Binomials and pigeonhole principle

Binomials
For nZ k ZO

CH a.int
theorem Binomial theorem
we
For real numbers x andy and integers
on

have
yin I xkyn
k.YE.FI

E lY zn

CDk I 0
7
X 1
yet
theorem multinomial formula
For real numbers xs K Xm and an integer
m we have
xEt
Kath txmT
n
is in im
xihn
 it K2 dm70

theorem Pascal's identity

For integers n ke 2 we have

Htt that
Vandermonde's identity
theorem
b be positive integers such that
Let a m

a b Zn
Then

laid ahh
Iho
Renard
b
a n_ 1 Ie un But
g

I so
ELIF 122
Some other identities

II I EI upper summation

n 1 parallel summation
Ezo MLK tmnt
 PRE Putnam A5 1962
Find a simple expression not involving a

SMM
fore
g 22 2 t t n th
Solution
the binomial theorem
From
k
Gtx F
Iz 2 x

we have
Differentiating the
above quality
n ti x Info k I x C

For k
x.tn we
get yfhfeh
is not what we exactly want
Differentiating t again we have
1 Xk E
Z
n n s HX
If Kae D

I x

For s we ha I
 HCW.GG
t
nfn nzn IZCE
Adding CH au will give us
t 2
rn I n n 2 In K Y x KEK hk
o

E k I 7 tn
EE t 2
E t na

So
f 7 I E t tn 2 n EntII It
E
Remarle in a similar fashion evaluate

GI
K
ft kn

Hunt we 2nstart with the binomial expansion

of Gtx
Problem2 Putnam 132,1992
K
show that the coefficient of X in the
3
expansion at x 1 4 is
Z ng
Fyi
Solution First we look at
Gtx txt xD Gtx Eat xD Gtx Atx
a txt 7 xi
hairy IZ
x
o

bin omi stsum

Q How do we get the Xk term secosndum

A We get the Xk term by pairing each

7 Xi from the first sum with x
Iai
the second sum
from
So the coefficient of Xk in the product is

i tix
20047
Iii a

ProblemI Putnam 132

positive integers Show that
Let men be
Anton mind Inn

Solution sketch
 the binomial theorem show that
By
Emtninth Minn mmmm and
the devil is in the details
ProblemI Putnam AZ 1965
show that for any positive integer n

GD Ed
Solution sketch
substitute n r S Then our sum is

I lD
E p
computations

2 GD 4
I Etta
The main ingredients are the identities
CH I 2541
 K
th
Z
to
Ih 2 mich Vandermade

Pigenholeprinciple
are divided over strictly fewer
ifn pigeons
be a box containing
than n boxes there will
atpigns
Eosin
Let X Y be finite sets Consider
f X Y
then there exists a bEX such
If 1
1 141
that f a
flee
Remark
X y is one to
in other words if f an

one lingective function then IH E M

Examples
1 Among 13 people at least 2 ofthem share
the same birth month
2 5 pairs of socks are in a drawer
Suppose
 By picking 6 socks we
choose at leastone
pair
Problem1 A
Suppose we have
A ABC equilateral 5 points insideand
Td
Poet
µ
on the boundary
AB BE CA 1
of the triangle
a
B c
M 1
Show that there exists at least 2 ofthem
such that their distance is at most z
Consider the midpoints ta w P of BC CA and
AB in this way we obtained 4 congruenttriangle
side
of length z
the pigeonhole principle there exists at
By
least two points inside or on the boundary
of the one of the triangles TI T2 B T4
the distance of these two points is at most
12 side length ofThe triangles TK K't 43,4
Problem 2
consider in the Euclidean plane
5pointsofintegraeco
adinates Show that there exists
point of a
 integral coordinates which is the midpoint of the
line segment determined by two of the 5 points
Solution Every point has integral coordinates lattice
point We have 4 classes of points
Cs odd odd C2 odd even Cs even odd Gleeveyen
Since there are 5 points by the pigeonholeprinciple
it follows that at least 2 points fall into the
same class
the line segment determine
Clearly the midpoint of
by these 2 points is a latticepoint
AGHGH M.tt Ef oBCxeiyd
Ly

C
Problem3
show
Putnam AZ 2002

that given any spointsonthe surface

Easier there exists a closed hemisphere
which contains at least4ofthe points
sphere
Solution
He

µ He
 Divide the sphere in twohemispherese by choosing
a great circle passing through 2 points
any
By the pigeonhole principle it follows that at
2 of the 3 remaining points must lie in one

of the hemispheres
But then we have 4 points in total Lt
Problem4C
Let us consider 2h1 real numbers that are
E Show that there
greater than 1 and less that
are 3 of them such that they are the side
lengths oftriangle
a

Solution We consider the partition of the interval

Cti27 into n subintervals
CI 27 T2 22 TE 23 IT 1,27 n
subinterval

By the pigeonhole principle there exists 3 ofthem

a b c such that a b ce t 2k 2147 o E ke n
Clearly at b 22kt2K 2kt f Ly
Proflem5 lPutnamA4 I993

Let Xa Xz Xss be positive integers each of

which is less equal to 93 Let ya ya Ggs
or
be positive integers each of which is less than
or equal to 19 Prove that there exists a Cnomepty
sum of some Xi's equal to a sum of some egg's

solution We replace the numbers 19and 93

with n and n

If If
Define E Xi and Ye Yj
WL06 assume that XmZYn For ke En
we define f e
by
XfcgEYe xf
So Consider
0Ef guk Ye Xfce
if gleko for some l we are done Otherwise
GA Yee Xfce L Xfeelte k n so otgCek
whenever I teen
By the pigeonhole principle
it follows that there
existed such that
gC Then We have
 1 A

Zai Xena Xfce 5 Yee Yee IlotGi

I fledt s
tu
proteome Putnam A3 2990
Prove that any convex pentagon whose vertices
not three which are collinear have integer
coordinates must area 2
E
Eon
Let the lattice pentagon ABCDE of
us consider
minimalaree the area is always half an
integer the minimum exists
if the interior of aside AB contains a point F

then AFCDE is a convex lattice pentagon of

smaller area contradicting the choice of ABCDE
the same argument to each side we
Applying
assume that all boundary lattice points are
may A
vertices

B
E Yeah
ifBYEF E
are
lattiapoints
ff
C o D
 Again using Problem 2 we can separate these

5p into uses according to the parity

their coordinates the pigeonhole principle
of By
it follows that one class must contain at least
2 Vertices The midpoint19ofthese two vertices is
a lattice paint keep in mind that in must
be in the interior the pentagon ABCDE
of
The triangles Ts Tz Tz Ty and I are lattice triangle
But the area Ti Z Iz i 11434,5
5
NOW1
area ABCDE
i
I area I 5
I Ez
I 212

A graph G V E consits of a set V of

vertices and a set E ofedge eachof which
is a two element subsetof V

Proflemy n people go to a party and each

one counts the number of other people a
up
person knows at the party Show that there
are an even number of people who come up
with an answer that is an odd member
Solution

V the set of n
party goers
E all pairs of people who know each other
For a personi denote di the number of
edges that involve i di is the degree of
vertex i
We have
di

Remand For any graph G Vi E we have

m2 di 2 I El
I I

Usefulfact
For any graph G CV E there must be
twovertiaswiththesamedegree.es
Problems Show that two the people
 µ party have the same number of friends
Definitions
A walk in agraph from vertex u to a
vertex 0 is listofedges with u in the first
and V in the last and every pair of consecutive
edges sharing a vertex in common
is a way to trace a path
from u to v always
using complete arcs of the drawing and never
taking pencil of paper
A planargraple is a graph that can be drawn
in the plane with no two arcs meeting except
at a vertex if they are in common
A planar drawing of a graph partitions the
plane into connected regions called face
theorem Euler
Let 6 be a planar graph with V vertices
t edges andffaces Then
V EtF
Example
Nicepolyhedran

tetrahedroniculterEF
tetrmahedrm
7
if a polyhedron has V vertices E edges
and F faces then V Et E 2

Hanagan

notpeanargraphproofle.mn
Putnam B2,1997
 Consider a polyhedron with at least5faa
such that exactly 3 edges emerge from each
of its vertices Two players play the following
game
Each player in turn signs his or her name
on a previously unsigned face The winner is
the player who first succeeds in signing 3
faces that share a common vertex
Show that the
player who signs first will
always win as well as possible

Solution if there is a face Fo with 4 edges

with at least 4 adyecent faces let's say
Fe Fz Fz Fu the Player 1 signs Fo Regardless
of what player 2 signs player 1 signs a
face which is adgecent to fo let's say E
because Fe is probably signed
by player 2
if player 2 signs Fz then player 1 wins
by signing E otherwise player 1 1 signs E
and wins The only thing it remains for us
 is to show that a face Fo withfouredges
exists
Euler's formula FEt V 2 2g 12
By
Since each vertex has 3 edges and each
3
edge is shared by 2 vertices we have E
Now if all faces have just 3 edges then
by counting edges again we have 3 E 2E or
3 E 3 so F V Euler'sformula

Finally V 3 TV F E NEE
vz 2 sa

VE 4 and FZ 4 LT