low voltages
4. Simple charge methods 4. High self-discharge ‫يفرغ بسرعة‬
(3) Fly wheel:
‫عبارة عن أسطوانة تخزن الطاقة في صورة طاقة حركة وبيكون فيها‬
‫ ويدور األسطوانة‬motor ‫ وقت ما بيتم تغذيته يعمل كـ‬Generator/motor
‫ويخزن الطاقة الكهربية في صورة طاقة حركة وقت ما ابطل تغذية يقلب كمولد‬
‫ويستفاد من طاقة الحركة المخزنة ويحولها تاني لطاقة كهربية‬
• It consists the flywheel coupled a permanent
magnet synchronous machine. When the motor run
the energy is stored in the form of momentum in a
rotating wheel or cylinder.

37
 Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Charge and discharge rapidly
2. Affected little by temperature fluctuations
1. Power loss faster than for
3. Take up relatively little space
batteries
4. Long life span
5. Tolerant of abuse
6. Lower maintenance requirements than batteries

(4) Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) utilities use electricity generated during off
- peak hours (i.e., storage hours) to compress air and store it in airtight
underground caverns. When the air is released from storage, it expands through a
combustion turbine to create electricity.

‫هنا يتم تخزين هواء مضغوط في حالة العمل‬

‫ووجود مصدر تغذية بالطاقة وفي وقت عدم وجود‬
‫تغذية يتم االستعانة بالهواء المضغوط في تدوير‬
‫التربينات مره اخري وتوليد طاقة كهربية‬

(5) pumped Hydroelectric storage

The process of water being pumped from a lower reservoir uphill then allowing it to
flow downhill to through turbines to produce electricity.

‫نفس فكرة الهواء لكن المره دي نخزن الطاقة‬

‫في صورة ماء مرفوع العلي متخزن فيه‬
‫طاقة وضع وبعد كده احوله طاقة حركة تدور‬
‫التربينات‬

38
 Communication and measurement technologies

Introduction:
• high - speed, fully integrated, two – way communication
technologies will allow the smart grid to be a dynamic, interactive
mega - infrastructure for real – time information and power
exchange.
‫• التواصل العالي بين الشبكة والمستهلكين يجعل الشبكات الذكية اكثر كفاءة‬
• The technology exists for the measure, monitor, and control in real
time in the Smart Grid, and this technology plays an essential role in
the functioning of the Smart Grid.
• Moreover, open architecture’s plug - and - play environment will
provide secure network smart sensors and control devices, control
centers, protection systems, and users.
‫ ستوفر بيئة التوصيل والتشغيل الخاصة بالمنشأة أجهزة استشعار وأجهزة‬، ‫• باإلضافة لذلك‬
.‫ ومستخدمين‬، ‫ وأنظمة حماية‬، ‫ ومراكز تحكم‬، ‫تحكم ذكية للشبكة آمنة‬
The five characteristics of smart grid communications technology are:
1. High bandwidth
‫ بيضم نطاق كبير من الترددات وكل ما كان كبير كل ما كنت‬bandwidth ‫زي موجات الردايو‬
‫اقدر انقل معلومات كبيرة بسرعة‬
2. IP - enabled digital communication (IPv6 support is preferable)
IP ‫زي ما بتيجي توصل سلط نت لكمبيوتر وتعرفه وتدخله‬
3. Encryption ‫التشفير (كلمة السر) للحفاظ علي سرية بياناتك‬
4. Cyber security ‫نظام حماية امني من االختراقات‬
5. Support and quality of service and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
‫ وغيره‬skype ‫نظام نقل الميديا سواء فيديوهات او صور او صوتيات علي النت زي مثال‬

39
Possible wired and wireless communications technologies can include:
1. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS):( wired) high –
performance telecommunications networks for data transmission
between network nodes.
‫ وبيكون في سرعة كبيرة في النقل وكأن فيه كبل بين كل‬Ip ‫ وليس‬label ‫بنقل المعلومات في صورة‬
‫نقطة ونقطة‬
2. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax):
wireless telecommunication technology for point to multipoint data
transmission utilizing Internet technology.
‫ ولكن‬11MHz ‫ كبير حوالي‬BW ‫بيكون عبارة عن أبراج فوق المباني تنقل المعلومات ويكون لها‬
‫من عيوب تلك الوسيلة انها تحتاج الي عدم وجود حواجز فال تعمل بكفاءة في حالة وجود عوائق او‬
‫مباني واُثبتوا انها ممكن تعمل في حالة وجود اشجار‬
‫ قريبة من بعض انما لو بعاد عن بعض وقتها بيتم‬smart grid ‫ودا بيكون نوع التواصل في حالة‬
‫عن طريق األقمار الصناعية الشبكة ترسل للقمر الصناعي وهو يرسل للشبكة األخرى‬
3. Broadband over Power Lines (BPL):
power line communication with Internet access.
‫بيستخدم خطوط النقل العادية في استخدامين األول لنقل الطاقة والثاني لنقل معلومات والتواصل‬
4. Wi - Fi: commonly used wireless local area network.
Additional technologies include optical fiber, mesh, and multipoint
spread spectrum.

40
 Network topologies‫مخططات الشبكة‬
1) Local area network (LAN)
• LAN has operating system software which interprets input, instructs
network devices, and allows users to communicate with each other.
‫• عبارة عن ان بكون شبكة بين مجموعة من األجهزة والمستخدمين داخل حيز معين‬
• Each hardware device (computer, printer, and so on) on a LAN is a
node. ‫كل حاجه مربوطة بالشبكة سواء كمبيوتر او غيره نعتبرها نقطة‬
• The LAN can operate or integrate up to several hundred computers.
LAN combines high speed with a geographical spread of 1 – 10 km.
LAN may also access other LANs or tap into Wide Area Networks.
WAN (wide area network) ‫ مع بعض عن طريق‬LAN ‫• ممكن أوصل مجموعة من شبكات‬
• LAN with similar architectures are bridges which act as transfer
points, while LAN with different architectures are gateways which
convert data as it passes between systems.
• LAN is a shared access technology, meaning that all of the attached
devices share a common medium of communication such as coaxial,
twisted pair, or fiber optics cable.
coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics ‫• يتم توصيل األجهزة عن طريق كابالت سواء‬
• A physical connection device, the Network Interface Card (NIC),
connects to the network.
‫ ودا بساعد في ربطهم معا‬Network Interface Card (NIC), ‫• كل جهاز منهم يحتوي‬
• The network software manages communication between stations on
the system.
Advantages of LAN include:
1. Resource sharing: allows intelligent devices such as storage devices,
programs, and data files to share resources, that is, LAN users can use
the same printer on the network; the installed database and the software
can be shared by multiple users ‫مثل اربط كل األجهزة بطابعة وكلهم يقدروا يتحكموا بها‬
2. Area covered: LAN is normally restricted to a small geographical area,
for example, office building, utility, campus ‫بتغطي مساحة بالنت والترابط بينهم‬

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3. Cost and availability: application software and interface devices are
affordable and off - the - shelf
4. High channel speed: ability to transfer data at rates between 1 and 10
million bits per second
5. Flexibility: grow/expand with low probability of error; easy to
maintain and operate
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
LAN has three categories of data transmission:
1. Unicast transmission: a single data packet is sent from a source node to
a destination (address) on the network ‫لما انقل معلومة لعميل واحد فقط‬
2. Multicast transmission: a single data packet is copied and sent to a
specific subset of nodes on the network; the source node addresses the
packet by using the multicast addresses ‫لما انقل معلومة لمجموعة من العمالء‬
3. Broadcast transmission: a single data packet is copied and sent to all
nodes on the network; the source node addresses the packet by using the
broadcast address ‫لما انقل معلومة لجميع العمالء‬
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
LAN topologies define how network devices are organized. The four
most common architectural structures are:
1. Bus topology: linear LAN architecture in which transmission from
network station propagates the length of the medium and is received
by all other stations connected to it
‫عندي نقطتين اتصال بينهم خط أي جهاز مربوط بالخط دا هتوصله أي معلومة بنقلها بين النقطتين‬
2. Ring bus topology: a series of devices connected to one another by
unidirectional transmission links to form a single closed loop
3. Star topology: the end points on a network are connected to a common
central hub or switch by dedicated links‫كل البيانات عندي بتتجمع من األجهزة المختلفة‬
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4. Tree topology: identical to the bus topology except those branches with
multiple nodes are also possible

Home access Network (HAN):

• HAN is a LAN confined to an individual home. It enables remote
control of automated digital devices and appliances throughout the
house.
• Smart meters, smart appliances and Web - based monitoring can be
integrated into this level.
‫• عبارة عن شبكة خاصة بالمنزل الواحد والتي تقيس احتياجات المنزل وترسلها للشبكة‬

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Neighborhood Area Network (NAN)
• NAN is a wireless community currently used for wireless local
distribution applications. Ideally, it will cover an area larger than a
LAN.
• Some architectural structures will focus on the integration and
interoperability of the various domains within the smart grid.
• Domains consist of groups of buildings, systems, individuals, or
devices which have similar communications characteristics
‫ ولكن تغطي مجموعة من المباني والمنشأت ولكن له شرط ان كل تلك‬HAN ‫• شبيهه لـ‬
‫المباني يكون لها نفس خصائص االتصال‬
COMMUNICATIONS CHARACTERISTICS
‫هنا زي مجموعات من المباني او المستخدمين بيكون لهم نفس الخصائص‬
Bulk generation: includes market services interface, plant control system,
and generators; this domain interacts with the market operations and
transmission domains through wide area networks, substation LANs, and
the Internet
Transmission: includes substation devices and controllers, data collectors,
and electric storage; this domain interacts with bulk generation and
operations through WANs and substation LANs; integrated with the
distribution domain
Distribution: this domain interacts with operations and customers
through Field Area Networks
Customer: includes customer equipment, metering, Energy Management
Systems (EMS), electric storage, appliances, PHEVs, and so on
Service Providers: includes utility and third-party providers which
handle billing customer services, and so on; this domain interacts with
operations and customers primarily through the Internet‫زي محصلين الفواتير‬

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Operations: includes Energy Management Systems (EMS), Web Access
Management System (WAMS), and SCADA; this domain can be sub -
divided into generation, transmission, and distribution ‫مهندسين التشغيل‬
Market: includes electrical grids, aggregators, and other market
participants
‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
CH.5
Measurement technology and Demand side integration
Introduction
✓ The smart grid environment requires the upgrade of tools for
sensing, metering, and measurements at all levels of the grid. These
components will provide the data necessary for monitoring the grid
and the power market.
‫الشبكة الذكية تطلب التحديث المستمر ألدوات القياس واالستشعار علي مدار كل أجزاء الشبكة والتي‬
two – way communications ‫تستقبل وترسل بيانات بين الشبكة والمستهلك فيما يعرف بـ‬
a variety of inputs ‫عبارة عن المدخالت الخاصة بالقياس‬
1. (Pricing signals )‫(تسعير االستهالك حسب وقت االستهالك وهل هو في ساعات الذروة أو ال‬
2. time - of - day tariff ‫قياس مدي زحام الشبكة من ضغط االحمال‬
3. regional transmission organization (RTO) curtailments for
congestion relief)
‫دا بيقيس التيار مثال في الخط وله قيمة ال يمكن ان يتخطاها ولو جه يزيد عنها وقتها يشغل‬
‫خط تاني أو يقسم الحمل علي خطوط تانية وهكذا‬
a variety of outputs
1. real time consumption data
‫بيقيس االستهالك الحقيقي وهل في وقت الذروة او ال وعلي أساسها يسعر االستهالك‬
2. power quality ‫بيقيس جودة القدرة الخارجة ويحسب معامل القدرة‬
3. electric parameters

45
 4. the ability to connect and disconnect, and interfaces with generators,
grid operators, and customer portals to enhance power measurement.
‫القدرة علي توصيل وفصل االحمال حسب ظروف التشغيل وتوصيل او فصل مولدات من الشبكة‬
‫وبيحصل تواصل مع العمالء‬
• This is facilitated by the increased utilization of digital electronics
for metering and measurements, advancement of the electric meter
at the customer level, and installation of wide area monitoring
system for advanced utility monitoring and protection.
1. Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
2. Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) 3. Smart Meters
4. Smart Appliances 5. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
5.2.1 Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
• WAMS are designed by the utilities for optimal capacity of the
transmission grid and to prevent the spread of disturbances.
• By providing real - time information on stability and operating
safety margins, WAMS give early warnings of system disturbances
for the prevention and mitigation of system – wide blackouts.
• WAMS utilize sensors distributed throughout the network in
conjunction with GPS satellites for precise time stamping of
measurements in the transmission system. The integrated sensors
will interface with the communication network
‫• وظيفته ان يمنع االضطرابات ويحافظ علي كل حاجة في الوضع األمثل‬
‫ بيحدد أماكن االضطرابات وبيبعت إشارة للنظام يعرفه مكان المشكلة‬GPS ‫• بيكون فيه‬
‫ويحاول يقللها عن طريق التحكم في قيمة التيارات في الخطوط‬
5.2.2 Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)
‫ وعلي أساسه هيظهر في اضطرابات‬P.F ‫ ويحسب الـ‬P ‫بيقيس الجهود والتيارات في الفروع وكذلك الـ‬
)P.F ‫او ال (لو فيه اضطرابات هيقل الـ‬

46
 • The PMUs consist of bus voltage phasors and branch current
phasors, in addition to information such as locations and other
network parameters.
• Phasor measurements are taken with high precision from different
points of the power system at the same instant, allowing an operator
to visualize the exact angular difference between different locations.
• PMUs are equipped with GPS receivers which allow
synchronization of readings taken at distant points

2.2.3 Smart Meters

Smart meters have two functions:
1. Providing data on energy usage to customers (end - users) to help
control cost and consumption;

47
2. Sending data to the utility for load factor control, peak – load
requirements, and the development of pricing strategies based on
consumption information
5.2.4 Smart Appliances ‫أجهزة قياس ملحقة باالجهزة بتاعتنا نفسها‬
• Smart appliances cycle up and down in response to signals sent by
the utility.
• The applicances enable customers to participate in voluntary
demand response programs which award credits for limiting power
use in peak demand periods or when the grid is under stress.
• An override function allows customers to control their appliances
using the Internet.
• Air conditioners, space heaters, water heaters, refrigerators,
washers, and dryers represent about 20% of total electric demand
during most of the day and throughout the year.
• Grid - friendly appliances use a simple computer chip that can sense
disturbances in the grid’ s power frequency and can turn an
appliance off for a few minutes to allow the grid to stabilize during a
crisis.
5.2.5 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
‫نقطة االلتقاء بين الشبكة وجزء االتصاالت‬
• AMI is the convergence of the grid, the communication
infrastructure, and the supporting information infrastructure.
The functions of AMI can be subdivided into three major categories:
Market applications:‫تطبيق متخصص ان يقيس الطاقة المستهلكة ويحدد سعرها ويبلغك بيها‬
serve to reduce/eliminate labor, transportation, and infrastructure costs
associated with meter reading and maintenance, increase accuracy of
billing, and allow for time - based rates while reducing bad debts;
facilitates informed customer participation for energy management

48
Customer applications: serves to increase customer awareness about load
reduction, reduces bad debt, and improves cash flow, and enhances
customer convenience and satisfaction; provides demand response and
load management to improve system reliability and performance
‫تطبيق غير خاص بالفلوس لكن خاص باألحمال واالستهالك يحذرك ان استهالكك عالي ومحتاج‬
.‫تخفضه او يبلغك بساعات انخفاض االحمال واللي تقدر ترشد استهالكك فيها‬
Distribution operations: curtails customer load for grid management,
optimizes network based on data collected, allows for the location of
outages and restoration of service, improves customer satisfaction,
reduces energy losses, improves performance in event of outage with
reduced outage duration and optimization of the distribution system and
distributed generation management, provides emergency demand
response
• An extension of AMI will be smart meters which handle customers’
gas and water usage data.

5.3 Multiagent system (MAS) Technology

• MAS are a computational system in which several agents cooperate
to achieve a desired task.
• The performance of MAS can be decided by the interactions among
various agents. Agents cooperate to achieve more than if they act
individually.
• Increasingly, MAS are the preferential choice for developing
distributed systems. Information passes between the agents about
the appropriate actions to be taken. When implemented, the process
repeats itself to constantly monitor the system so that management
of system conditions can be implemented instantaneously.
‫• هو عبارة عن برنامج او جروب بيكون عليه العمالء الموجودين في مكان معين ويحاولوا‬
‫ينظموا استهالكهم ككل بحيث يتناسب مع القدرة اللي هتوصلهم والهدف هو تحقيق استفادة‬
‫أكبر من قيام كل عميل بتحديد استهالكه بمفرده‬
49
 2.4.1 Multiagent Systems for Smart Grid Implementation
‫أنظمة متعددة العمالء لتشغيل الشبكة الذكية‬
The smart grid is expected to have the following key characteristics:
1. self - healing
2. consumer friendly
3. attack resistant ‫مقاومة لالضطرابات‬
4. provide power quality for 21st - century needs
5. accommodate‫ استيعاب‬all generation and storage options
6. enable markets
7. optimize assets and operate efficiently

50
 • Central to the operation of any power system is its control
architecture consisting of hardware and software protocols for
exchanging system status and control signals. In conventional
electric power systems, this is accomplished by SCADA
• Current trends to control and monitor system operations are
moving toward the use of MAS.
• A multiagent system is a combination of several agents working in
collaboration pursuing assigned tasks to achieve the overall goal of
the system.
• The multiagent system has become an increasingly powerful tool in
developing complex systems that take advantages of agent
properties: autonomy, sociality, reactivity and pro – activity
• The multiagent system is autonomous ‫ مستقل‬in that they operate
without human interventions. ‫تدخل بشري‬
• The multiagent system is sociable in that they interact with other
agents via some kind of agent communication language. The agents
also perceive and react to their environment.
• Lastly, the multiagent system is proactive in that they are able to
exhibit goal-oriented behavior by taking initiatives
‫ يعتبر النظام متعدد الوكالء استباقيًا من حيث قدرته على إظهار السلوك الموجه نحو الهدف‬، ‫• أخي ًرا‬
‫من خالل اتخاذ المبادرات‬
2.4.2 Multiagent Specifications
• an agent is an information processor that performs autonomous
actions based on information.
.‫الوكيل هو معالج معلومات يقوم بتنفيذ إجراءات مستقلة بنا ًء على المعلومات‬
Common agent attributes include:‫تشمل سمات الوكيل الشائعة ما يلي‬
• Autonomy: ‫االستقاللية‬
goal - directedness, proactive and self - starting behavior

51
• Collaborative behavior: the ability to work with other agents to
achieve a common goal
• Knowledge - level communication ability: the ability to
communicate with other agents with language resembling human
speech acts rather than typical symbol - level program - to -
program protocols
• Reactivity:‫ التفاعلية‬the ability to selectively sense and act
• Temporal continuity: persistence of identity and state over long
periods ‫ استمرار الهوية والحالة على مدى فترات طويلة‬:‫االستمرارية الزمنية‬
• In this section, the specifications of a control agent, a distributed
energy resource (DER) agent, a user agent, and a database agent in
the Intelligent Distributed Autonomous Power System (IDAPS)
MAS are defined.

1. Control agent: responsibilities include monitoring system voltage

and frequency to detect contingency situations or grid failures, and
sending signals to the main circuit breaker to isolate the IDAPS
microgrid from the utility when an upstream outage is detected;
receiving electricity price ($/kWh) signal from the main grid, which
may be obtained from AMI, and publishing them to the IDAPS
entities
‫عامل زي مندوب الدفعة بيراقب الجهد والشبكة وحاالت الطوارئ ويستقبل فواتير الكهرباء‬
‫ويبلغ العمالء ويكون هو حلقة الوصل بين الشبكة وباقي العمالء‬
2. DER agent: responsibilities include storing associated DER
information, monitoring and controlling DER power levels and
connect/disconnect status; DER information to be stored may
include DER identification number, type (solarcells, microturbines,
fuel cells), power rating (kW), local fuel availability, cost function or
price at which users agree to sell, DER availability, that is, planned
maintenance schedule
‫بيراقب موارد الطاقة ويبلغ العمالء بتعديل استهالكهم في حالة نقص في موارد الطاقة المتجددة‬
52
 3. User agent: acts as a customer gateway that makes features of an
IDAPS microgrid accessible to users; responsibilities include
providing users with real - time information on entities residing in
the IDAPS system; monitors electricity consumption by each critical
and noncritical load; allows users to control the status of loads
based on user ’ s predefi ned priority
‫هو اللي بيراقب االستهالك وبيحدد هل مسموح بزيادة االحمال او ان االحمال زيادة محتاجة تتخفف‬
4. Database agent: serves as a data access point for other agents as well as
users; responsibilities include storing system information, recording
messages and data shared among agents.
‫دا اللي بيخزن المعلومات الخاصة بالشبكة‬

2.4.3 Multiagent Technique

MAS can be characterized by:
1. Each agent has incomplete capabilities to solve a problem
‫كل عميل ليه دور غير كامل في حل المشكلة يعني مفيش حد بينفرد بالقرار لوحده‬
2. No global system controls
3. Decentralized data
4. Asynchronous computation

53