‫‪Electrical Power Engineering‬‬

‫تبدأ من مرحلة توليد الكهرباء ‪ , Generation System‬ثم نقلها ‪ , Transmission System‬ثم‬

‫توزيعها ‪ Distribution System‬لـ يتم إستهالكها ‪ Utilization System‬ف المناطق الصناعية‬
‫‪ Industrial‬و السكانية ‪ Residential‬والتجارية ‪. Commercial‬‬

‫توليد الكهرباء بيكون عن طريق الـ ‪ Generator‬بواسطة ‪ Prime Mover‬وليكن الـ ‪. Turbines‬‬ ‫•‬
‫كهرباء = حركة ( ‪ ) Turbines‬للـ ‪ + Coil Or Conductor‬مجال مغناطيىس‬
‫نقل الكهرباء بيكون عن طريق الـ ) ‪ Overhead Lines ( T.L‬أو الـ ‪. Underground Cables‬‬ ‫•‬

‫توزي ــع الكهرباء للـ ‪ Loads‬عن طريق المحوالت ‪. Distribution Transformer‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ينظم عمل هذه المنظومة مجموعة من األنظمة الفرعية وىه ‪:‬‬

‫‪Protection‬‬
‫‪Control‬‬
‫‪Measurements‬‬
‫‪Communication‬‬

‫تعتب مفاصل الربط بي المنظومات الثالثة األساسية ىه الـ ‪ ( Substations‬محطات التحويل ) ‪ ,‬حيث‬ ‫ر‬
‫يتواجد داخل هذه المحطات جميع األنظمة المساعدة ( الفرعية ) السابقة ( الحماية ‪ ,‬التحكم ‪ ,‬القياس ‪,‬‬
‫اإلتصاالت ) ‪.‬‬

‫ً‬
‫وبالطبع فـ كل المنظومات تتعاون معا للوصول إىل ‪:‬‬
‫" جودة المنظومة الكهربية أو جودة الخدمة المطلوبة ‪ ,‬مع التحقق من إستقرار الشبكة ‪Power System‬‬
‫‪" Stability‬‬
‫ر‬
‫ويقصد بالـ ‪ Stability‬مدى قدرة الشبكة عىل رسعة إستعادة القيم الطبيعية للتشغيل سواء ( البدد أو الجهد‬
‫) بعد حدوث هزات عابرة بالشبكة ( ‪ ) Transients‬سواء كانت هذه الهزات بسيطة أو هزات ضخمة ‪.‬‬
 ‫الملخص‬

‫المبامن ( ‪) Synchronous Generator‬‬ ‫تبدأ من المولد الذى ينتج الكهرباء ‪ ,‬وهو عادة يكون من النوع ر‬
‫ً‬
‫مرورا بالمحول ( ‪ ) Transformer‬الذى يرفع قيمة جهد التوليد إىل قيمة عالية بغرض خفض قيمة التيار ‪,‬‬
‫ومن ثم خفض الفقد ف القدرة المنقولة من مكان آلخر ‪.‬‬
‫ً‬
‫ثم يىل ذلك خطوط نقل القدرة وىه غالبا تكون محمولة عىل أبراج عالية ) ‪ ) T.L‬أو ف صورة كابالت كهربية‬
‫مدفونة ف األرض ( ‪) Underground Cables‬‬
‫ثم تنتىه خطوط النقل بمجموعة من محوالت التوزي ــع ( ‪ ) Distribution Transformers‬ر‬
‫والت تخفض‬
‫الجهد إىل قيم مختلفة لتوزيعه عىل المستهلكي ‪:‬‬

‫المناطق الصناعية ‪ :‬جهد متوسط‬

‫المناطق السكانية ‪ :‬جهد منخفض‬
‫من خالل شبكة من الكابالت تنتىه بمجموعات متنوعة من اللوحات الكهربية ( ‪) Distribution Boards‬‬
‫ويتم ربط عناطر المنظومة ببعضها من خالل ما يسىم بـ قضبان التوزي ــع ( ‪ , ) Bus Bar‬وهذه القضبان يركب‬
‫عليها عدد من ‪:‬‬

‫خاليا الخروج‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫خاليا الدخول‬

1- Generation System:

What Is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or
processes that are constantly replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep shining and
blowing, even if their availability depends on time and weather.

▪ Types of Renewable Energy Sources

• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Hydroelectric Power
• Biomass Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Ocean Tidal and wave energy

What Is Non-Renewable Energy (Dirty energy)?

Nonrenewable, or “dirty,” energy includes fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and
coal. Nonrenewable sources of energy are only available in limited amounts and take a long
time to replenish. When we pump gas at the station, we’re using a finite resource refined
from crude oil that’s been around since prehistoric times.

▪ Examples of Nonrenewable Resources

• Fossil Fuels
• Crude Oil/Petroleum
• Natural Gas
• Coal is the last of the major fossil fuels.
• Nuclear Fuels
• Uranium
Types of Power Station
▪ Conventional energy of power generation:

1. Thermal Power Station

2. Nuclear Power Station
3. Hydro-Electric Power Station

▪ Non-Conventional energy of power generation:

1. Solar power generation. (Making use of the available solar energy)

2. Geo-thermal power generation. (Energy available in the Earth’s crust)
3. Tidal power generation.
4. Wind power generation (Energy available from the wind turbines)
5. Biomass Power generation.
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fast-moving flow
of water, steam, gas, air, or other fluid and converts it into useful work.
A turbine is a turbo-machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly,
which is a shaft or drum with blades attached.

▪ WORKING PRINCIPLE:

• The working principle is very much simple.

• When the fluid strikes the blades of the turbine, the blades are displaced, which
produces rotational energy.

• When the turbine shaft is directly coupled to an electric gene- -rotor mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy.

▪ types of turbines (Turbines Classifications, Table 1):

• Water Turbine
• Steam Turbine
• Gas Turbine
• Wind Turbine

Although the same principles apply to all turbines, their specific designs differ sufficiently to
merit separate descriptions.
What are Synchronous Generators?

Definition: The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine that

converts the mechanical power from a prime mover into an AC electrical power at a
particular voltage and frequency.
The synchronous motor always runs at a constant speed called synchronous speed.

How does a synchronous generator work?

In a synchronous generator,
a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic field.
The rotor is then turned by external means producing a rotating magnetic field,
which induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding.
The rotor of a synchronous machine is a large electromagnet.

How does a synchronous generator start?

The synchronous generator rotor and shaft or turbine blades are mechanically
coupled to each other and rotate at synchronous speed. Thus, the magnetic flux
cutting produces an induced emf which causes the current flow in armature
conductors.
The speed of field poles is synchronous speed and is given by

Note:
Turbines and generators are both used in the production of electric power, but
the turbine converts available energy forms into rotation while
the generator converts rotation into electricity.
Depending on the type of energy they use, power plants have corresponding types
of turbines and use them to power generators.

Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as well as synchronous

generators. An AC system has some advantages over DC system. Therefore, the AC system is
exclusively used for generation, transmission and distribution of electric power. The machine
which converts mechanical power into AC electrical power is called as Synchronous
Generator or Alternator. However, if the same machine can be operated as a motor is
known as Synchronous Motor.

A synchronous machine is an AC machine whose satisfactory operation depends upon the

maintenance of the following relationship.
 Where,

• Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)

• f is the supply frequency
• P is the number of poles of the machine.

When connected to an electric power system, a synchronous machine always maintains the
above relationship shown in the equation (1).

If the synchronous machine working as a motor fails to maintain the average speed (Ns) the
machine will not develop sufficient torque to maintain its rotation and will stop. Then the
motor is said to be Pulled Out of Step.

In case, when the synchronous machine is operating as a generator, it has to run at a fixed
speed called Synchronous speed to generate the power at a particular frequency. As all the
appliances or machines are designed to operate at this frequency. In some countries, the
value of the frequency is 50 hertz.

Basic Principles of Synchronous Machine

A synchronous machine is just an electromechanical transducer which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy or vice versa. The fundamental phenomenon or law which
makes these conversions possible are known as the Law of Electromagnetic
Induction and Law of interaction.

The detailed description is explained below.

▪ Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction
This law is also called as Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction. This law relates to
the production of emf, i.e.; emf is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts across the
magnetic field as shown below.

▪ Law of Interaction
This law relates to the production of force or torque, i.e., Whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the magnetic field produced
by the current carrying conductor and the main field, force is exerted on the conductor
producing torque. The figure is shown below.
 Three Phase Synchronous Machine

• The machine which is used in the household appliance such as the small machine used in air
coolers, refrigeration, fans, air conditioners, etc.
• However, large AC machines are three phase type synchronous machines because of the
following reasons.
• For the same size of the frame, three phase machines have nearly 1.5 times the output than
that of the single-phase machine.
• Three phase power is transmitted and distributed more economical than single phase
power.
• Three phase motors are self-starting (except synchronous motors).
• Three phase motors have an absolute uniform continuous torque, whereas, single phase
motors have pulsating torque.

In a small synchronous machine, the fielding winding is placed on the stator, and the
armature winding is placed on the rotor whereas for the large synchronous machine the
field winding is placed on the rotor, and the armature winding is placed on the stator.

Construction of a Synchronous Machine, i.e. alternator or motor consists of two main parts,
namely the stator and the rotor.

• The stator is the stationary part of the machine. It carries the armature winding in
which the voltage is generated. The output of the machine is taken from the stator.
• The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. The rotor produces the main field flux.

The important parts of the Synchronous Machine are given below.

• Stator
• Rotor
• Miscellaneous

▪ Stator Construction
The stationary part of the machine is called Stator. It includes various parts like stator frame,
stator core, stator windings and cooling arrangement. They are explained below in detail.

Stator Frame

It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron, and it protects the inner parts of the
machine.

Stator Core

The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from a number of stamps which
are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines
of force and accommodate the stator winding.
Stator Winding

Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3 phase or 1 phase winding is
placed. Enameled copper is used as winding material. The winding is star connected. The
winding of each phase is distributed over several slots. When the current flows in a
distributed winding it produces an essentially sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.

▪ Rotor Construction
The rotating part of the machine is called Rotor. There are two types of rotor construction,
namely the salient pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.

▪ Salient Pole Rotor

The term salient means projecting. Thus, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out
from the surface of the rotor core. The end view of a typical 6 pole salient pole rotor is
shown below in the figure.

Since the rotor is subjected to changing magnetic fields, it is made of steel laminations to
reduce eddy current losses. Poles of identical dimensions are assembled by stacking
laminations to the required length. A salient pole synchronous machine has a non-uniform
air gap. The air gap is minimized under the pole centers and it is maximum in between the
poles.

They are constructed for the medium and low speeds as they have a large number of poles.
A salient pole generator has a large diameter. The salient pole rotor has the following
important parts.

Spider

It is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. It is keyed to the shaft
and at the outer surface, pole core and pole shoe are keyed to it.
Pole Core and Pole Shoe

It is made of laminated sheet steel material. Pole core provides least reluctance path for the
magnetic field and pole shoe distributes the field over the whole periphery uniformly to
produce a sinusoidal wave.

Field Winding or Exciting Winding

It is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core. DC supply is given to it
through slip rings. When direct current flow through the field winding, it produces the
required magnetic field.

Damper Winding

At the outermost periphery, holes are provided in which copper bars are inserted and short-
circuited at both the sides by rings forming Damper winding.

▪ Non- Salient Pole Rotor or Cylindrical Rotor

In this type of rotor, there are no projected poles, but the poles are formed by the current
flowing through the rotor exciting winding. Cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of
high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum steel. It has a comparatively small diameter and long
axial length.

They are useful in high-speed machines. The cylindrical rotor type alternator has two or four
poles on the rotor. Such a construction provides a greater mechanical strength and permits
more accurate dynamic balancing. The smooth rotor of the machine makes less windage
losses and the operation is less noisy because of the uniform air gap.

The figure below shows the end view of the 2 pole and 4 pole cylindrical rotors.

They are driven by steam or gas turbines. Cylindrical synchronous rotor synchronous
generators are called turbo alternators and turbo generators. The machines are built in a
number of rating from 10 MVA to over 1500 MVA. The biggest size used in India has a rating
of 500 MVA installed in the super thermal power plant.

Non salient pole type rotors have the following parts. They are as follows
Rotor Core

The rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is placed on the shaft. At the outer
periphery, slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed.

Rotor Winding or Exciting Winding

It is placed on the rotor slots, and current is passed through the winding in such a way that
the poles are formed according to the requirement.

Slip Rings

Slip rings provide DC supply to the rotor windings.

▪ Miscellaneous Parts
The miscellaneous parts are given below.

Brushes

Brushes are made of carbon, and they slip over the slip rings. A DC supply is given to the
brushes. Current flows from the brushes to the slip rings and then to the exciting windings.

Bearings

Bearings are provided between the shaft and the outer stationary body to reduce the
friction. They are made of high carbon steel.

Shaft

The shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine through
the shaft.
Definition: The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine that converts
the mechanical power from a prime mover into an AC electrical power at a particular voltage
and frequency. The synchronous motor always runs at a constant speed called synchronous
speed.

Working Principle of Synchronous Generator

The synchronous generator works on the principle of Faraday laws of electromagnetic
induction. The electromagnetic induction states that electromotive force induced in the
armature coil if it is rotating in the uniform magnetic field. The EMF will also be generated if
the field rotates and the conductor becomes stationary. Thus, the relative motion between
the conductor and the field induces the EMF in the conductor. The wave shape of the
induces voltage always a sinusoidal curve.

Construction of Synchronous Generator

The rotor and stator are the rotating and the stationary part of the synchronous generator.
They are the power generating components of the synchronous generator. The rotor has the
field pole, and the stator consists the armature conductor. The relative motion between the
rotor and the stator induces the voltage between the conductor.

Applications of Synchronous Generator

The three-phase synchronous generators have many advantages in generation, transmission

and distribution. The large synchronous generators use in the nuclear, thermal and
hydropower system for generating the voltages.

The synchronous generator with 100MVA power rating uses in the generating station. The
500MVA power rating transformer use in the super thermal power stations. The
synchronous generators are the primary source of the electrical power. For the heavy power
generation, the stator of the synchronous generator design for voltage ratings between 6.6
kV to 33 kV.
 Difference Between Alternator & Generator
The major difference between the alternator and the generator is that

in alternator the armature is stationary and the field system rotates

whereas,

in the generator armature rotates and field is stationary.

The armature of the alternator is mounted on the stationary element called stator and field
winding on a rotating element. While the connection of a generator is just the reverse of it.

The other differences between them are shown in:

https://circuitglobe.com/difference-between-alternator-and-generator.html.

To More

https://circuitglobe.com/excitation-system-of-synchronous-machine.html

https://circuitglobe.com/armature-reaction-in-synchronous-machine.html

The word Excitation means the production of flux by passing current in the field winding.
The arrangement or the system used for the excitation of the synchronous machine is
known as Excitation System. To excite the field winding of the rotor of the synchronous
machine, direct current is required. Direct current is supplied to the rotor field of the small
machine by a DC generator called Exciter. A small DC generator called Pilot Generator,
supplies the current to the Exciter.

An automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is an electronic device for automatically

maintaining generator output terminal voltage at a set value under varying load and
operating temperature.
It controls output by sensing the voltage Vout at a power-generating coil and comparing it to
a stable reference.

The automatic voltage regulator is used to regulate the voltage. It takes the fluctuate voltage
and changes them into a constant voltage. The fluctuation in the voltage mainly occurs due
to the variation in load on the supply system. The variation in voltage damages the
equipment of the power system. The variation in the voltage can be controlled by installing
the voltage control equipment at several places likes near the transformers, generator,
feeders, etc., The voltage regulator is provided in more than one point in the power system
for controlling the voltage variations.
In DC supply system the voltage can be controlled by using over compound generators in
case of feeders of equal length, but in the case of feeders of different lengths the voltage at
the end of each feeder is kept constant using feeder booster. In AC system the voltage can
be controlled by using the various methods likes booster transformers, induction regulators,
shunt condensers, etc.,

Working Principle of Voltage Regulator

It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC generator
obtained through a potential transformer and then it is rectified, filtered and compared with
a reference. The difference between the actual voltage and the reference voltage is known
as the error voltage. This error voltage is amplified by an amplifier and then supplied to the
main exciter or pilot exciter.

Thus, the amplified error signals control the excitation of the main or pilot exciter through a
buck or a boost action (i.e. controls the fluctuation of the voltage). Exciter output control
leads to the controls of the main alternator terminal voltage.
 Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator
The main functions of an AVR are as follows.

1. It controls the voltage of the system and has the operation of the machine nearer to the
steady state stability.
2. It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.
3. The automatic voltage regulators reduce the overvoltage which occur because of the
sudden loss of load on the system.
4. It increases the excitation of the system under fault conditions so that the maximum
synchronizing power exists at the time of clearance of the fault.

When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a change in the
excitation system to provide the same voltage under the new load condition. This can be
done by the help of the automatic voltage regulator. The automatic voltage regulator
equipment operates in the exciter field and changes the exciter output voltage, and the field
current. During the violent fluctuation, the ARV does not give a quick response.

For getting the quick response, the quick acting voltage regulators based on
the overshooting the mark principle are used. In overshoot mark principle, when the load
increases the excitation of the system also increase. Before the voltage increase to the value
corresponding to the increased excitation, the regulator reduces the excitation of the proper
value.
What is generator circuit breaker?

Generator circuit breakers are power plant devices located between the generator (which
produces electricity at a voltage of around 15-25 kV) and the step-up transformer (which
increases this voltage up to the grid transmission voltage – 200 kV to 800 kV).

The generator main circuit breaker (GMCB) simplifies plant operation by eliminating the
need for transferring auxiliary power supplies during startup.

It eliminates the starting transformer and associated circuit breakers and isolates
the generator if a unit trips or a fault occurs.

A circuit breaker is used to connect the generator to the network and to separate
the generator from the network.
The generator circuit breaker, when existing, will also decrease the duration of
the generator short-circuit stresses in case of a fault that occurs on the MV side of
the step-up transformers.
How does a generator step up transformer work?
In a generator step- up transformer, current enters
the generator through a conductor connected to
the low voltage windings, induces a magnetic flux
in the iron core, and this flux induces a current in
the high voltage windings, which is connected to a
conductor that connects to the transmission lines.

The step-up transformers have delta-connected LV

windings energized by the generator voltage, while star connected HV windings are
connected to the transmission lines.
Transformers are used to change voltages and currents in transmission lines.

A transformer is formed from two coils of wire around a magnetic core.

The number of coils determines whether the transformers will step-up or step-down
the voltage.

Why do we use a step-up transformer?

In the National Grid, a step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage and
reduce the current.

Less current means less energy is lost through heating the wire. To keep people safe
from these high voltage wires, pylons are used to support transmission
lines above the ground.

To More https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3xv97h/revision/4
The generator transformer is the first essential component for energy transmission,
allowing energy supplied by the generator to be transferred to the network at the
required voltage. It is static device which steps up or step down the alternate current
voltages and it is working on the principle of mutual induction.

connections between the generator and transformers.

 Generator step-up transformers (GSU) are the critical link between the power
station and the transmission network, often operated day and night at full load. They
must be built to withstand extreme thermal loading without ageing prematurely.

ABB have successfully passed the world's first and highest voltage short circuit test,
on a 315 mega volt ampere (MVA), 765 kilovolt (kV) generator step up transformer
(GSU).

GSU take the voltage from the generator voltage level up to the suitable
transmission voltage level.

These transformers are located in a power station and are built as single-phase or
three-phase units.

There are two (2) basic technologies for designing and manufacturing: core and shell.
With shell-formed transformers, the primary and secondary are on one leg and
surrounded by the core. With a core-formed transformer, cylindrical legs windings
cover the core legs.

Why ABB?
▪ Short circuit performance at twice the industry standard
▪ One global approach - bringing consistency, delivery performance and technology
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another by electromagnetic induction (also called transformer action). It is used
to step up or step-down AC voltage. It is also called an electrostatic device because
it doesn’t contain moving parts.

It works on a principle of Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic induction. In the

transformer, an electrical connection does not occur, but it is magnetically
connected. So, it requires and works only the AC voltage source to generate the
magnetic flux in the electromagnetic field. And it is playing a significant role as a
protective device by regulating (raising or lowering) voltage in an
electrical power system.

The transformer has the main function to transform the power from one circuit to
another circuit at a constant frequency. In the transformer, power is measured in
the KVA rating, not kW. The various types of transformers are used in the power
system. This classification of the transformer is classified into a different basis.
Parts of a Transformer: These are the basic parts of a transformer

1. Laminated Iron Core

2. Winding of the Transformer
3. Insulating Material
4. Tap Changer
5. Transformer Tank
6. Oil Conservator Tank
7. Breather
8. Buchholz Relay
9. Bushing
10. Cooling Tube and Radiator
11. Explosion Vent
1. Laminated Iron Core
A core of the transformer is made up of iron or silicon steel or ferromagnetic materials.
The main function of Core to support the winding and to provide a flux flowing path in
the magnetic circuit. The soft iron core which made by the thin metal strips lamination.
Each metal strip has thickness near about the o.5mm. In the below figure, you can see
the number of metal strips connected to each other with the lamination layer and form
a single core.

▪ Laminated Iron Core

It provides a low reluctance path and high permeability for the flux in the magnetic
circuit. And this lamination of the core helps to reduce the eddy current loss and
hysteresis loss.

2.Winding of the Transformer

The transformer winding is consisting of several turns of the copper coil. It is wrapped
around the limb or core with the lamination. These windings laminated by the insulation
coating because it prevents the short circuit condition. The winding of the transformer
is separated by the primary side and secondary side.

On the bases of supply two types as.

I. High voltage winding

II. Low voltage winding

3. Insulating Material

In the transformer, insulating materials rely on their voltage rating. Different types of
insulating materials are used in the transformer. These insulating materials maybe a
transformer oil, insulating paper, wood, the insulating glass material, tap changer
insulating coil from grounding, etc.
4. Tap Changer

Tap changer to regulate supply voltage or load and maintain both conditions by
changing the variable turn. The tap changer is easily removed the first turn and connect
the next turn ratio. Tap changers can occur on the primary side or secondary side.
Generally, tap changer use in the high voltage winding side because it reduces load
current.

Classification of Tap Changer:

It is classified into two following categories,

• No-load tap changer

• ON-load tap changer
5. Transformer Tank

The transformer tank is a cylindrically shaped tank. It is made of steel metal with a high
thickness. Core and transformer winding are placed in the transformer tank. The
transformer tank is needed to store the oil especially mineral oil. This oil provides
insulation and cooling to the transformer winding.
6. Oil Conservator Tank

The oil conservator tank looks like a rectangular tank. It stores the extra oil and directly
connected with the transformer tank. The oil conservator tank is played an important
role in the transformer. The purpose of the conservator tank is to protect the expansion
of oil in the main tank of the transformer. The oil is used in the transformer two
purposes:

• Insulation
• Cooling

When the oil level reduces due to losses or leakage, the conservator will be delivering
oil to the transformer. Thus, it acts as reservoir oil.
7. Breather

Breather is connected with the conservator tank. It is a cylindrical vessel which filled
blue color silica gel. They have two purposes -remove the moisture from the air and to
have the capacity to absorb the moisture in a transformer. It plays a role to act as the
air filter and provide the free moisturizing air to the conservator tank.
8. Buchholz Relay

Buchholz relay is a protective device that is oil and gas-operated the relay. It is
connected to the main transformer tank and conservator tank. When the internal fault
occurs in the transformer due to leakage flux, insulation core, core connection,
breakdown core, etc. by producing excess heat.

This excess heat decomposes oil in the transformer and gas bubbles formed. Gas
bubbles flow in the upward direction to the conservator and collected in the relay.
Buchholz relay is fault detected by the amount of nature of gas and oil level in a
transformer. During several fault conditions, an alarm is alert then this command send
to the circuit breaker and isolates the transformer.
9. Bushing

The bushing is an insulating device that is made up of porcelain materials. The terminal
of the bushing is provided a path of the conductor to the transformer tank. With the
help of the terminal, the transformer gives and provides the supply to another system.
In the transformer, two types of the bushing are mostly used- high voltage (HV) bushing
and low voltage (LV) bushing. It relies on voltage rating may be a high voltage or low
voltage.

In the above figure, you can see the high voltage bushing occurs in large size and low
voltage bushing is occur in a small size.
10. Cooling Tube and Radiator

The cooling tube is necessary for maintaining the temperature and circulating cooling
oil in the transformer. And the radiator is connected with the transformer tank. It is also
made of a number of metal strips or pipes. Both the cooling tube and the radiator
provide the same function in a different way. When losses occur in the transformer,
heat is produced. This heat absorbs by the cooling tube and radiator in the form of
cooling systems.
 11. Explosion Vent

The explosion vent is located at the topmost position on the transformer. The
conservator tank is directly connected to the explosion tank with the help of a pipe. The
main purpose to prevent damage transformer oil tank by expelling boiling oil during an
internal fault. And it is necessary to remove heated oil (in the form of gas) in the
transformer. This explosion tank use only for emergency purposes. It mostly works when
a breather and Buchholz replay will not doing work properly.

To More

https://circuitglobe.com/category/electrical-terms/electrical-machines/transformer

https://components101.com/articles/transformer-basics-types-working

https://byjus.com/physics/generator-and-transformers/
To More: https://www.elec-plc.com/2017/05/Unified-Electrical-Networks.html
2-Transmission System:

Electrical energy, after being produced at generating stations (TPS, HPS, NPS, etc.) is
transmitted to the consumers for utilization.

This is due to the fact that generating stations are usually situated away from the load
centers.

The network that transmits and delivers power from the producers to the consumers is
called the transmission system.

This energy can be transmitted in AC or DC form. Traditionally, AC has been used for years
now, but HVDC (High Voltage DC) is rapidly gaining popularity.

A typical single line diagram that represents the flow of energy in a given power
system is shown below:
Electric power is commonly (or usually) generated at 11 kV in generating stations in India
and Europe. While in some cases, generation voltage might be higher or lower.
Generating machines, to be used in power stations, are available between 6 kV to 25 kV
from some big manufacturers. This generating voltage is then stepped up to 132kV, 220kV,
400kV or 765kV etc.
Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is to be
transmitted. Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level.
Stepping up of voltage is to reduce the I2R losses in transmitting the power (when voltage is
stepped up, the current reduces by a relative amount so that the power remains constant,
and hence I2R loss also reduces). This stage is called as
The voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV.
lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations
located near load centers (cities etc.).
The voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can
be supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Also, feeders emerge from these
substations. This stage is called as .
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the
load points (end consumers) up to a couple of kilometers. Finally, the voltage is stepped
down to 415 volts by a pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered to the
distributors.
End consumers are supplied through a service mains line from distributors.
The system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.

Different types of transmission systems

1. Single phase AC system

▪ single phase, two wires
▪ single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
▪ single phase, three wires
2. Two phase AC system
▪ two-phase, three wires
▪ two-phase, four wires
3. Three phase AC system
▪ three-phase, three wires
▪ three-phase, four wires
4. DC system
▪ DC two wires
▪ DC two wires with midpoint earthed
▪ DC three wires
Electric power transmission can also be carried out using .
But, construction of an underground transmission line generally costs 4 to 10 times than an
equivalent distance overhead line. However, it is to be noted that, the cost of constructing
underground transmission lines highly depends upon the local environment.
Also, the cost of conductor material required is one of the most considerable charges in a
transmission system.
Since conductor cost is a major part of the total cost, it has to be taken into consideration
while designing.
The choice of transmission system is made by keeping in mind various factors such as
reliability, efficiency and economy. Usually, overhead transmission system is used.

Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely used
for electric power transmission.

Following are the main elements of a typical power system.

▪ Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line. Conductors
must be of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity.
Usually, ACSR (Aluminum-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
▪ Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and step-
down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be
transmitted at higher efficiency.
▪ Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating
them from the support towers.
▪ Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.
▪ Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation.
These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.
▪ Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.
 T.L

Underground Cables
Sub-Station

Elements of a substation A: Primary power lines’ side B: Secondary power lines’

side.

1. Primary power lines

2. Ground wire
3. Overhead lines
4. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
5. Disconnect switch
6. Circuit breaker
7. Current transformer
8. Lightning arrester
9. Main transformer
10. Control building
11. Security fence
12. Secondary power lines
3- Distribution System

You can improve power factor by adding power factor correction capacitors to
your plant distribution system. When apparent power (kVA) is greater than
working power (kW), the utility must supply the excess reactive current plus the
working current . Power capacitors act as reactive current generators .

Power-factor-correction capacitors are used for this purpose. A motor requires

inductive or lagging reactive power for magnetizing. Capacitors provide
capacitive or leading reactive power that cancels out the lagging
reactive power when used for power-factor improvement.

Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between voltage
and current. Since the majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require
some amount of reactive power for them to function.
A capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the load provides this
reactive power.

To More
https://passive-components.eu/principles-and-technology-of-power-factor-correction-
pfc-capacitors/
Utilization System
Utilization is the "end result" of the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric
power. The energy carried by the transmission and distribution system is turned into useful
work, light, heat, or a combination of these items at the utilization point.

Understanding and characterizing the utilization of electric power is critical for proper
planning and operation of power systems.

The major utilization of electrical energy is to generate output from electrical and
electronics devices.

Apart from it utilization of electric energy is in industry, domestic utilization, in commercial

usage, in public service, in transport, in fishery etc.

1. ELECTRIC DRIVES

2. ELECTRICAL TRACTION

3. ELECTRICAL HEATING & WELDING

4. ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS

To More http://www.industrial-electronics.com/elec_pwr_3e_32.html
 There are two types of voltage, DC voltage and AC voltage.

The DC voltage (direct current voltage) always has the same polarity (positive or
negative), such as in a battery.

The AC voltage (alternating current voltage) alternates between positive and

negative.

Classification of Electrical Services (Voltage Level)

• Low Voltage: 1000 volts or less.
• Medium Voltage: greater than 1000 volts and less than 100 kV.
• High Voltage: greater than 100 kV and equal to or less than 230 kV.
• Extra-High Voltage: greater than 230 kV but less than 1000 kV.
• Ultra-High Voltage: equal to or greater than 1000 kV.

7 Types of Voltage Level ELV LV MV HV EHV Ultra High Voltage

• Rated Voltage.
• Nominal Voltage.
• Extra low Voltage.
• Low Voltage.
• Medium voltage.
• High Voltage.
• Extra High Voltage.
 ✓ Nature of Load:

Resistive,

Inductive,

Capacitive

✓ Power System Load:

Domestic load

Commercial load

Industrial load

Agriculture load

Electrical Load
Definition: The device which takes
electrical energy is known as the
electric load. In other words, the
electrical load is a device that
consumes electrical energy in the
form of the current and transforms it
into other forms like heat, light,
work, etc.

The electrical load may be resistive,

inductive, capacitive or some
combination between them. The
term load is used in the number of
ways.

Three basic types of loads exist in circuits:

Capacitive loads,
Inductive loads, and
Resistive loads.
These differ in how they consume power in an alternating current (AC) setup.
Capacitive, inductive and resistive load types correspond loosely to lighting, mechanical and
heating loads.
Types of Electrical Loads
The nature of the load depends on the load factor, demand factor, diversity
factor, power factor, and a utilization factor of the system. The different types of load
are explained below in details.

Resistive Load
The resistive load obstructs the flow of electrical energy in the circuit and converts it
into thermal energy, due to which the energy dropout occurs in the circuit. The lamp
and the heater are the examples of the resistive load. The resistive loads take power in
such a way so that the current and the voltage wave remain in the same phase. Thus the
power factor of the resistive load remains in unity.

Inductive load
The inductive loads use the magnetic field for doing the
work. The transformers, generators, motor are the examples of the load. The inductive
load has a coil which stores magnetic energy when the current pass through it. The
current wave of the inductive load is lagging behind the voltage wave, and the power
factor of the inductive load is also lagging.

Capacitive Load
In the capacitive load, the voltage wave is leading the current wave. The examples of
capacitive loads are capacitor bank, three phase induction motor starting circuit, etc.
The power factor of such type of loads is leading.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
The total loads of an area depend on its population and living standard of the people.
The different types of the loads in a power system are as follows.

1. Domestic load
2. Commercial load
3. Industrial load
4. Agriculture load

1. Domestic Load – The domestic load is defined as the total energy consumed by the
electrical appliances in the household work. It depends on the living standard, weather
and type of residence. The domestic loads mainly consist of lights, fan, refrigerator, air
conditioners, mixer, grinder, heater, ovens, small pumping, motor, etc. The domestic
load consumes very little power and also independent from frequency. This load largely
consists of lighting, cooling or heating.

2. Commercial Load – Commercial load mainly consist of lightning of shops, offices,

advertisements, etc., Fans, Heating, Air conditioning and many other electrical
appliances used in establishments such as market restaurants, etc. are considered as a
commercial load.

3. Industrial Loads – Industrial load consists of small-scale industries, medium scale

industries, large scale industries, heavy industries and cottage industries. The induction
motor forms a high proportion of the composite load. The industrial loads are the
composite load. The composite load is a function of frequency and voltage and its form a
major part of the system load.

4. Agriculture Loads – This type of load is mainly motor pumps-sets load for irrigation
purposes. The load factor of this load is very small e.g. 0.15 – 0.20.
Low Voltage

Contents of Distribution Course

1: AutoCAD
➢ Basic AutoCAD Commands

2: Indoor Lighting
➢ Luminaire Selection
➢ Distribution of Luminaire
✓ Manual Calculation
✓ Dialux program

3: Sockets (Power)
➢ Types of sockets.
➢ Distribution of sockets.

4: Panel Boards
➢ Construction of panel board.
➢ How to draw the Panel Board (S.L.D).
➢ Types of Panel Board.
➢ Panel Board location.
5: Circuit Breaker
➢ Operating voltage of C.B
➢ Rated current of C.B (Ir or In) Amp.
➢ Instantaneous short circuit current (Im)
➢ Rated breaking capacity (Icu) KA
➢ Types of C.B
➢ Types of poles.
Earth leakage C.B

6: Cables
➢ Operating voltage
➢ Operating frequency
➢ Conductor type
➢ Insulation level
➢ Core number
➢ Neutral and Earthing cable cross section area
➢ De-rating factors
➢ Line (R,S,T) Cross section area (mm2) Calculation

7: Cable Routing
➢ Cable trays
➢ pipes
➢ underground Cables

8: Wiring System rules (Lighting +Sockets +UPS Sockets)

9: Air Condition (HVAC)

➢ Central Air Condition type
➢ Direct expansion (D.X) type
➢ Split type.
10: Lifts and Escalators
➢ Selection of motor rated power
➢ Total load calculation of lifts
➢ Panel board design

11: Busbar trucking

➢ Specs of B.B. according to
➢ Type of Bus duct
➢ Arranged
➢ Rated current
➢ SC current
➢ Voltage drops
➢ Feeding type
➢ Types of joints
➢ IP

12: Ring main unit (R.M.U)

➢ Construction
➢ Operation
➢ Specs of R.M.U

13: Load Estimation

14: Transformer sizing and Selection

➢ Types of distribution transformers [oil type and dry type].
➢ Transformer construction.
➢ Transformer sizing and rated power calculation.
➢ Transformer room sizing.
➢ Transformer Protection.

15: Generator Sizing

➢ Types of diesel generator.
Diesel generator sizing and rated power calculation.
➢ Diesel generator room sizing.
➢ A.T. S
16: Distributor
➢ Construction
➢ Operation
➢ Types and specification

17: U.P.S
➢ Types of UPS.
➢ U.P. S selection and sizing.

18: Feeding System (Medium voltage)

➢ Types of feeding systems

Ch19: power factor Correction

➢ P.F Definition.
➢ Purpose of P.F correction.
➢ P.F calculation using (calculation and program).
➢ Specs of Capacitor Bank.
➢ Design of capacitor bank panel board.

20: Short Circuit Calculation

➢ Purpose of short circuit calculation.
➢ Short circuit calculation using (manual Calculation).
➢ Short circuit calculation using (Tables)

21: Voltage Drop Calculation

➢ Purpose of voltage drop calculation.
➢ Voltage drop calculation using (manual and Programs).

22: Earthing Calculation

23: outdoor lighting (streets lighting)

➢ by using manual calculation
➢ by using Dialux program
 ‫تعتبر عصب أى مشروع ‪.‬‬
‫أنواعها‪:‬‬ ‫•‬
‫)‪1- Main distribution Board (MDB‬‬

‫‪ -‬هى لوحة تتحكم فى المبنى بالكامل وتتحكم فى جميع اللوحات االخرى‬

‫فصل وتوصيل التيار عن المبنى بالكامل وكذلك حماية االحمال من التيار الزائد والحمل الزائد‬

‫)‪2- Sub main distribution board (SMDB‬‬

‫‪ -‬أصغر من الرئيسية ونفس المسؤلية ولكن تغذى بعض اللوحات‬

‫بمعنى لو انا عندى دور فى مبنى مساحته كبيره شويه ممكن يبقى عندى ‪ SMDB‬فى متوسط الدور‬
‫والدور بنقسمه لعدة مناطق كل منطقة بيكون فيها لوحة فرعية ‪ DB‬بتتغذى من‪SMDB‬‬

‫‪3- Final DB‬‬

‫‪ -‬تغذية االحمال الفرعيه النهائيه زى االناره والبرايز والتكييف والسخانات وغيره‬

‫‪ -‬تغطى شقه او جزء فى دور‬

‫أحجام اللوحات على حسب عدد اللنيات اللى موجوده عندك ‪6,8.12,18,24................... etc.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫تركيب اللوحة‬ ‫•‬

‫‪1- Enclosure‬‬

‫جسم اللوحة‪ :‬بيكون من الصاج االبيض العادى او المجلفن ذات الحماية االعلى من االتربة‬

‫‪2- C.B‬‬

‫القواطع الكهربية وبنقسمها فى اللوحه الى نوعين‪:‬‬

‫✍ ‪Incoming‬‬
‫‪ -‬ده بيكون القاطع الرئيسى فى اللوحة المسئول عن فصل وتوصيل التيار عن اللوحة كاملة‬
‫‪ -‬حماية اللوحة من التيار الزائد والحمل الزائد‬
‫‪ -‬ونوعه المنمنم ‪ MCB‬أو المقولب ‪ MCCB‬أو ‪ ACB‬الهوائى‬
‫‪ -‬وممكن يكون ‪ single phase‬أو‪three phase‬‬

‫✍ ‪Outgoing‬‬
‫ودى القواطع الفرعية نفس وظيفة القاطع الرئيسى ولكن هى عبارة عن مجموعة من القواطع‬
‫كل قاطع يغذى دائرة نهائية أو لوحة فرعية أخرى وحمايتها من تيار القصر ‪ S.C‬واالوفر لود ‪O.L‬‬
‫‪3- Bus Bar:‬‬

‫قضبان التوزيع ( بارات نحاس ) يتحدد سمكها بناء على التيار المار‬
‫وهى تقوم بنقل التغذيه من القاطع العمومى للوحه الى القواطع الفرعية‪.‬‬

‫‪4- Measurements & Control Unit‬‬

‫وحدات القياس والتحكم‬

‫‪5- Insulators‬‬
‫العوازل‬

‫)‪6- Fuse (C.F or H.R.C‬‬

‫الفيوزات‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬نفس وظيفة القواطع الكهربية وأسرع فى الفصل ولكن يحتاج إلى تغييره كلما حدث عطل‬
‫‪ -‬اليستخدم فى حالة ال‪three phase‬‬

‫طرق ثبيت اللوحة‪:‬‬ ‫•‬

‫‪1- Flush mounting‬‬

‫غاطسه بداخل الحوائط‬

‫‪2- Semi flushes mounting‬‬

‫‪3-wall mounting‬‬
‫تعلق على الحوائط‬

‫‪4-free standing‬‬
‫واقفه على االرض‬
Low Current
Course Description

Light current engineering or electronics is concerned with the application of low power
electrical systems. The electronic engineer designs, manufactures, installs and manages the
systems, equipment and components used in telecommunications, navigation, data
processing and process control.

Course Target

After this course, you will be aware to design the different light current systems such as Fire
Alarm, Security, CCTV, Access Control, Public Address and BMS.
To More
https://www.udemy.com/course/lightcurrentsystems/?fbclid=IwAR1lXIOzdu5QGcOk9Aa_Hx
mnW45H8b92kyHln_D3aa8EfQDcPaH5lOa1UoE
‫‪Description‬‬
‫في هذا الكورس ستتعلم كل شئ عن انظمة التيار الخفيف و ايضا ستتعلم تصميم‬
‫هذة الانظمة بشكل عملي علي مشاريع فعلية باستخدام برنامج الأوتوكاد مثل‪:‬‬

‫نظام انذار الحريق | ‪• Fire Alarm System‬‬

‫مكونات نظام انذار الحريق ‪1.‬‬

‫الفرق بين نظام انذار الحريق الخاص بمهندس الكهرباء و نظام اطفاء الحريق الخاص ‪2.‬‬
‫بمهندس المكانيكا‬

‫حساسات )‪3. (smoke detectors, Heat detectors, Multi sensor, beam detector, ......‬‬
‫نظام انذار الحريق‬

‫اجهزة الانذار )‪4. (Bells and horns‬‬

‫انواع لوحات التحكم الخاصة بنظام انذار الحريق ‪5.‬‬

‫تصميم نظام انذار الحريق علي برنامج الاوتوكاد ‪6.‬‬

‫نظام الدش المركزي | ‪• MATV System‬‬

‫استخدمات نظام الدش المركزي ‪1.‬‬

‫مكونات نظام الدش المركزي )‪2. (Amplifiers and switches‬‬

‫انواع الكابلات المستحدمة في نظام الدش المركزي ‪3.‬‬

‫تصميم نظام الدش المركزي علي برنامج الاوتوكاد ‪4.‬‬

‫نظام السماعات | ‪• Sound System‬‬

‫استخدمات نظام الصوت في المباني )‪1. (Sound System‬‬

‫مكونات نظام الصوت ‪2.‬‬

‫انواع السماعات)‪ (Speakers‬و مكبرات الصوت )‪3. (Amplifiers‬‬

‫مكونات الراك الخاص بنظام الصوت ‪4.‬‬

‫تصميم نظام الصوت علي برنامج الاوتوكاد ‪5.‬‬

 ‫نظام كاميرات المراقبة | ‪• CCTV System‬‬

‫استخدمات نظام كاميرات المراقبة )‪1. (CCTV System‬‬

‫مكونات نظام كاميرات المراقبة ‪2.‬‬

‫انواع الكاميرات و شاشات المراقبة ‪3.‬‬

‫جهاز التحكم في نظام الكاميرات )‪4. (DVR‬‬

‫تصميم الراك الخاص بنظام الكاميرات ‪5.‬‬

‫انواع الكابلات المستخدمة في نظام كاميرات المراقبة ‪6.‬‬

‫تصميم نظام كاميرات المراقبة علي الاوتوكاد ‪7.‬‬

‫انظمة الانترنت و التليفونات | ‪• Data and Telephone Systems‬‬

‫استخدمات و مكونات نظام الانترنت في المباني ‪1.‬‬

‫مخارج الانترنت ‪2.‬‬

‫انواع الكابلات المستخدمة في نظام الانترنت ‪3.‬‬

‫كابلات النحاس و كابلات الفيبر ‪4.‬‬

‫مكونات التحكم في نظام الانترنت )‪5. (Patch panels, Switches and Data Rack‬‬

‫الرواتر الرئيسي الخاص بنظام الانترنت ‪6.‬‬

‫مكونات و استخدمات نظام التليفونات في المباني ‪7.‬‬

‫مخارج نظام التليفونات )‪8. (Telephone Outlet‬‬

‫انواع الكابلات المستخدمة في نظام التليفونات ‪9.‬‬

‫لوحات التحكم الخاصة بنظام التليفونات )‪10. (IDF, MDF‬‬

‫السنترال الخاص بنظام التليفونات )‪11. (PABX‬‬

‫تصميم انظمة الانترنت و التليفونات باستخدام برنامج الاوتوكاد ‪12.‬‬

‫‪Who this course is for:‬‬

‫•‬ ‫مهندسين الكهرباء‬

‫•‬ ‫مهندسين الاتصالات‬
‫•‬ ‫طلبة كليات الهندسة قسم كهربا ‪ -‬باور و اتصال‬
Electrical and Electronics Devices
Electrical Devices vs. Electronic Devices—what’s the difference?
The major difference between the electrical and electronic devices is that the electrical
devices convert the electrical energy into the other form of energy like heat, light, sound,
etc. whereas the electronic device controls the flow of electrons for performing the
particular task.

Electrical devices take the energy of electrical current, the flow of electrons in a conductor,
and transform it in simple ways into some other form of energy—most likely light, heat, or
motion. An electric device is one that directly uses electrical energy to perform a task.

In contrast, electronic devices do much more. Instead of just converting electrical energy
into light, heat, or motion, electronic devices are designed to manipulate the electrical
current in ways that adds meaningful information to the current.

For example, an electronic toaster uses the same heating elements, springs, and bread racks
as an electric toaster, but may include a variety of more complex components such as an
electronic display panel that shows you the progress of your toasting, or an electronic
thermostat that attempts to keep the heat at just the right temperature.

Electronics refers to technology that works by controlling the motion of electrons in ways
that go beyond electrodynamics properties like voltage and current.

Typically, if something uses electricity merely (just; only.) as energy, it is electrical.

If it uses electricity as the medium for manipulating information, it is almost surely

electronic.

Electrical and Electronic devices are comprised of different but overlapping categories but, in
short, all electronic devices are also electrical devices, it is a subset.

▪ Examples of electrical equipment:

- Light bulbs
- Vacuums
- Toasters
- Electric ovens
- Refrigerators and Freezers
- Washing machines
- Motors
- Transformers and Generators
- Resistors and Capacitors
- Older technologies like the electric telegraph and batteries
 ▪ Examples of electronics equipment:
- PCs/Laptops
- Mobile phones
- Cameras
- Printers
- Modems
- Radios
- Game consoles
- MP3 players
- TVs
- Microwave ovens

To More https://circuitglobe.com/difference-between-electrical-and-electronic-devices.html
Drive Systems
What is meant by Electrical Drives?

▪ Systems employed for motion control are called as Drives.

▪ It may employ any of the prime movers (Diesel engines, steam turbines and electric
motors) for supplying mechanical energy for motion control.
▪ Drives employing electric motors are called as Electrical Drives.
▪ In other words,
A Drive is a combination of various systems combined together for the purpose of
motion control.

Basic Components of Electric Drive System:

The electric drive system has five main functional blocks namely a power source, Power
Modulator (Converter), a motor, a mechanical load and a Controller (which incorporates
sensing unit and control unit).

The power source provides the required energy to the electric drive system. The converter
interfaces the motor with the power source and provides the motor with adjustable voltage,
current and frequency.

The controller monitors the operation of the entire system and ensures the overall system
performance and stability. The ratings of mechanical load and type of power source are not
in our decision.

The mechanical loads are determined by the nature of the industrial operation and the
power source is determined by what is available at the site. But we can select the other
components like electric motor, converter and controller.

The function of converters is to convert the electric waveform of the power source to a
waveform that the motor can use. For example the available power source is AC and the
motor is DC series motor, then the converter converts ac into dc. In other words a rectifier
circuit is placed in the system.
The motor for the particular application is selected by considering various factors like cost,
meeting the power level and performance required by the load during steady state and
dynamic operations.

Advantages of Electrical Drives:

- Do not pollute the environment.

- Unlike other prime movers there is no need to refuel or warm-up the motor.

- They are available with wide range of torque, speed and power.

- Electric braking can be employed. Therefore, they are having flexible control
characteristics.

- In the past, Induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly in constant speed
drives. Variable speed drives use dc motor.

- Now days AC motors also used in variable speed drives due to development of
semiconductor converters.

- The reason is due to the presence of commutator and brushes; DC motors have number of
disadvantages.

Application (Traction motors):

One of the major applications of electric drives is Electric Traction. i.e. to transport men and
materials from one place to another. Various types of Electric Traction are
(i) Electric trains
(ii) Electric buses
(iii) Trams(tramways) & trolleys
(iii) Battery driven solar-powered vehicles
In India, 25kV, 50Hz single phase supply is used for traction.

Classification of Electrical Drives:

Generally electrical drives are classified as follows:
[1] Group drive
[2] Individual Drive
[3] Multi motor drive

In addition to these drives are further classified,

- Based on supply:
AC drives and DC drives

- Based on running speed:

Constant speed (single speed) Drives and Variable speed drives

- Based on number of motors:

Single motor drives and Multi motor drives

- Based on control Parameter:

Constant torque drives and Constant power drives
What Is an Inverter?
An inverter controls the frequency of power supplied to an AC motor to control the
rotation speed of the motor.

An inverter uses this feature to freely control the speed and torque of a motor.

This type of control, in which the frequency and voltage are freely set, is called pulse
width modulation, or PWM. The inverter first converts
• the input AC power to DC power and
• again, creates AC power from the converted DC power using PWM control.

The inverter outputs a pulsed voltage, and the pulses are smoothed by the motor
coil so that a sine wave current flows to the motor to control the speed and torque
of the motor.
The voltage output from the inverter is in pulse form.
The pulses are smoothed by the motor coil, and a sine wave current flows. As a
result, the output from a general-purpose inverter cannot be used for equipment
other than motors.

Control Modes
V/f Control
V/f control is a method of controlling a motor by supplying a specific current to the
coil to output a specific torque.
Therefore, the voltage and frequency are in a proportional relationship. This is called
the V/f characteristics.

Vector Control
Vector control is used to correct the output waveform according to the voltage and
current output from the inverter to an induction motor. The motor speed and output
torque are estimated from the voltage and current output to control them.
Although induction motors have unstable characteristics, the use of Vector
control produces stable characteristics where the actual speed can follow a
reference frequency in the same way as a servomotor.
There are mainly the following two types of Vector control.
 Sensorless Vector Control
Sensorless means that there is no feedback from an encoder.
Although there is no feedback signal from a sensor, the current and voltage output
from the inverter to the motor are used to correct the output waveform. This
enables finer speed control.

Vector Control with Encoder Feedback

As opposed to sensorless vector control, control is performed using feedback from
an encoder.
The encoder is also called a pulse generator, and this type of control is also called
vector control with PG.

With this method, the inverter monitors the output voltage, the output current, and
the encoder feedback from the motor. The encoder feedback is used to adjust the
output waveform to perform precise speed control.

Applicable Motors
Omron inverters can control induction motors. Omron also provides inverters that
can control synchronous motors.

As induction motors can be used to achieve simple speed control at a relatively low
cost, they are used in many applications. They can be operated just by connecting an
AC power supply, so installation is extremely easy. Generally, a cooling fan is
attached to the back to help dissipate heat generated by the motor.
Torque Boost (Torque Compensation)
In low-frequency ranges, voltage drop has a large impact, reducing the motor
torque. To compensate for this, adjustments are made to output a high voltage at
the required frequency. This function is called torque boost or torque compensation.
Two torque boost options are available: Manual torque adjustment and automatic
torque adjustment.
Inverter Overload Detection
There are two types of overloads with an inverter: inverter overload and motor
overload. Overload detection is performed to protect both the inverter and motor
from burning.
Inverter Overvoltage Detection and Braking Function
When a motor decelerates, or when the load descends, the motor serves as a
generator to feed back the energy to the inverter. This phenomenon is known as
regeneration.
If the regenerative energy is too large to be stored in the inverter, it causes an
overvoltage.
Regenerative processing uses the braking circuits built into the inverter to convert
the regenerated energy into heat via resistors, preventing an overvoltage.

To More https://www.ia.omron.com/
Industrial Automation and Control System
What is automation?
Automated machines are designed to complete specific work tasks without human
intervention. This is accomplished by utilizing energy, power, and force to influence and
control movement.

Industrial automation is the use of control systems, such as computers or robots, and
information technologies for handling different processes and machineries in an industry to
replace a human being.
• Energy is the potential to create movement across a distance. In automation, machine
designers are concerned with the amount of energy needed to complete work from the
front of the process to the back.
Machine components are the means to transfer energy throughout the machine to
complete work. Some components are tasked with preserving energy through a
mechanical advantage, while others convert mechanical, electrical, chemical, and solar
energy as needed.
• Power is the rate of energy moved or expended in a specific amount of time.
• Force is a push or pulls interaction between objects. Force can be used in machine
components to control motion, direction, and shape
• Motion is to be both created and limited in automated machinery. An automated task
can’t be completed without components that initiate movement and those that limit or
dampen it such as a dampening device.

Field level
the field level is the lowest automation hierarchy level and is made up of field devices such
as actuators and sensors. The field devices have a core task of transferring machines and
processes data to the next level for monitoring and analysis. Actuators are used to control
the process parameters. In most cases, this level is dubbed the arms and eyes of an
automated industrial process. Real time process parameters such as level, flow,
temperature, and pressure are converted into electrical signals by the field level sensors.
Data collected from the sensors is transferred to the controller for further monitoring and
analysis of the real time parameters. Sensors include; proximity sensors, flow meters,
thermocouple, RTDs among others. Actuators include; pneumatic actuators, flow control
valves, relays, solenoid valves, servo motors, and Dc motors among others.

The control level

the control level is made up of automation devices such as PLCs and CNC machines that
derive ideal process parameters from the different sensors. Industrial automated controllers
trigger the actuators as per the processed sensor signals, control techniques, or programs.
PLCs (programmable logic controllers) are widely used as industrial controllers of choice
because they can deliver automatic control functionalities as per sensors’ inputs. PLCs allow
industrial automation operators to program control functions to execute automatic process
operations. PLCs are made of different modules such as; digital I/O, communication
modules, analog I/O and CPU.
Production control and supervising level
At this level, automatic monitoring systems and devices are used to facilitate the
intervention and control of functions such as; setting of production targets, supervising
different parameters, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), setting machine
start and stop periods, and Human Machine Interface (HMI).

Work Center or Factory Level

At this level, a manufacturing execution system (MES) is an information system that
connects monitors and controls complex manufacturing systems and data flows on the
factory floor. The main goal of an MES is to ensure effective execution of the manufacturing
operations and improve production output.

Enterprise or information level

Often referred to as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), this is the top industrial automation
hierarchy level that is tasked with management of the entire industrial automation system.
Tasked executed at this level include; market and customer analysis, sales, orders, and
production planning just to mention a few. Evidently, this level is geared towards supporting
commercial industrial activities as opposed to technical industrial aspects. Note that, all
industrial automation hierarchy levels comprise of industrial communication networks that
transfer information from one hierarchy level to another. As such, they ensure continuous
flow of information but the communication networks can vary from one hierarchy level to
the other.

Summary
The industrial automation hierarchy takes on a pyramid form of communications where
information gets aggregated as it moves from a low level (sensor level) to high level (Server
or enterprise level) and there is a direct correlation between the levels of the hierarchy in
that improved communications between levels of the hierarch lead to direct efficiency
increases of the overall manufacturing systems. In fact, this is the basis of Industry
4.0 and Made in China 2025 initiatives.

Advantages of Industrial Automation

• High productivity

• High Quality

• High flexibility

• High Information Accuracy

• High safety
 ‫جميع أدوات التحكم اآلىل لـ معظم الماركات العالمية‪:‬‬
‫أجهزة ‪ - PLC‬شاشات ‪ - HMI‬حساسات ‪Motor drives -‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪inverter - valves - flow meter – sensors‬‬ ‫•‬

‫توريد وتركيب وصيانة جميع أنظمة التحكم يف المايكنات‬

‫برمجة وصيانة جميع أجهزة ‪ PLC‬وعمل نظام ‪ SCADA‬كامل‬
‫عمل تحكم كامل يف المصنع من المبل بالموبايل‬
‫عمل جميع أنواع لوح الباور فاكتور وجميع لوح التحكم‬
‫تصنيع جميع أنواع حساسات الحرارة ‪ PT100 , RTD‬ر‬
‫والبموكابالت والسخانات‬
‫التعامل مع جميع التوكيالت العالميه ر‬
‫مبارسة‬

‫‪Siemens - Schneider – ABB - Allen Bradley - DELTA - Endress+Hauser‬‬

‫‪IFM - Honeywell – Akron -TOSHIBA - Pro-face - Omron - Yaskawa - Fatek - LS‬‬

1- Pneumatic Controllers (1920s)

2- Electronic Analog Controllers (1950s)

3- Supervisory Control Computers (1959)

4- Distributed Control System, DCS (1970s)

5- Fieldbus Technology (Now)

Classic Control
Instrumentation
Micro-processor And Micro-Controller
PLC
Drive System
HMI
Scada
DCS
Smart Building Solutions (BMS, KNX)
 Programmable Logic Controller

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a special computer device used in

industrial control systems. Due to its robust construction, exceptional functional
features like

• sequential control,
• counters and
• timers,

ease of programming, reliable controlling capabilities and ease of hardware

usage – this PLC is used as more than a special-purpose digital computer in
industries as well as in other control-system areas. Most of the industries
abbreviate these devices as “PC” but it is also used for personal computers;
due to this, many manufacturers named these devices as PLCs.

The programmable logic controller is used not only for industrial purpose but
also in civil applications such as

• washing machine,
• elevators working and
• traffic signals control.

Different types of PLCs from a vast number of manufacturers are available in

today’s market. Therefore, in the following paragraphs, let us study about
programmable logic controller’s basics, principles and applications.
 Principle of Programmable Logic Controller:
Programmable Logic Controllers are used for continuously monitoring the input
values from sensors and produces the outputs for the operation of actuators
based on the program.

Every PLC system comprises these three modules:

• CPU module
• Power supply module
• One or more I/O module

PLC Architecture

CPU Module:

A CPU module consists of central processor and its memory. The processor is
responsible for performing all the necessary computations and processing of
data by accepting the inputs and producing the appropriate outputs.

Power Supply Module:

This module supplies the required power to the whole system by converting the
available AC power to DC power required for the CPU and I/O modules. The
5V DC output drives the computer circuitry.

I/O Modules:

The input and out modules of the programmable logic controller are used to
connect the sensors and actuators to the system to sense the various
parameters such as temperature, pressure and flow, etc. These I/O modules
are of two types: digital or analog.
Communication Interface Modules:

These are intelligent I/O modules which transfers the information between a
CPU and communication network. These communication modules are used for
communicating with other PLC’s and computers, which are placed at remote
place or far-off locate.

The program in the CPU of programmable logic controller consists of

• operating system, and

• user programs.

✓ The purpose of the operating system with CPU is to deal with the tasks
and operations of the PLC such as starting and stopping operations,
storage area and communication management, etc.
✓ A user program is used by the user for finishing and controlling the tasks
in automation.

The Principle of operation of the PLC can be understood with the cyclic
scanning also called as scan cycle, which is given in the below figure.

PLC Scan Cycle

A typical PLC scans cycle includes of the following steps:

• The operating system starts cycling and monitoring of time.

• The CPU starts reading the data from the input module and checks the status
of all the inputs.
• The CPU starts executing the user or application program written in relay-
ladder logic or any other PLC-programming language.
• Next, the CPU performs all the internal diagnosis and communication tasks.
• According to the program results, it writes the data into the output module so
that all outputs are updated.
• This process continues as long as the PLC is in run mode.
To get an idea about the PLC operation, consider the simple mixer process
control as shown in the figure below.

Simple Mixer Process Control

In the above figure, the setup has a mixer motor to stir liquid automatically in
the container whenever the temperature and pressure reaches the preset
values. In addition, a separate manual push button station is used for the
operation of the motor. The process is monitored with a pressure-sensor switch
and temperature-sensor switch. These switches close their respective contacts
when conditions reach their preset values.

The input field devices like pressure switch, temperature switch and manual
push buttons are hardwired to an appropriate input module, and the output
device like motor-starter coil is hardwired to an appropriate output module of
the PLC. Based on the program done in the PLC, the system continuously
scans all the input preset values and correspondingly updates the outputs, i.e.,
when both the pressure and temperature switches get energized or the push
button gets energized, the PLC automatically energizes the motor-starter coil
so that a stirring action takes place.

Applications of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

The PLC can be used in industrial departments of all the developed countries
in industries like chemical industry, automobile industry, steel industry and
electricity industry. Based on the development of all these technologies,
functionality and application, the scope of the PLC increases dramatically.

1. Application of PLC in Glass Industry

From the year 1980 the Programmable-logic controllers are in use in the glass
industry, and they are assembled bit by bit. PLCs are used mainly in every
procedure and workshop for controlling the material ratio, processing of flat
glasses, etc.
With the development of PLC and increasing demand in the real world, the
control mode of the programmable-logic controller with an intelligent device is
applied in the glass industry. In making of a float glass, PLC itself cannot finish
some controlling tasks because of the complexity of the control system and
processing of huge data. For the production of glass, we make use of bus
technology to construct the control mode of a PLC with a distributed-control
system. This control system deals with analog controlling and data recording;
the PLC is also used for digital quality control and position control.

This type of control mode is a big advantage for PLC and DCS for improving
reliability and flexibility of the control system.

2. Applications of PLC in Cement Industry

Along with the best-quality raw materials, the accurate data regarding process
variables, especially during mixing processes within the kiln, ensures that the
output provided should be of the best possible quality. Nowadays a DCS with
bus technology is used in the production and management industry. By using
this existing DCS control system, the PLC is in user mode of SCADA. This
mode comprises PLC and configuration software. This SCADA mode
comprises the PLC and host computer. The host computer consists of slave
and master station. The PLC is used for controlling the ball milling, shaft kiln
and Kiln of coal.

To know more about these programmable-logic controllers’ function, you can

go through the following project, which is given as a practical example used
mostly for industrial automation.

Thus, this article has covered the principle of operation of programmable logic
devices or controller and its applications in various industries like glass industry,
steel industry and cement industry. For any help regarding this topic, please
contact us by commenting in the comment section given below.

Photo Credits:

• Programmable Logic Controller by rocatek

• PLC architecture by ustudy
• Simple mixer process control by reactor

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To More http://www.ahmedabbood.com/control/instruments/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%81-%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%87%D9%85-
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Automation diploma
▪ Classic control course
▪ PLC Course
▪ HMI
▪ SCADA Course

Classic Control
Lecture 1:
• Introduction of Control systems.
• The main components of classic control.
• Explain types of sensors; Theory of operation & wiring.
• The symbols of main components & wiring diagram.
Lecture 2:
• Direct on line starting method of induction motor.
• explain the common mistakes during the design stage.
• Design and Implementation of interface circuits.
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
The required application is (start and stop Mixer's motor using the indicator lamps).
Lecture 3:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Mixer system include filling pumps).
Lecture 4:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Sand conveyors system and elevator).
Lecture 5:
• Reverse Direction principle for AC Motor & DC Motor.
• The electrical & mechanical interlock.
• The different uses of double action Push button & Selector switch.
Lecture 6:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is the overhead crane).
Lecture 7:
• Explain of different types of Timers (Motor timer, Air timer & Electronic timer).
• Explain of different functions of Timers (On delay timer, Off delay timer, On/Off delay timer,
Flasher timer, etc.).
• Design and Implementation of control circuits, each of them contain timer as a main part.
Lecture 8:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application no.1 is a cooling system for hydraulic oil).
(The required application no.2 is Traffic light control circuit).
Lecture 9:
• The difference between Star connection & Delta connection for Induction motor.
• Star/Delta starting method.
• Design the power and control circuits of one direction induction motor with starting Star/Delta.
• Design the power and control circuits of two directions induction motor with starting Star/Delta.
Lecture 10:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Marble cutting machine works in two directions).
Lecture 11:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Jaw crusher system with conveyors & vibrators).
Lecture 12:
• Speed control methods (by changing No. of Poles - by changing V/F).
• changing No. of Poles (explanation of two speed motor).
• changing No. of V/F (explanation of AC Drive theory of operation, wiring diagram and parameter
setting).
• Soft Starting method for induction motor.
Lecture 13:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Multispeed conveyor).
Lecture 14:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
(The required application is Stretch wrapping machine).
Lecture 15:
• Theoretical and Practical exam.

PLC (Programmable logic controller)

Lecture 1:
• The history of PLC.
• The main parts of PLC.
• The wiring of PLC.
• The languages witch used in PLC programming.
• Design of Control Circuits using Ladder Diagram.
Lecture 2:
• Design and Implementation of all previous classical control circuits by (Schneider
Electric Zelio) PLC.
Lecture3:
• Design and Implementation of practical application by (Schneider Electric Zelio) PLC
(300 KW air screw compressor of gas station including the protection system).
Lecture 4:
• Overview of Simatic’s generations (S5, Logo, S7-200, S7-300/400, S7-1200/1500).
• The main Parts of PLC unit (Compact type & Modular type)...Power Supply, CPU, Input
Modules (Digital NPN-PNP & Analog), Output Modules (Digital Relay-Transistor &
Analog), Memory, Battery.
• Different types of memory witch used in PLC (RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash
Memory).
• Wiring of PLC (AC/DC/RLY) and (DC/DC/DC).
• Difference between Programming Cables & Networking Cables.
• Hardware Configuration, PLC addressing & PLC Programming with TIA (Totally
Integrated Automation) Software for S7-1200.
Lecture 5:
• PLC tag table.
• Bit Logic Operations (Normally Open Contact, Normally Closed Contact, Output Coil, Set Coil,
Reset Coil).
• CPU Scan time & Cyclic time.
• Positive Trigger & Negative Trigger.
• Different types of Memory size (Bit, Byte, Word, Double Word) and addressing of each size.
• PLC Number Format (Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal……etc.) & Data Types.
Lecture 6:
• Different types of programming blocks (Organization Block, Function, Function Block, Data
Block).
• IEC Timers Operations (On Delay, Off Delay, On Delay Retentive, Pulse Timers).
• Using of Move instruction with IEC Timers.
• Using of Compare instruction with IEC Timers.
• Different applications of IEC Timers.
• Clock memory.
Lecture 7:
• IEC Counters Operations ((Up, Down, Up/Down Counters).
• Using of Move instruction with IEC Counters.
• Using of Compare instruction with IEC Counters.
• Different applications of IEC Counters.
Lecture 8:
• Math functions for Real & Integer numbers.
• Different applications of Math functions.
• Conversions instructions.
Lecture 9:
• Program Control Operations (Jump, Jump not, Return, Stop).
• Shift & Rotate Operations.
• Different applications Shift & Rotate instructions.
Lecture 10:
• Word Logic Operations (AND, OR, XOR, INVERT).
• Watch Table, Force Table, Cross reference.
• HSC (High Speed Counter) Via Rotary encoder.
Lecture 11:
• Analog function (Scale X, Norm X).
• Different Basic & Advanced industrial applications.
Lecture 12:
• The Basic principles of HMI.
Lecture 13:
• Different Basic industrial applications of HMI.
Lecture 14:
• Theoretical and Practical exam.
HMI
Lecture 1:
• Overview of Simatic’s generations (S5, Logo, S7-200, S7-300/400, S7-
1200/1500).
• The main Parts of PLC unit (Compact type & Modular type)...Power Supply,
CPU, Input Modules (Digital NPN-PNP & Analog), Output Modules (Digital Relay-
Transistor & Analog), Memory, Battery.
• Different types of memory witch used in PLC (RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM,
Flash Memory).
• Wiring of PLC (AC/DC/RLY) and (DC/DC/DC).
• Difference between Programming Cables & Networking Cables.
• Hardware Configuration, PLC addressing & PLC Programming with TIA (Totally
Integrated Automation) Software for S7-1200.
• Lecture 2:
The Basic principles of HMI.
• Lecture 3:
Different Basic industrial applications of HMI.
• Lecture 4:
- WinCC Run-Time file generation.
- AC Drive control via PLC (USS Drive_ protocol) and Slider.
• Lecture 5:
WinCC Basic elements (Symbolic Input/output field - Slider – Bar & Gauge).
• Lecture 6:
WinCC Graphic design & Animation instructions (Visibility – Flashing &
Movements).
• Lecture 7:
- Alarm View & Event message system
- Language and Resources.
Lecture 8:
• User Administration.
• Recipe Management.
• Trend view and Reports printing.
Lecture 9:
• Theoretical and Practical exam.
SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition)
Lecture 1:
• Introduction of Control systems.
• The main components of classic control.
• Explain types of sensors; Theory of operation & wiring.
• The symbols of main components & wiring diagram.
Lecture 2:
• The history of PLC.
• The main parts of PLC.
• The wiring of PLC.
• The languages witch used in PLC programming.
• Design of Control Circuits using Ladder Diagram.
Lecture 3:
• Overview of Simatic’s generations (S5, Logo, S7-200, S7-300/400, S7-1200/1500).
• The main Parts of PLC unit (Compact type & Modular type)...Power Supply, CPU, Input
Modules (Digital NPN-PNP & Analog), Output Modules (Digital Relay-Transistor &
Analog), Memory, Battery.
• Different types of memory witch used in PLC (RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash
Memory).
• Wiring of PLC (AC/DC/RLY) and (DC/DC/DC).
• Difference between Programming Cables & Networking Cables.
• Hardware Configuration, PLC addressing & PLC Programming with TIA (Totally
Integrated Automation) Software for S7-1200.
Lecture 4:
• The fundamentals of SCADA system Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition.
Lecture 5:
• The Basic principles of HMI.
Lecture 6:
• Different Basic industrial applications of HMI.
Lecture 7:
• Explanation of interface between computer & controllers (parallel Ports output -
LabJack module).
Lecture 8:
• Introduction of programming software (LabView).
Lecture 9:
• Design and Implementation of practical exercises.
Lecture 10:
• Introduction
• PID Controller
• Design of Continues Control (True Modelling , Controllability , Control law , Simulation
and Implementation )
Lecture 11:
• Theoretical and Practical exam
(Continuous control) ‫دورة التحكم المستمر‬
Lecture 1:
 Control System
• Signals , ADC , DAC and PWM
• Signal Conditioning
• Closed loop control system
• Common Controllers (Hardware & Theories )
Lecture 2:
• Modelling And Simulation
• Examples
Lecture 3:
• Introduction to MATLAB
Lecture 4:
• Introduction to LabVIEW
Lecture 5:
• Discrete Time Model Based Control
Lecture 6:
• State Variable Representation
• Example of PI controller using MATLAB Simulink
Lecture 7:
• Model identification and estimation (experimental heating system model in our lab)
Lecture 8:
• PI Control Design of experimental heating system model in our lab.
Lecture 9:
• Implementation Of the controller to control our experimental heating system model
using LabVIEW.
 https://circuitglobe.com/
https://www.electricaleasy.com/
https://www.electrical4u.com/
 ‫•‬ ‫‪Transformer‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Electrical Motors‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Generators‬‬
‫•‬ ‫)‪Electrical Drives (Power Electronics + Machines‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Special Machines‬‬

‫المجاالت المغناطيسية تمثل الوسط الذى م فيه عملية تحويل الطاقة ‪:‬‬
‫سواء من كهربية إىل ميكانيكية (‪ )Motor‬أو من ميكانيكية إىل كهربية (‪)Generator‬‬
‫فى المحوالت تكون الدائرة المغناطيسية مغلقة بينما فى اآلالت الكهربية الدوارة تحتوى على‬
‫عنصرين أساسيين هما‪:‬‬
‫العضو الدوار (‪)Rotor‬‬ ‫•‬
‫العضو الثابت (‪)Stator‬‬ ‫•‬
‫متصلين بثغرة هوائية (‪)Air Gap‬‬
‫المغناطيىس بتمرير التيار‬
‫ي‬ ‫ف معظم اآلالت الكهربية ما عدا ذات المغناطيس الدائم ‪ ،‬يتم توليد المجال‬
‫الكهرب ف ملف ملفوف (‪ )Coil Wound‬على مادة حديدية مغناطيسيية (‪)Ferromagnetic Material‬‬ ‫ر‬
 • Basics of Electronics
• Power Electronics
• Advanced Electronics
• Digital Electronics
• Biomedical Instrumentation

what is the meaning of Electronics?

• Electronics, branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the
emission, behavior, and effects of electrons and with electronic devices.
• the branch of physics and technology concerned with the design of circuits
using transistors and microchips, and with the behavior and movement of
electrons in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas.
• circuits or devices using transistors, microchips, and other components.
• Electronics is the study of how to control the flow of electrons. It deals with
circuits made up of components that control the flow of
electricity. Electronics is a part of physics and electrical engineering. Electrical
components like transistors and relays can act as switches.

• Power Electronics refers to an interdisciplinary subject within electrical

engineering that deals with the design, control and conversion of power in its
electric form. A system that converts electric energy to an electric load
through a control circuit is known as a Power Electronic System.
• The purpose of this Word is to introduce and explain the main concepts in
Power Electronics, which include Power Semi-Conductor Devices, Phase-
Controlled Converters, DC to DC Converter, Inverters and AC to AC
Converters.

What is the difference between electronics and power

electronics?

✓ Electronics are low current and low voltage devices.

✓ Power Electronics are high current and/or high voltage devices.
Power electronics vs Linear electronics
Linear electronics is the branch of electronics in which we operate the devices in
their active mode of operation. We know that the evolution of electronics started
with the invention of Transistor. The two PN junctions placed side by side happened
to the discovery of a BJT Transistor. Now we know that the operations of a BJT
transistor can be shown by its current-voltage characteristic curve.
In power electronics, we deal with the cut-off and the saturation region of the
transistor. Hence the transistor becomes a switch. When it is in cut off region, no
current flows from collector to emitter ideally and it acts as an Off Switch. When it is
in saturation region, rated current can flow from collector to emitter, hence act as
an On Switch.

Power electronics:

✓ Power electronics processes in the form of energy.

✓ The energy is switched on and off to communicate.

Linear Electronics:

✓ Linear electronics processes in the form of signals.

✓ They are operated as logic gates.
✓ They are further optimized to form switches as switches are faster than logic
gates.

Majorly there are five types of power electronic circuits, each having
different purpose:

✓ Rectifiers – converts fixed AC to variable DC (such as half wave

rectifiers or full wave rectifiers)
✓ Choppers – converts fixed DC to variable DC
✓ Inverters – converts DC to AC having variable amplitude and variable
frequency
✓ Voltage Regulators – converts fixed AC to variable AC at same input
frequency
✓ Cyclo-converters – converts fixed AC to AC with variable frequency
To More
1) https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronics
2) https://www.makerspaces.com/basic-electronics/
3) https://www.tutorialspoint.com/power_electronics/index.htm
Measurement and Instrumentation introduces undergraduate engineering students
to:
• the measurement principles and
• the range of sensors and
• instruments that are used for measuring physical variables.
 ‫‪Information in Electrical Engineering Fields‬‬

‫ررسح ظاهرة الكورونا و العوامل ر‬

‫الت تؤثر فيها والعيوب ر‬
‫الت تسببها وكيف يمكن الحد منها ؟‬
‫ى‬
‫الجزب) نتيجة تأين الهواء المحيط حول موصالت الجهد العاىل ف صورة مجال‬ ‫تنتج ظاهرة التفري ــغ الهاىل (التفري ــغ‬
‫ى‬
‫الكهرباب كوميض المع مائل للزرقه وتكون هذه الظاهره‬ ‫النقل‬ ‫خطوط‬ ‫عىل‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫مالحظة‬ ‫كهرباب غب منتظم ويمكن‬ ‫ى‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫مصحوبه بصوت أزيز وانتاج غاز األوزون‬

‫✓ ويسىم الجهد الذى يبدأ فيه ظهور الهاله المرئيه بـ‬

‫‪visual critical voltage or Critical Breakdown voltage‬‬

‫الت تؤثر ف ظاهرة الكورونا‪:‬‬‫العوامل ر‬

‫ى‬
‫الكهرباب الغب منتظم وتزداد‬ ‫• حالة سطح الموصل ( كلما زادت خشونة السطح إزداد المجال‬
‫ي‬
‫الظاهره ) ‪.‬‬
‫• حالة الجو المحيطه ( نسبة الرطوبه – درجة الحراره – الضغط الجوى – نوع الغاز المحيط )‬
‫• شكل الموصالت الكهربيه والمسافه بينها‪.‬‬

‫ومن العيوب ر‬
‫الت تسببها الكورونا‪:‬‬
‫• حدوث مفاقيد للقدره الكهربائيه تسىم‪Corona Losses.‬‬
‫• سماع صوت ازيز‪.‬‬
‫ر‬
‫إهباز الموصل‬ ‫•‬
‫• تداخالت مع موجات الراديو‪Radio Interference.‬‬

‫‪Methods to reduce Corona Discharge Effect‬‬

‫*‪• By increasing the spacing between the conductors‬‬
‫*‪• By increasing the diameter of the conductor‬‬
‫‪• By using hollow conductor's corona discharge effect can be improved‬‬
‫‪• By using Bundled Conductors‬‬
‫‪• By Using Corona Rings or Grading Ring‬‬

‫‪To More‬‬

‫‪https://www.electrical4u.com/corona-effect-in-power-system/‬‬

‫‪https://circuitglobe.com/corona-effect.html‬‬
 ‫ما ىه ظاهرة الـ ‪ Ferranti effect‬ر‬
‫الت تحدث ف خطوط النقل ؟ وما سببها ؟ وكيف يمكن الحد‬
‫منها ؟‬

‫ىه ظاهرة زيادة الجهد عند نهاية الخط )‪(receiving end voltage‬‬
‫‪ Ferranti effect‬ي‬
‫عن الجهد عند بداية الخط )‪ (Sending end voltage‬ف حالة األحمال الخفيفه )‪(light loads‬‬
‫أو ف حالة فقدان الحمل أى يكون الخط )‪ (open circuited‬أو يكون الحمل سعوى ‪(Capacitive‬‬
‫‪Load).‬‬

‫سبب هذه الظاهرة‪:‬‬

‫ف حالة األحمال الخفيفه )‪ (light loads‬أو ف حالة فقدان الحمل تكون القدره الغب فعاله‬
‫المسحوبه صفرا أو قليله للغايه ولكن المكثفات بي فازات الخط تعىط قدره غب فعاله ال يتم‬
‫إستهالكها وهذه القدره الغب فعاله الزائده تعمل عىل زيادة جهد الخط عند نهايته حيث معروف أن‬
‫المكثفات تعمل عىل زيادة الجهد‬

‫بطريقة أخرى ‪ :‬بما أن المكثفات الوهميه بي فازات الخط تعمل عىل إمرار تيار ف خط النقل يسىم‬
‫تيار شحن ‪charging current‬‬
‫هذا التيار يؤدى إىل إحداث هبوط ف الجهد عىل مفاعلة الخط ‪ L (line inductance‬هذا ال‬
‫‪voltage drop‬يصبح ‪ in phase‬وف إتجاه معاكس لـ ‪ sending end voltage‬أى أنه يضاف إىل‬
‫جهد اإلرسال ويعىط الناتج جهد اإلستقبال‬
 ‫كيف يمكن الحد من هذه الظاهرة‪:‬‬

‫يتضح من المعادله األخبه أنه لتقليل الجهد عند نهاية الخط ‪ Receiving end voltage‬فإنه يجب تقليل‬
‫‪C‬و‪L‬‬
‫ر‬
‫ويتم ذلك كاآلب‪:‬‬

‫تستخدم مكثفات ‪ Series Capacitors‬عىل التواىل مع الخط لتقليل مفاعلة الخط ‪L) line‬‬ ‫•‬
‫)‪inductance‬‬

‫تستخدم ملفات ‪ Shunt Reactors‬عىل التوازى مع الخط لتقليل سعوية الخط ‪C) Shunt‬‬ ‫•‬
‫)‪Capacitance‬‬

‫مالحظات‪:‬‬

‫تحدث هذه الظاهره ف الخطوط الطويله ‪ long T.l‬وال تحدث ف الخطوط القصبه‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Short T.L‬‬
‫الزياده الحادثه ف الجهد عند نهاية الخط تتناسب مع مربــع طول الخط‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬
‫تزداد هذه الظاهره ف الكابالت األرضيه ‪ underground cables‬ر‬
‫حت ف األطوال القصبه‬
‫ألن الكابالت األرضيه لها سعه عاليه )‪ C high capacitance‬أعىل من سعة خط النقل‬

‫‪To More‬‬

‫‪https://circuitglobe.com/ferranti-effect.html‬‬
 ‫ما ىه ظاهرة الـ ‪ Skin Effect‬ف خطوط النقل؟ وماذا ينتج عنها ؟ وما العوامل ر‬
‫الت تؤثر فيها ؟‬

‫تعريف هذه الظاهرة‪:‬‬

‫ر‬
‫الخارج‬ ‫الكهرب المتغب )‪ (alternating current‬حول السطح‬
‫ر‬ ‫‪ skin effect‬ىه ظاهرة مرور التيار‬
‫الكهرب أو الموصالت عموما بحيث تكون شدة التيار أعىل‬ ‫(القشه الخارجيه ) للموصل ف خطوط النقل‬ ‫ر‬
‫ر‬
‫الخارج وتتناقص تريجيا كلما إبتعدنا عن السطح ر‬
‫وإقببنا من مركز الموصل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫مايمكن بالقرب من سطح الموصل‬
‫حت ينعدم التيار تماما عند عمق معي عن السطح يسىم ) ‪ (Skin depth‬وتحدث بسبب أن شدة التيار‬ ‫ر‬
‫كهرب متغب هذا المجال المتغب يولد قوه دافعه كهربيه داخل الموصل تمنع مرور التيار‬ ‫ر‬ ‫المتغبه تنتج مجال‬
‫بداخله‪…….‬‬

‫ماذا ينتج عن هذه الظاهرة‪:‬‬

‫*******************‬
‫تتسبب هذه الظاهرة ف نقص مساحة المقطع الفعليه للموصل ‪ A‬ألن التيار المتغب ‪ AC‬ال يمر ف كل مساحة‬
‫المقطع ممايتسبب ف زيادة مقاومة الموصل ‪ ( R‬تتناسب عكسيا مع ) ‪ A‬لذلك يتم إستخدام موصالت‬
‫مفرغه من الداخل ف حالة التيار المتغب‪..…..‬‬

‫ر‬
‫الخارج فقط كما ف‬ ‫ف حالة التيار المستمر ‪ DC‬يمر التيار ف كل مقطع الموصل وليس حول السطح‬ ‫•‬
‫التيار المتغب ‪ AC‬مما يعت أن مقاومة الموصل ف حالة التيار المستمر أقل من مقاومته ف حالة‬
‫التيار المتغب……‬
‫البدد قلت مساحة المقطع الفعليه للموصل التر‬ ‫البدد أى انه كلما زاد ر‬
‫وتزداد هذه الظاهره بزيادة ر‬ ‫•‬
‫يمر فيها التيار وهذا شكل يوضح ذلك‬
‫‪http://www.mediafire.com/view/myfiles/#6qikkzmxa3evg3o‬‬
‫ملحوظه‪ :‬بإستخدام موصالت مجدوله ‪ stranded‬بدال من موصالت مصمته ‪ Solid‬تقل هذه الظاهرة‬
 ‫ى‬ ‫العوامل ى‬
:‫الت تؤثر ف هذه الظاهرة‬

The skin effect depends on following factors

1. Nature of material
2. Diameter of wire
3. Frequency of supply
4. Shape of wire.

With increase in diameter of wire, the skin effect increases. Similarly, as frequency
increases, the skin effect increases. If we have stranded conductor rather than solid
conductor then the skin effect is less. It can be seen that when supply frequency is
less than 50 Hz and conductor diameter is less than 1 cm then skin effect is
negligible. In large conductors at power frequencies (50HZ) the skin effect is a
significant factor.

To More
https://circuitglobe.com/skin-effect.html
 ‫يشير غالبًا إلى عداد كهربائي يقوم بقياس‬
‫ ويحفظ العداد هذه القياسات على‬،)‫استهالك الكهرباء بتكرارية زمنية معينة (كل ساعة أو كل نصف ساعة‬
‫ذاكرة مدمجة مع العداد ومن ثم يرسلها إلى شركة الكهرباء على األقل مرة واحدة في اليوم مما يفيد بتحديد أدق‬
.‫الستهالك المستخدم للكهرباء وأيضا يفيد بمراقبة نمط االستهالك‬
.)‫ميزة هذه العدادات أنها ترسل وتستقبل المعلومات (واألوامر) من وإلى المركز الرئيسي (شركة الكهرباء‬
‫فخالفًا للعدادات التقليدية توفر هذه‬. ‫وتبرز أهمية هذه العدادات في استخدامها كجزء من متطلبات الشبكة الذكية‬
‫ كما وتنبه الشركة المزودة للكهرباء في‬،‫العدادات تفصيالً دقيقا ألوقات استهالك الكهرباء من قبل المستخدم‬
‫ وأيضا‬،‫ وتمكن الشركة من قطع الكهرباء عن المستخدم عن بعد إذا أرادت‬،‫حال وجود خلل ما عند المستهلك‬
.‫تمكنها من التعرف على وجود سحب غير مشروع للكهرباء من قبل المستخدم‬

Smart meters use a secure national communication network (called the DCC) to
automatically and wirelessly send your actual energy usage to your supplier. If you have
a smart meter you don't need to rely on estimated energy bills or provide your own regular
readings. Smart meters also come with an in-home display.
A smart meter measures your gas or electricity use, just like a traditional meter. But unlike a
traditional meter, a smart meter sends its readings to your supplier automatically.

How smart meters work

Smart meters work differently, depending on whether they’re measuring your electricity or
gas. A smart electricity meter is connected to the mains, and monitors how much power
you're using in real time.
A smart gas meter, on the other hand, is battery-powered and 'asleep' most of the time. It
wakes up every half an hour to send a reading via the electricity meter.
The smart electricity meter connects to a nationwide secure smart network, similar to a
mobile phone network. It's called the DCC, as it's run by the Data and Communications
Company. The DCC then sends information about how much gas and electricity you’ve used
directly to your energy supplier. That’s us, if you’re one of our members.
Your smart meter also sends the same information to the In-Home Display (IHD) in your
home, so you can monitor your energy usage in real-time and manage how much gas and
electricity you use.

To More

1- https://help.bulb.co.uk/hc/en-us/articles/360005132971-What-is-a-smart-
meter-and-how-does-it-work-

2- https://advice.aqarmap.com.eg/ar/smart-counter-and-traditional-counter/
In electrical engineering, the power factor (PF or cosφ) is the ratio between
the power that can be used in electric circuit (real power, P) and the power from the
result of multiplication between the current and voltage circuit (apparent power, S).
The power factor is defined as: PF ranges from zero to one.

In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work
and the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit. The power factor can get
values in the range from 0 to 1.
When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually inductive load) -
the power factor is 0.

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the
connected motor or lighting circuits and can be applied at the equipment, distribution board
or at the origin of the installation.
Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the
distribution system to which it is attached. Linear loads with low power factor (such as
induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors.
Capacitor Banks

Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between voltage and current.
Since the majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require some amount of
reactive power for them to function. A capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to
the load provides this reactive power.

Power-factor-correction capacitors are used for this purpose. A motor requires inductive or
lagging reactive power for magnetizing. Capacitors provide capacitive or leading
reactive power that cancels out the lagging reactive power when used for power-factor
improvement.
The most significant difference between the active and reactive power is that the active
power is the actual power which is dissipated in the circuit. Whereas, the reactive power is
the useless power which only flows between the source and load.

Basis for
Active Power Reactive Power
Comparison

Definition The active power is the The power which moves back
real power which is and forth between the load and
dissipated in the circuit. source such type of power is
known as the reactive power

Formula

Measuring Watts VAR

Unit

Represented P Q
By

Causes Produces heat in heater, Measures the power factor of

light in lamps and the circuit.
torque in motor.

Measuring Wattmeter VAR Meter

Instrument

To More https://circuitglobe.com/difference-between-active-and-reactive-power.html
‫‪Wavelength and frequency of light are closely related. The higher the frequency, the‬‬
‫‪shorter the wavelength. Because all light waves move through a vacuum at the same‬‬
‫‪speed, the number of wave crests passing by a given point in one second depends on‬‬
‫‪the wavelength. That number, also known as the frequency, will be larger for a‬‬
‫‪short-wavelength wave than for a long-wavelength wave. The equation that relates‬‬
‫‪wavelength and frequency is:‬‬

‫‪To More https://history.amazingspace.org/resources/explorations/light/star-light-‬‬

‫‪science.html‬‬

‫الموج بعالقة عكسية؛ أي إنه كلما زاد طول الموجة ينخفض ر‬

‫البدد ً‬ ‫يرتبط ر‬
‫نظرا ألن تردد الفوتون أو‬ ‫ر ي‬ ‫البدد مع الطول‬
‫ً‬
‫طرديا مع طاقة الفوتون أو الموجة‪ ،‬فكلما زاد تردد الفوتون أو الموجة زادت طاقة‬ ‫الموجة الكهرومغناطيسية يتناسب‬
‫ً‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ر‬
‫المرب يكون أكب نشاطا من‬‫ي‬ ‫طيف‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ف‬
‫ي‬ ‫األقل‬ ‫الموج‬
‫ي‬ ‫الطول‬ ‫صاحب‬ ‫األزرق‬ ‫الضوء‬ ‫فإن‬ ‫الفوتون أو الموجة‪ ،‬ولهذا السبب‬
‫ر‬ ‫ر‬
‫الت تمر يف نقطة معينة‬
‫موج‪ ،‬وتعرف العالقة بيت البدد الذي هو عدد قمم الموجة ي‬ ‫الضوء األحمر صاحب أطول طول ر ي‬
‫يف مدة زمنية معينة وطول الموجة للموجات الكهرومغناطيسية بواسطة الصيغة)‪ ، (c = λ f‬والرمز )‪ (c‬هو رسعة الضوء‬
‫الموج باألمتار أما )‪ (f‬فهو يساوي ا رلبدد يف الدورة لكل ثانية من الزمن‪ ،‬وعىل سبيل المثال فإن أعىل‬
‫ر ي‬ ‫أما )‪ (λ‬فهو الطول‬
‫ر‬ ‫ر‬
‫الت ذكرناها ) ‪ (c = λ f‬ونجد البدد من خالل‬ ‫موج اكتشفتها عي اإلنسان عامة تحدد من خالل العالقة ي‬ ‫طاقة لطول ر ي‬
‫الموج وهو (‪) )7-(^10*3.8‬‬ ‫ير‬ ‫وىه (‪ )8^10*3‬عىل الطول‬ ‫الضوء‬ ‫رسعة‬ ‫=‬ ‫دد‬ ‫البدد يساوي ر‬
‫(الب‬ ‫)‪(f = c / λ‬ويصبح ر‬
‫ي‬
‫ىه ‪ 14^10*7.9‬هرتز رلبدد الموجة‪.‬‬ ‫والنتيجة ي‬
‫‪To More‬‬

‫‪https://hyatok.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A8‬‬
‫‪%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%‬‬
‫‪D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%AF‬‬

‫الموج زاد ر‬
‫البدد للموجة و‬ ‫ر‬ ‫العالقة بي طول الموجة و ترددها عالقة عكسية فعند ثبات رسعة الموجة كلما قل الطول‬
‫العكس حيث يخضع لهذه العالقة‪:‬‬
‫الموج = رسعة الموجه ‪ /‬ر‬
‫البدد‬ ‫ر‬ ‫الطول‬

‫فإذا كانت الموجة الصوتية تمر من الهواء يتم التعويض عن رسعة الموجة بشعة الصوت ف الهواء‬ ‫•‬
‫واذا كانت غواصة ف الماء نقوم بالتعويض عن رسعة الموجة بشعة الصوت ف الماء‬ ‫•‬
‫او اذا كانت مارة ف جسم صلب كالحديد نعوض عن الشعة بشعة الصوت ف االجسام الصلبة كالحديد‬ ‫•‬
‫اما اذا كانت الموجة موجة ضوئية يتم استبدال رسعة الموجة بشعة الضوء ف الفراغ و ىه ‪ 8^10 × 3‬م‪/‬ث‬ ‫•‬
1) What happens when two positively charged material is placed together?

When two positively charged material place together it will repel.

2) What is referred to the electron in the outer orbit?

Electron in the outer orbit is known as valence.

3) Define the term Capacitance and Inductance?

• Capacitance: It is the amount of charge that is stored inside a capacitor at a
given voltage.
• Inductance: It is defined as the property of a coil to resist any changes in
electric current flowing through it. Mutual inductance happens when a secondary
coil opposes current change in the primary coil.
4) Mention what is the difference between generator and alternator?

Both generator and alternator work on the same principle they convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

• Generator: It converts induced emf (Electro Motive Force) into direct current,
where it based on stationary magnetic field and revolving conductor which rolls
on the armatures with slip rings and brushes riding against each other.
• Alternator: It has rotating magnetic and stationary armature for high voltage
and stationary magnetic field and a rotating armature for low voltage
5) Mention what are the different kind of cables used for transmissions?

Cables are categorized into three forms according to its thermal capacity

• Low tension cables- transmits voltage up to 1000 volts

• High tension cables- transmits voltage up to 23000 volts
• Super tension cables- transmits voltage up to 66kv to 132kv

6) Mention what are the different colors on wires indicates?

This is a must know question for any good Electrical Engineer

• Black wire: This wire is used for power supply in all circuits. Any circuits with
this color are considered hot or live. It is never used for a neutral or ground wire.
• Red wire: This color wire is a secondary live wire in a 220-volt circuit and
used in some types of interconnection. You can join the red wire to another red
wire or to a black wire
• Blue and Yellow wire: These wires are also used to carry power but are not
wiring the outlets for common plug-in electrical devices. They are used for the
live wire pulled through the conduct. You will see yellow wire in the fan,
structure lights, and switched outlets.
 • White and Gray: This color wire is used as a neutral wire. It carries the
current (unbalanced load) to the ground. You can join white and gray only to
other white and gray wires
• Green: It is connected to the grounding terminal in an outlet box and run
from the outlet box to the ground bus bar within an electric panel
7) Explain RLC circuit?

An RLC circuit carries an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R) and inductor (L)
and a capacitor (C), connected in parallel or series. This circuit is called a second
order circuit as any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by a second
order differential equation.

8) Explain how you decide what size of electrical wire do you need?

Wire is sized by American Wire Gauge system. Your installation of conductors will
depend on a few factors like gauge of the wire, wire capacity, etc. For wires, smaller
the wire gauge larger the ampacity or capacity of the wire to handle current. For
example, low voltage lighting and lamp cords will have 18-gauge, electric furnaces or
large electric heaters are of 6 gauge.

9) Mention what are the types of semi-conductors?

There are two types of semi-conductors intrinsic and extrinsic. Again, in extrinsic
semi-conductors you will have N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors.

10) Explain what is transistors comprised of?

Transistors are comprised of several combination of n-type and p-type semi-

conductors.

11) Mention what is the role of transistor in Circuit?

Transistor has the ability to amplify the current, due to the reason that output power
can be higher than the input power.
12) Mention how NPN and PNP transistor works?

In a circuit when NPN is used,

• No current flowing from A to D = No flow from X to Z

• Current flowing from A to D = Current allowed to flow from X to Z

When PNP is used,

• No current flowing from A to D = Current is allowed to flow from X to Z

• Current flowing from A to D = No current flow from X to Z
13) What will be the current if the resistance total in a series circuit doubles?

If the resistance total in a series circuit doubles the current will reduce to half.

14) What happens if the series current double?

If the series current gets double then, the resistance is halved.

15) Explain what does a string of resistors in a series will do?

When a string of resistors in a series will divide the source voltage into proportion to
their values.

16) What is meant by reverse polarity and how it can be fixed?

Reverse polarity is referred in a condition where one or more of your receptacles are
connected incorrectly. To fix the reverse polarity, check the wire connection at the
outlet and inspect your receptacle. A receptacle with reverse polarity will have the
white wire screwed to the hot side and the black wire will be connected to the
neutral side, if that the case swap the wires and it will resolve the problem. If it
persists, a licensed electrician will be needed.

17) Explain what rectifiers is and what are the types of rectifiers?

A rectifier is an electrical device that transforms A.C or alternating current into direct
current (D.C), which flows in only one direction. The types of rectifiers are

• Half wave rectifier: It uses one p-n junction

• Full wave rectifier: It uses two p-n junction
18) Explain what is Zener diode?

Zener diode is a type of semi-conductor diode that allows current to flow in the
opposite direction when exposed to enough voltage.

19) Mention the difference between Analogue and Digital circuit?

Analogue Digital

• These circuits operate on

continuous valued signals
• No conversion of the input signal
required before transmitting, the
circuit directly executes various logical
operations and produces an analogue
output
• There is no probability of losing
any information as there is no
conversion
• Analogue lacks flexibility
20) Explain what is laser diodes?
• These circuits operate on the
signal which exist at two level 0’s and
1’s
• Before the signal is transmitted, it
is converted into digital form.
• During signal conversion, amount
of information is lost
• Digital circuits anticipate high
flexibility

Laser diodes are compact transistor like packages with two or more electrical leads.
Lasing occurs when stimulated emission results into the amplification of photon
confined to the lasing mode. These photons hit back and forth between the back
and front mirror, and hence a diverging beam emits from the laser diode packages.
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