Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Reuse of woody biomass fly ash in cement-based materials

Mario Berra a,⇑, Teresa Mangialardi b, Antonio Evangelista Paolini b
a
Ricerca sul Sistema Energetico – RSE S.p.A., Via Rubattino, 54, 20134 Milan, Italy
b
Department of Chemical Materials Environment Engineering, University of Rome ‘‘La Sapienza’’, Via Eudossiana, 18, 00184 Rome, Italy

h i g h l i g h t s

 Physico-chemical and mineralogical characterisation of pure woody biomass fly ash (WBFA).

 Treatments of WBFA to reduce detrimental effects on the technological properties of cement mixes.
 Technological feasibility of WBFA reuse as partial cement replacement material in cement mixes.
 Technological feasibility of WBFA reuse as a filler/partial sand replacement material in concrete.
 Hydraulic and pozzolanic activity of WBFA.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The reuse of woody biomass fly ash (WBFA) as a mineral admixture or as a filler/partial sand replacement
Received 18 June 2014 material in cementitious mixes was investigated. Three different WBFAs were used, two coming from vir-
Received in revised form 9 October 2014 gin wood and one from treated wood combustion. The physical and chemical characteristics of these
Accepted 26 November 2014
ashes and the technological properties (workability, setting, compressive strength) of cementitious mixes
Available online 19 December 2014
incorporating WBFA were evaluated. It was found that, in spite of the satisfactory technological proper-
ties exhibited by most related blended cements, the studied WBFAs did not meet the UNI EN 450-1
Keywords:
requirements for reuse as mineral admixtures, even if they were subjected to a preliminary water-wash-
Woody biomass fly ash
Mineral admixture
ing treatment. The reuse of raw wood fly ash as a filler/partial sand replacement material was found to be
Filler satisfactory and possible for low-quality concrete.
Blended cement Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Concrete
Workability
Setting
Compressive strength

1. Introduction combustion of untreated wood are classified as non-hazardous

The use of biomasses in place of traditional fuels represents a
suitable way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, in the general
policy towards a highly energy-efficient, low-carbon economy.
The most important biomasses are the residues from wood-
working or forest activities, the wastes from farms and agro-busi-
ness, the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes, and the plants
deliberately grown for energetic purposes. They represent a high
potential of burnable biomass and their fast increasing use in bio-
mass-based thermal plants has called for the disposal problems
associated with the ash production.
According to the European Waste Catalogue and hazardous
residues list [1], both bottom ash and fly ash coming from the
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mario.berra@rse-web.it (M. Berra), teresa.mangialardi@
uniroma1.it (T. Mangialardi), antonioevangelista.paolini@uniroma1.it (A.E. Paolini).
wastes.
Woody biomass bottom ash may be reused as a building mate-
rial for replacing granular material in geotechnical works, like road
foundations [2]. Its application to agricultural or forests soils has
also been proposed [3,4].
Reuse of Woody Biomass Fly Ash (WBFA) in agricultural and/or
industrial applications could pose environmental problems related
to higher content and higher leachability of heavy metals of this fly
ash [5–8], as compared to bottom ash.
Published work [7,8] has shown that certain types of WBFA do
not meet the limit concentrations of heavy metals established by
Dutch or Austrian regulations for reuse of biomass ashes as mineral
fertilisers. Leaching tests on WBFA samples [6] have shown that
there is a leachant pH range (below 7.5) where the release of heavy
metals of particular environmental concern is above the limits for
disposal of WBFA into non-hazardous waste landfills. This leaching
behaviour could be incompatible with the reuse of WBFA in agri-
cultural applications, while it would be compatible with a safe

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.11.052
0950-0618/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296
reuse of this ash in cement-based materials, as a mineral admix-
ture (partial cement replacement material) and/or as a filler
material.
From the environmental point of view, the reuse of WBFA as a
mineral admixture would produce several beneficial effects such
as (1) a significant reduction of CO2 emission related to industrial
cement production from traditional raw materials (limestone and
clay), (2) the preservation of the natural resources involved in
cement production, and (3) the solution of the environmental
problem related to the WBFA disposal. The last two beneficial
effects would also be attained by using WBFA as a filler in concrete.
However, the reuse of WBFA as a partial cement replacement
material is not allowed by ASTM C 618 [9] and UNI EN 450-1
[10], that are the current standards governing the use of fly ashes
as mineral admixtures in concrete. Indeed, such regulations pre-
clude the use of any material not derived from coal combustion.
It is reasonable to think that a future extension of the current reg-
ulations to the reuse of fly ash from pure biomass combustion in
concrete should be limited to those samples capable of meeting
the physical and chemical requirements as specified in the ASTM
C 618 or UNI EN 450-1 standards.
This may be the reason for which the research on the reuse of
biomass fly ashes in cement-based materials has been mostly
focused on co-fired fly ashes (fly ashes coming from combustion
of coal and biomass blends) and, only in minor part, on pure bio-
mass fly ashes.
At present, a conspicuous number of papers dealing with the
reuse of woody biomass fly ashes in concrete or mortar is, how-
ever, available in the literature [11–42]. Most of these papers are
focused on the reuse of WBFA as a partial cement replacement
material, while only a few papers deal with the reuse of biomass
fly ash as a filler [11,13,33,36].
Literature survey [27,30,33] has shown that the performance of
woody biomass fly ash as mineral admixture is strongly dependent
on its physico-chemical characteristics that, in turn, depend on the
type of woody biomass and the type of combustion adopted in the
thermal plant [43]. The content of unburned carbon and inorganic
compounds in the WBFA samples could significantly affect the con-
crete properties (workability, setting, mechanical strength), as well
as the presence of a considerable amount of heavy metals could
pose severe limitations to reuse of this waste in cementitious
mixes (excessive delay of cement hydration and/or excessive heavy
metal leaching).
The feasibility of using biomass fly ash as a filler has been
recently demonstrated by Cuenca et al. [36] in their experimental
study on the performance of self-compacting concrete.
The present study was undertaken in order to achieve the fol-
lowing three objectives: (1) to evaluate the suitability of three dif-
ferent types of WBFA coming from the electrostatic precipitators of
Italian wood burning plants as partial cement replacement materi-
als; (2) to assess the feasibility of a preliminary washing treatment
of WBFA with deionised water as a means of improving the chem-
ical characteristics of such wastes; and (3) to evaluate the suitabil-
ity of WBFA for reuse as a filler/partial sand replacement material
in concrete.
The first two objectives were accomplished by evaluating the
physical and chemical characteristics of raw and washed fly ashes,
and the technological properties (workability, setting, pozzolanic
activity, and mechanical strength) of blended cements prepared
at different replacement levels of Portland cement with unwashed
or washed WBFA.
The third objective was attained through measurements of
workability and mechanical strength on concrete mixes containing
one type of the studied fly ashes. This ash was selected on the basis
of the results collected in the first phase of experimentation.
287
2. Materials and methods
2.1. WBFA characterisation and washing treatment
The three types of wood fly ash used in this study were labelled as WBFA1,
WBFA2 and WBFA3. Samples WBFA1 and WBFA2 were obtained from the combus-
tion of chestnut or poplar virgin wood chips, respectively. Sample WBFA3 resulted
from the combustion of production scraps of treated wood.
An aliquot of as received fly ashes (raw ashes) was first dried in a laboratory
oven at 80 °C and then analysed for particle size distribution through dry sieving
and laser diffraction technique. The real density of each ash (dry mass per unit solid
volume excluding open porosity) was determined by a pycnometer for solids. The
chemical composition was determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for major ele-
ments and by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) for trace metals. The lat-
ter analysis was performed on the liquid phase resulting from nitric acid/hydrogen
peroxide hot digestion of each sample of WBFA. The same solution was analysed
also for sulphate and chloride contents by ionic chromatography (HPLC). The con-
tents of unburned carbon and inorganic carbon of fly ash were evaluated by simul-
taneous thermo-gravimetric analysis/differential scanning calorimetry (TGA/DSC)
with a thermo-analyser operating under static air at a heating rate of 10 °C/min
over a temperature range from 25 °C to 1100 °C. The crystalline phases of each
WBFA were identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis by using a Ni-filtered
Cu Ka radiation (40 kV, 30 mA).
Prior to use of WBFA as a mineral admixture in blended cements, each type of
raw fly ash was dried and then sieved on 150 lm sieve. The retained portion on
150 lm sieve (30, 15 and 47 wt.% for WBFA1, WBFA2 and WBFA3, respectively)
was ground to fineness below 45 lm and then mixed with the other portion of
ash (combined WBFA). Thus, the retained portion of the combined WBFA did not
exceed 30 wt.% when wet sieved on 45 lm sieve.
An aliquot of each combined WBFA was also subjected to a two-step washing
treatment with deionised water (liquid/solid ratio = 25 L/kg; contact time = 30
min/step). After each step, the suspension was filtered and the two filtrates were
combined and analysed for chloride and sulphate ions by HPLC and for sodium,
potassium and calcium ions by AAS. The overall weight loss of fly ash, L.O.W. (Loss
On Washing), was also determined after drying of the solid residue to a constant
weight at 80 °C. The combined WBFA after washing treatment was referred to as
washed WBFA, while the combined WBFA not subjected to washing was indicated
as unwashed WBFA.
2.2. Preparation and testing of blended cements
The ash–cement blends (blended cements) were made using unwashed or
washed WBFA and Portland cement, CEM I 42.5R, the latter being also referred to
as PC. The chemical and mineralogical compositions of Portland cement are given
in Table 1. The blended cements, also indicated as WBFA-PC cements, were made
at Portland cement replacement levels of 15 and 30 wt.% and were identified with
the wt.% content of WBFA. These cements were characterised for their pozzolanic
activity and technological properties.
2.2.1. Pozzolanicity tests
Each blended cement was tested for its pozzolanic activity by using the UNI EN
196-5 test method [44].
According to this method, the pozzolanic activity is assessed on an aqueous sus-
pension of the test cement (water/cement ratio of 5 ml/g) by comparing the concen-
tration of calcium hydroxide (expressed as CaO) in the aqueous solution in contact
with the hydrated cement, after a fixed period of curing at 40 °C (14 days), with the
concentration of calcium hydroxide capable of saturating a solution of the same
alkalinity, the latter being expressed as OH ion concentration. The test cement is
classified as a pozzolanic cement if the concentration of calcium hydroxide in the
solution is lower than its saturation concentration.
2.2.2. Physical tests on fresh cement pastes
The water demand of the blended cements was evaluated through workability
measurements on cement pastes made with blended cement or Portland cement
(control) as a binder and deionised water as mixing water. The water/binder weight
ratio (w/b) was varied over the range from 0.45 to 0.75, and the workability of these
pastes was evaluated through the use of a mini-slump test [45]. With this test, the
mix workability was expressed in terms of the area Acp (cm2) of the paste collapsed
without shocking from a truncated cone open at both ends (upper diame-
ter = 20 mm; base diameter = 40 mm; height = 60 mm) and preliminarily filled with
the test sample.
The setting behaviour of blended and Portland cements was evaluated by mea-
suring the initial and final setting times of pastes made with normal consistency
(w/b ratio from 0.35 to 0.38, depending on the type and content of WBFA), accord-
ing to UNI EN 196-3 test method (Vicat apparatus) [46].
288 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296

Table 1
Chemical and mineralogical composition of Portland cement.

Oxide component wt.% of dry solid Heavy metal mg/kg dry solid Mineralogical constituents according to Bogue wt.%
SiO2 20.03 Cd 3 C3S 53.71
Al2O3 5.04 Cr 68 C2S 16.90
Fe2O3 2.44 Cu 32 C3A 9.22
CaO 63.03 Ni 7 C4AF 7.42
Free CaO 0.91 Pb 110
MgO 1.35 Zn 460
SO3 3.36
SrO 0.21 L.O.I. at 950 °C (%) 2.40
Mn2O3 0.15 Particle density (g/cm3) 3.15
P2O5 0.13
TiO2 0.22
Na2O 0.30
K2O 1.12
Na2Oeq. 1.04

2.2.3. Mechanical and chemical tests on hardened cement pastes and mortars
The pozzolanic activity of the studied WBFAs was also evaluated through deter-
minations of the portlandite (CH) content on cubic specimens (40 mm side) of
blended or Portland cement pastes (w/b = 0.50) after different curing times (7–
90 days) at 20 °C and 100% RH. Each sample of paste was preliminarily pulverized,
treated with acetone and ethyl ether in order to stop cement hydration, and then
subjected to DSC–TGA analysis. The portlandite content (LCH) was evaluated from
the weight loss on the TGA thermogram occurring between 400 and 500 °C (endo-
thermic peak corresponding to CH dehydration on DSC thermogram).
The effect of WBFA addition on the mechanical strength development of cement-
based materials was evaluated on mortar specimens made with standard mix propor-
tions (w/b = 0.50 by mass; sand/binder = 3.0 by mass; quartzitic sand with 0.1–
4.0 mm gradation). Compressive strength measurements were performed on three
replicate cubic specimens (40 mm side) after curing times of 7, 14, 28, 60 and 90 days
at 20 °C and 100% R.H. according to UNI EN 196-1 [47]. A constant displacement-rate
compressive testing machine with a maximum load capacity of 60 kN was used. The
coefficient of variation of strength measurements was about 3%.
Table 2 gives the compositions of the two concrete mixes used for the experi-
ments. In this table, the dosages of the various ingredients are reported in terms
of volume and weight of component per unit volume of concrete.
The concrete mixes were prepared with a laboratory mixer according to the fol-
lowing procedure: mixing of the dry ingredients for 5 min, adding 70% of the total
water and mixing for 3 min, adding the rest of the water containing superplasticiser
and mixing for 2 min. The as prepared concrete mixes were first tested for the
workability level according to UNI EN 12350-2 (slump test) [48]. Next, from each
mix, cubic specimens (150 mm side) were cast and, after 1 day of curing at 20 °C
and RH >95% within the moulds, they were demoulded and stored at 20 °C and
100% RH. After 7, 28 and 90 days of curing, three replicate specimens were tested
for compressive strength according to UNI EN 12390-2 [49], and the strength values
were averaged. The coefficient of variation of these measurements was about 7%.
The density of concrete specimens was evaluated from weight measurements.
3. Results and discussion

2.3. Preparation and testing of concrete mixes
Concrete mixes were prepared using CEM I 42.5 R (Table 1), deionised water
and a calcareous aggregate coming from an Italian quarry. This aggregate was avail-
able in both coarse and fine grain sizes, with a maximum particle size of 31.5 mm.
The dry particle densities of fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel)
were 2610 and 2703 kg/m3, respectively. As explained later (Section 3.4), on the
basis of the particle size distributions of the woody biomass fly ashes investigated,
the raw WBFA2 sample (real density = 2350 kg/m3) was selected and used in con-
crete mixes as a filler material and, in almost equal part, as a partial sand replace-
ment material (ash concrete). A commercial polyacrylic-type superplasticiser, in the
form of aqueous solution (density = 1.1 g/cm3; dry active matter = 30 wt.%), was
also used.
A reference concrete mix was prepared by replacing the amount of fly ash used
as filler with a conventional filler such as ground limestone (real density = 2740 kg/
m3), and by using fine calcareous aggregate as total sand.
Two different dosages of superplasticiser (0.5% by weight of Portland cement for
ash concrete and 0.75% for reference concrete) were needed to obtain mixes with
the same workability level. The amount of total water needed for each concrete
mix was calculated taking into account the water absorption of calcareous sand
(1.61 wt.%), gravel (1.0 wt.%), and 0.063–0.6 mm WBFA2 ash (10.2 wt.%), and the
water content of the commercial superplasticiser solution.
3.1. Physical and chemical characteristics of as received WBFA samples
3.1.1. Particle size distribution and density
Fig. 1 shows the particle size analyses of the as received, dried
WBFA samples.
These analyses revealed that raw WBFA2 was the most finely
grained material, with 50 wt.% of particles having sizes (d50) of less
than 60 lm, against d50 values of about 100 lm for raw WBFA1
and 140 lm for raw WBFA3. The average particle size was 135,
86 and 179 lm for raw WBFA1, WBFA2, and WBFA3, respectively.
The maximum particle size was 450 lm for raw WBFA1 and about
600 lm for raw WBFA2 and WBFA3.
The real density of the studied raw WBFAs ranged from
2.35 g/cm3 (WBFA2) to 2.76 g/cm3 (WBFA3), with the density of
WBFA1 (2.40 g/cm3) being similar to that of WBFA2.
These values of density were comparable to those exhibited by
coal fly ashes [50] and were significantly lower than those of neat
cements. Thus, the partial replacement of Portland cement with

Table 2
Composition of the ash and reference concrete mixes.

Component Concrete with WBFA2 Reference concrete

L/m3 kg/m3 L/m3 kg/m3
Portland cement 133 420 133 420
Free water 175 175 175 175
Calcareous sand (0.063–4 mm) 270 716 308 816
Wood fly ash sand (0.063–0.6 mm) 38 79 – –
Wood fly ash filler (0–0.063 mm) 43 101 – –
Ground limestone filler (0–0.063 mm) – – 43 118
Calcareous gravel (4–31.5 mm) 326 890 326 890
Superplasticiser (dry matter) 2.1 3.2
Entrapped air 15 – 15 –
Total 1000 2383 1000 2422
 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296 289

phases, the XRD patterns were corrected for the contribution of

amorphous phase to background line. Fig. 2(a)–(c) shows the cor-
rected XRD patterns of the as received WBFA1, WBFA2 and WBFA3,
respectively.
The main crystalline phases identified in all fly ashes were lime,
quartz and calcite, accompanied by minor amounts of gehlenite
(2CaOAl2O3SiO2) and goethite (FeO(OH)). In the WBFA3 sample,
anhydrite and lead oxides such as plattnerite (Pb2O3), minium
(PbOPb2O3) and anglesite (PbSO4) were also identified.

3.2. Reuse of WBFA as partial cement replacement material

3.2.1. Compliance of raw WBFAs with physical and chemical

Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of the as received WBFA1, WBFA2, and WBFA3
samples.
wood fly ash would produce a significant reduction in the unit
weight of cementitious material.
3.1.2. Chemical composition of as received WBFA samples
Table 3 gives the chemical characteristics of the as received,
dried WBFA samples.
These data revealed that SiO2 (29.88–40.38%) and CaO (20.
76–33.13%) were the main oxide components in each raw WBFA.
The fly ashes were also rich in alkalies (3.72–5.91% as Na2Oeq),
especially in K2O (2.08–6.70%), and contained significant amounts
of chlorides, sulphates and magnesium oxide.
All fly ashes were characterised by a significant presence of
heavy metals of particular environmental concern, such as As, Cd,
Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. In every raw WBFA, zinc was the predom-
inant heavy metal (2274 mg/kg for WBFA1, 636 mg/kg for WBFA2,
and 17470 mg/kg for WBFA3), while mercury was the heavy metal
with the lowest concentration (<1.0 mg/kg in all fly ashes). The
presence of heavy metals in raw WBFA1 and WBFA2 samples prob-
ably arose from adsorption of heavy metals by plants in soils con-
taining phosphate fertiliser and sludge prior to woody biomass
combustion. In the case of raw WBFA3 sample, that was character-
ised by the highest heavy metal content, significant metal contri-
bution also resulted from industrial wood treatments.
3.1.3. Crystalline phases of raw WBFA samples
When subjected to XRD analysis, all the as received fly ashes
revealed the presence of a large amount of amorphous phase
(above 45%). Therefore, for an easier identification of the crystalline
requirements
As anticipated in Section 1, the reuse of fly ash from pure bio-
mass combustion as a mineral admixture in concrete where
cementitious or pozzolanic action, or both, is desired, is not consid-
ered by the current international regulations.
In USA, the current restrictions concern the fly ashes coming
from combustion of fossil fuels (bituminous and sub-bituminous
coal, peat, and lignite), and these restrictions (physical and chem-
ical requirements) are specified in the ASTM C 618 standard.
In Europe, the current restrictions concern both the fly ashes
coming from fossil fuels and those resulting from the combustion
of biomass and fossil fuel blends (co-firing), with a biomass (co-
combustion material) content of not higher than 20 wt.%. These
restrictions are specified in the UNI EN 450-1 standard.
With regard to the fineness requirements, the amount of fly ash
retained on 45 lm sieve shall not exceed 40 wt.% (Category N) or
12 wt.% (Category S) according to UNI EN 450-1, and 34 wt.%
according to ASTM C 618.
It can be noted from Fig. 1 that none of the as received WBFA
samples was able to meet the ASTM or EN fineness requirements,
the retained ash portion on 45 lm sieve being equal to 80, 61
and 77 wt.%. for WBFA1, WBFA2 and WBFA3, respectively. It fol-
lows that, without preliminary grinding, only a minor part of raw
fly ash (23–39 wt.%, depending on the type of WBFA) could be used
as a mineral admixture in blended cement formulations.
Therefore, it was necessary to preliminarily grind the retained
portion of each WBFA sample on 150 lm sieve and to combine this
ground portion with the other ash portion, as already described in
Section 2.
Table 4 compares the chemical characteristics of the as received
WBFA samples to the chemical requirements prescribed for reuse
of fly ashes resulting from fossil fuels (ASTM C 618) or coal and
co-combustion materials (UNI EN 450-1) as partial cement
replacement materials.

Table 3
Chemical analyses of as received, dried WBFAs.

Chemical species wt.% of dry solid Chemical species mg/kg dry solid
WBFA1 WBFA2 WBFA3 WBFA1 WBFA2 WBFA3
CaO 33.13 23.76 20.76 Unburned organic carbon 0.50 0.40 0.59
SiO2 29.88 36.44 40.38 Inorganic carbon 1.09 0.75 0.44
Al2O3 9.58 8.96 9.54 As 18 15 45
Fe2O3 5.79 6.39 6.09 Cd 9.0 7.6 60
K2O 3.64 6.70 2.08 Cr 101 18 124
Na2O 1.32 1.49 3.04 Cu 175 48 920
Na2Oeq 3.72 5.91 4.41 Hg 0.2 0.3 0.4
MgO 3.50 3.52 3.00 Ni 41 50 102
MnO 0.77 0.52 0.15 Pb 177 39 5318
P2O5 2.33 1.90 0.68 Zn 2274 636 17470
SO3a 2.90 4.68 9.30
Cl 1.07 1.90 1.74 L.O.I. at 975 °C (%) 4.50 3.64 3.13
L.O.W. (%) 14.0 11.2 10.3
a
Acid soluble sulphates expressed as SO3.
290 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296

In the present study, the contents of reactive SiO2 and CaO were
not determined, so that these two parameters were not considered
for the above comparison.
It can be noted from Table 4 that, exception made for the loss on
ignition (L.O.I.), the American specifications are less severe than
the European prescriptions. In particular, ASTM C 618 does not
restrict chloride, reactive silica, free and reactive calcium oxides,
magnesium oxide, phosphate, and total alkalis contents. Moreover,
the sulphate limit (5 wt.% for both classes C and F) is less than the
maximum allowable (3 wt.%) by European regulation.
All raw WBFA samples were found to fail the UNI EN 450–1 pre-
scriptions. In particular, all fly ashes did not meet the prescription
for the sum (% SiO2 + % Al2O3 + % Fe2O3) and free CaO. Furthermore,
raw WBFA1 failed for chloride content, raw WBFA2 for the con-
tents of chlorides, sulphates and total alkalis (acid-soluble alkalis
determined according to UNI EN 196-2 [51]), and raw WBFA3 for
chloride and sulphate contents.
According to the ASTM requirements, only raw WBFA2 was
found to be suitable for reuse as mineral admixture and it was clas-
sifiable as Class C fly ash. Raw WBFA1 was found to be unsuitable
for the sum (%SiO2 + %Al2O3 + %Fe2O3), while raw WBFA3 (classifi-
able as Class C) failed for sulphate content.
It must be recognised that the presence of a significant amount
of water-soluble compounds, such as chlorides and alkalis, could
promote the formation of a high porosity within the hardened
cementitious mixes, thus penalising mechanical strength develop-
ment and durability. High contents of water-soluble chlorides can
also be deleterious for steel reinforced concrete, since they will
promote the corrosion of iron reinforcing bars. Furthermore, high
contents of available alkalis (i.e., the amount of alkalis released into
the pore liquid of cementitious matrices) are responsible for the
development of deleterious expansion associated with alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) in concretes made with aggregates containing some
alkali-reactive forms of silica and/or silicate. Deleterious expansive
phenomena in concrete can also arise from very slow dissolution of
significant amounts of sulphates or magnesium oxide, with subse-
quent precipitation of very expansive phases, such as ettringite
(C3A3CaSO432H2O) or brucite (Mg(OH)2).

3.2.2. Chemical characteristics of washed WBFA samples

Fig. 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of as received WBFA1 (a), WBFA2 (b) and WBFA3
(c) samples.
As shown in Table 4, the chemical species of raw WBFAs failing
the ASTM or EN requirements were mostly water-soluble species,
such as alkalis and chlorides, and less water-soluble species as
sulphates.

Table 4
Comparison between the chemical characteristics of as received WBFA samples and the chemical requirements for reuse of fly ash as mineral admixtures (European and American
Standards).

Chemical characteristic (wt.%) WBFA1 WBFA2 WBFA3 Chemical requirement

UNI EN 450-1 ASTM C618
a
Loss on ignition (L.O.I.) max. 4.50 3.64 3.13 9.0 6.0
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 min. 45.25 51.79 56.01 70 701; 502
Reactive SiO2 min. n.d. n.d. n.d. 25 –
Reactive CaO max. n.d. n.d. n.d. 10 –
Free CaO max. 2.40 2.45 2.25 1.5 –
MgO max. 3.50 3.52 3.00 4.0 –
Chloride max. 1.07 1.90 1.74 0.10 –
Sulphate (as SO3) max. 2.90 4.68 9.30 3.0 5.0
Tot. alkalis (Na2Oeq)b max. 3.72 5.91 4.41 5.0c –
Water-sol. phosphate as P2O5 max. 0.003 0.008 0.006 0.01 –
Total phosphate as P2O5 max. 2.33 1.90 0.68 5.0 –

n.d. = Not determined.

a
Category C (5 wt.% for Category A; 7 wt.% for Category B).
b
%Na2Oeq = %Na2O + %K2O0.66.
c
Acid-soluble alkalis (UNI EN 196-2).
1
Class F.
2
Class C.
 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296 291

The XRD patterns of the raw fly ashes (Fig. 2(a)–(c)) did not
reveal the presence of highly water-soluble crystalline phases such
as halite (NaCl) or sylvite (KCl). In the case of WBFA3, anhydrite
was identified as a crystalline sulphate phase (Fig. 2(c)).
A two-step washing treatment of WBFA with deionized water
was used in order to reduce the contents of chlorides, sulphates
and alkalis in each ash.
Table 5 gives the chemical characteristics of the washed WBFA
samples. The contents of calcium oxide, alkalis, sulphates and chlo-
rides were obtained on the basis of the determinations of Na+, K+,
Ca+2, SO2 
4 , and Cl ion concentrations in the filtrate resulting from
the combination of the two steps of washing, and taking into
account the overall weight loss, L.O.W., of each fly ash (Table 3).
The sum (%SiO2 + %Al2O3 + %Fe2O3), as well as the MgO content of
each washed fly ash was calculated using the data in Table 3 and
assuming no dissolution of SiO2, Al2O3, MgO and Fe2O3 during
the washing treatment [52].
Irrespective of the fly ash considered, high percentage releases
of chlorides (74.1–93.6%) and total alkalis (63.3–84.7% as Na2Oeq)
were always obtained. In contrast, sulphates were released to a
minor extent (24.5–69.2% as SO3), especially in the case of WBFA2
(30.8%) and WBFA3 (24.5%). Relatively low calcium release was
always observed (5.4–11.8% as CaO).
In spite of the improved quality of all the washed fly ashes,
washed WBFA3 still failed the ASTM specifications for sulphate
content. On the other hand, washed WBFA1 resulted to be suitable
for reuse as Class C.
None of the washed fly ashes was able to meet the UNI EN pre-
scriptions: WBFA1 failed only for the sum (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3), Fig. 3. Effect of WBFA addition on the workability of cement pastes with different
while the other two ashes also failed for chlorides and sulphates. w/b ratios (mini-slump tests).

Thus, the two-step washing treatment adopted in this study

proved to be insufficient for converting raw wood fly ash into a
material conforming to UNI EN 450-1 requirements, for reuse as workability level, the water demand of unwashed WBFA1-PC
mineral admixture in concrete. blends was found to be higher than that of Portland cement. Over
In the light of the above findings, the subsequent study on the the range of Acp values from 40 to 100 cm2, water demands relative
technological properties of blended cements was to be limited to to PC of 119–120% and 122–129% were calculated for the blended
the blends prepared with washed WBFA1. However, this study cements made with 15 and 30 wt.% WBFA1, respectively. This
was also extended to all unwashed fly ashes (WBFA1, WBFA2 increased water demand agreed with those reported by other
and WBFA3) in order to evaluate eventual detrimental effects of researchers, according to which the lower workability of WBFA-
such ashes on the technological properties of cement pastes and/ PC blends was attributable to the irregular shape and the higher
or mortars, as a consequence of their adverse compositional specific surface area of porous wood fly ash particles, in compari-
characteristics. son to PC particles [15,19,21,25,32,35,39].
The use of washed WBFA1 in place of unwashed WBFA1
increased the water demand of blended cements relative to PC to
3.3. Technological properties of blended cements
a minor extent (102–104%), and this increment was little affected
by the dose level of washed WBFA1. The water demand of washed
3.3.1. Workability of cement pastes
WBFA1-PC blends was also lower than the maximum water
Fig. 3(a) and (b) shows the results of the mini-slump tests on
requirement established by ASTM C 618 for mineral admixtures
the pastes made with blended or Portland cements. In these fig-
(105–115%, depending on the class of mineral admixture). These
ures, the area Acp of the collapsed sample is plotted as a function
data evidenced a beneficial effect of the water-washing treatment
of the w/b ratio for each type of paste investigated. In the case of
of WBFA1 sample on mix workability. This result was in contrast
no paste collapse, the value of Acp was about 12 cm2.
with what was reported in our previous paper dealing with the
As shown in Fig. 3(a), at a fixed w/b ratio, the partial replace-
water-washing treatment of municipal solid waste incinerator
ment of Portland cement with unwashed WBFA1 decreased the
(MSWI) fly ashes [52].
mix workability (Acp reduction), and this effect was more pro-
For such wastes, the washing treatment was found to reduce
nounced at the higher ash content (30 wt.%). As a result, at a fixed
the average size of the ash particles and to increase the porosity
(mesoporosity) and the specific surface area of the ash. These phys-
Table 5 ical modifications produced an increase in the water demand of the
Chemical characteristics of washed WBFA samples. washed ash that was more pronounced for the MSWI fly ashes
Chemical species (wt.%) WBFA1 WBFA2 WBFA3 characterised by higher L.O.W. values (20–30 wt.% ash dissolution).
On the other hand, the washing treatment was also able to remove
CaO 33.97 25.32 21.03
Chlorides 0.08 0.47 0.50 the amount of floating carbon contained in raw fly ash, thus elim-
Sulphates as SO3 1.04 3.65 7.80 inating the water demand associated to this material.
Total alkalis as Na2Oeq 0.66 2.12 1.80 Therefore, the observed beneficial effect of the water-washing
MgO 4.07 3.96 3.34 treatment of WBFA1 sample on cement mix workability
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 52.62 58.32 62.43
(Fig. 3(a)) could be related to a modification of the chemical
292 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296
composition of this fly ash rather than to changes in its physical
properties.
As shown in Fig. 3(b), the use of unwashed WBFA2 or WBFA3
increased the mix workability, thus reducing the water demand
of the blended cements relative to PC (88–98%). In particular, the
water demand reduced with increasing ash content and, at a fixed
ash dose level, this reduction was more pronounced for WBFA3-PC
blends.
With respect to unwashed WBFA1-PC pastes, the observed
higher workability of the cement pastes containing unwashed
WBFA2 or WBFA3 could be related to the lower values of L.O.I.
(lower unburned carbon content) and of L.O.W. (lower ash dissolu-
tion) exhibited by the last two fly ashes (Table 3).
The conflicting data of Fig. 3(a) and (b) proved the great vari-
ability in the flow properties of blended cements made with differ-
ent types of wood fly ash. On the other hand, contradictory results
have also been reported in the literature about the effect of woody
biomass fly ash on the workability of mortar or concrete. In partic-
ular, at cement replacement levels of 15–30 wt.%, wood fly ash was
found to significantly reduce [15,16,21] or markedly increase the
slump of concrete [34,40]. No change in workability was also
reported in the case of mortar samples containing 10% or 20 wt.%
wood fly ash [41].
3.3.2. Setting of cement pastes
Table 6 gives the initial (ti) and final (tf) setting times of blended
or Portland cement pastes with normal consistency.
With respect to the control mix (ti = 290 min; tf = 450 min), a
little retarding effect on setting was produced by partially replac-
ing Portland cement with 15 or 30 wt.% unwashed WBFA1, and this
effect was more evident for initial setting. No substantial change in
setting behaviour was detected when washed WBFA1 was used in
place of unwashed WBFA1 at a dose level of 15 wt.%. In contrast,
the use of washed WBFA1 at a dose level of 30 wt.% significantly
accelerated the initial and final setting in comparison to PC paste.
The use of unwashed WBFA2 or WBFA3 at a dose level of 15
wt.% only produced a moderate delay in final setting. Conversely,
a strong delay of both initial and final setting was recorded for a
dose level of 30 wt.%, and this effect was more pronounced with
the use of WBFA3 (delays of 330 and 510 min for initial and final
setting). The observed highest retarding effect of WBFA3 could be
ascribed to its highest contents of sulphates and heavy metals (par-
ticularly, Zn, Pb and Cu) as compared to WBFA2 and WBFA1
samples.
Exception made for the blended cements made with 30 wt.% of
unwashed WBFA2 or WBFA3, the delay of initial setting observed
for all the other blended cements made with unwashed fly ashes
was less than 120 min (maximum delay allowed by UNI EN 450-
1 for a cement paste made with 25 wt.% fly ash).
A moderate prolongation of the setting time could also be con-
sidered a desirable property of blended cements when longer
times are required in which the concrete mix has to be workable.
Table 6
Setting times of cement pastes.
Mix Initial setting time (min) Final setting time (min)
PC (control) 290 450
15% Unwashed WFBA1 360 460
30% Unwashed WBFA1 350 490
15% Washed WBFA1 375 440
30% Washed WBFA1 230 415
15% Unwashed WBFA2 290 520
30% Unwashed WBFA2 500 800
15% Unwashed WBFA3 270 650
30% Unwashed WBFA3 620 960
3.3.3. Compressive strength of mortar specimens and activity index of
WBFAs
Fig. 4 shows the compressive strength development of the mor-
tar specimens prepared with unwashed or washed WBFA1-PC
blends (ash dose levels of 15 wt.% and 30 wt.%; w/b = 0.50) and
with Portland cement, when these specimens were cured at
20 °C and 100% R.H.
Over the whole range of curing times investigated (7–90 days),
the compressive strengths of the mortar specimens containing
unwashed or washed WBFA1 were always lower than those exhib-
ited by the control mix at the same curing time. The use of washed
WBFA1 in place of unwashed WBFA1 reduced to a greater extent
the compressive strength of control mortars when the curing time
was less than 40–45 days. At longer curing times (60–90 days), an
opposite result was observed, especially for the ash dose level of 30
wt.%. However, the differences between the compressive strengths
of mortars containing washed or unwashed WBFA1 were clearly
evident (well above the variation coefficient value) only when a
dose level of 30 wt.% and a curing time of 90 days were considered.
Fig. 5(a) and (b) shows the effect of increasing the ash content on
the 28-day or 90-day compressive strengths of the mortar speci-
mens made with unwashed WBFA2-PC or unwashed WBFA3-PC
cements. In these figures, the changes of compressive strength with
ash content for unwashed WBFA1-PC and washed WBFA1-PC
cement mortars are also reported.
Irrespective of the curing time and ash content considered, the
highest strength reductions relative to PC mortars (0% ash content)
were always observed for the mortars containing unwashed
WBFA3. For these specimens, the compressive strength reduced
almost linearly with ash content, and percentage strength reduc-
tions of about 60% at 28 or 90 days were recorded for a dose level
of 30 wt.%.
For the mortars containing unwashed WBFA2, strength reduc-
tions of 27–30% were observed. The lowest strength reductions
were found for the mortars containing unwashed or washed
WBFA1 (percentage strength reductions of 13–15% for unwashed
ash and 3–18% for washed ash).
It was noteworthy that, especially at longer curing times
(90 days), the compressive strength of the mortars containing
washed WBFA1, unwashed WBFA1 or WBFA2 only slightly reduced
as the ash content was increased from 15 to 30 wt.% (Fig. 5(b)). This
could be ascribed to the capability of such fly ashes of contributing
to development of mechanical strength as a result of their pozzola-
nic and/or hydraulic activity.
Fig. 4. Development of compressive strength for the mortars containing unwashed
or washed WBFA1, in comparison with the control mortar.
 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296
Fig. 5. Effect of WBFA content on the compressive strength of mortars cured for
28 days (a) or 90 days (b) at 20 °C and 100% RH.
Compressive strength reduction of mortars or concretes con-
taining WBFA have mostly been reported in the literature
[30,33]. However, in some cases, no strength variation [41] or
strength increase [38] was found.
In order to assess the behaviour of the studied WBFA samples,
their activity index was determined as specified in the UNI EN
450-1 standard for coal or co-combustion fly ashes. The activity
index is defined by this European Standard as the ratio between
the compressive strength of the standard mortar prepared with
75 wt.% Portland cement – 25 wt.% fly ash and the compressive
strength of standard mortar prepared with 100 wt.% Portland
cement (control mortar). A fly ash sample is suitable for use in con-
crete if an activity index of not less than 0.75 at 28 days and of not
less than 0.85 at 90 days is obtained.
Using the curves of Fig. 5(a) and (b), the 28-day and 90-day com-
pressive strengths of the mortars containing 25 wt.% fly ash were
obtained by interpolation of the experimental data, and the activity
index values at 28 and 90 days were then calculated for each WBFA.
It was found that only washed WBFA1 and unwashed WBFA1
(activity indexes of 0.85 at 28 days for both ashes, and 0.94 and
0.86 at 90 days) were able to go beyond the required activity
indexes, with the highest index value being obtained for washed
WBFA1 at 90 days. The activity indexes of unwashed WBFA2
(0.71 at 28 days and 0.79 at 90 days) were slightly lower than
the corresponding limit values. The results obtained for unwashed
WBFA3 (activity indexes of 0.49 at 28 days and 0.50 at 90 days)
evidenced the inadequacy of this ash for reuse in cement-based
materials. This was attributable not only to the lack in pozzolanic
and/or hydraulic activity of WBFA3 but also to its strong retarding
effect on cement hydration, as suggested by the setting data of
Table 6.
Therefore, the subsequent investigation on the hydrating
behaviour of blended cements was limited to the blends made
with unwashed and washed WBFA1, and unwashed WBFA2.
293
3.3.4. Hydrating behaviour of blended cements
In order to detect an eventual pozzolanic activity by the WBFAs
selected, pozzolanicity tests on WBFA-PC blends were performed
according to UNI EN 196-5. Moreover, the portlandite (CH) content
of hydrated pastes made with blended or Portland cement was
determined after different times (7–90 days) of curing at 20 °C
and 100% RH.
(a) Pozzolanicity test results
Fig. 6 shows the results of the pozzolanicity tests for the
blended cements investigated, together with the test result for
the control (Portland cement).
As can be noted, all the points representing the blended
cements were placed above the curve of the calcium hydroxide sol-
ubility, as the Portland cement point did. This means that none of
the studied WBFAs had sufficient pozzolanic activity, at least for
the dose levels of ash investigated (15 and 30 wt.%).
This result could be ascribed to an insufficient content of the
three ‘‘pozzolanic oxides’’, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in the studied
fly ashes. However, using the pozzolanicity test (UNI EN 196-5),
Rajamma et al. [26] reported a pozzolanic behaviour for a wood
fly ash designated as F1 and characterised by a sum of the three
‘‘pozzolanic oxides’’ (52.9%) comparable to that of unwashed
WBFA2 (51.8%) (Table 4). But, fly ash F1 had a much lower CaO
content (11.4%) as compared to WBFA2 (23.76%) (Table 3).
The different behaviour of the two ashes could be explained
considering that: (1) the pozzolanic activity of wood fly ash is
not directly proportional to the sum of the three ‘‘pozzolanic oxi-
des’’ as determined by the chemical analysis but to the amount
of these oxides in the amorphous phase of the fly ash, and (2)
the pozzolanicity test UNI EN 196-5 could be inadequate for testing
pozzolanic materials rich in CaO.
(b) Portlandite contents of hardened cement pastes
Table 7 gives the portlandite contents (LCH) of hydrated cement
pastes, determined from the TGA/DSC thermograms and expressed
as g CH/100 g anhydrous binder (Portland or blended cement). In
this table, the Portland cement contribution (L0 CH) to portlandite
content of blended cement pastes is also reported. The L0 CH values
were calculated assuming an inert behaviour of WBFA.
At low curing times (up to 14 days), the portlandite content of
blended cement pastes was found to be higher than the corre-
sponding L0 CH value. These results suggested an early contribution
of fly ash to portlandite content of cement pastes, as a result of the
hydration reaction of lime coming from unwashed WBFA1 and
WBFA2 (XRD patterns of Fig. 2(a) and (b)) or directly from washed
WBFA1. Indeed, the XRD pattern of washed fly ash (not reported
here) showed the presence of portlandite and the disappearance
of lime contained in raw WBFA1. In the case of washed WBFA1-
PC blends, the increased CH content relative to PC paste could also
be due to a little acceleration of cement hydration, as suggested by
the setting data (Table 6).
At longer curing times (28–90 days), the LCH values of the
blended cement pastes were found to be lower than the corre-
sponding L0 CH values. However, the CH consumption was relatively
low and did not significantly increase with increasing ash content.
These data were indicative of a low pozzolanic activity of the stud-
ied wood fly ashes, thus indicating that the negative results of the
pozzolanicity test (Fig. 6) were principally attributable to an insuf-
ficient amount of the ‘‘pozzolanic oxides’’ in the amorphous phase
of the studied WBFAs.
Therefore, the observed little reduction in compressive strength
of the mortars containing unwashed or washed WBFA1, or
unwashed WBFA2, with increasing ash content (Fig. 5(a) and (b))
294 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296

Fig. 6. Results of pozzolanicity tests on the blended cements investigated and on Portland cement as control.

Table 7
Portlandite contents of hydrated cement pastes.

Time LCH (g CH/100 g anhydrous binder) L0 CH

(days)
PC 15% Unwashed 30% Unwashed 15% Washed 30% Washed 15% Unwashed 30% Unwashed 15% 30%
WBFA1 WBFA1 WBFA1 WBFA1 WBFA2 WBFA2 WBFA WBFA
7 20.7 18.8 17.5 19.1 18.0 19.0 18.3 17.6 14.5
14 21.3 18.2 16.4 18.0 17.5 18.7 17.8 18.1 14.9
28 22.7 15.0 14.0 14.9 15.0 15.0 14.7 19.3 15.9
90 25.7 14.5 13.6 14.0 13.6 13.8 14.0 21.8 18.0

could be ascribed to the capability of such ashes of developing
hydraulic reactions and, only to a minor extent, to their pozzolanic
activity.
This interpretation of the WBFA behaviour was supported by
the values of the hydraulic index, K3, calculated on the basis of
the chemical composition of the studied fly ashes. This hydraulic
index is defined as (%CaO + %MgO + %Al2O3)/(%SiO2) and represents
one of the several chemical hydraulic indexes proposed as a quality
criterion for reuse of ground granulated blast furnace slag as a par-
tial replacement of Portland cement [53]. Values of K3 above 1.0 are
indicative of good hydraulic properties. On the basis of the data in
Tables 3 and 5, K3 values of 1.55, 1.42 and 0.995 were calculated for
unwashed WBFA1, washed WBFA1 and unwashed WBFA2, respec-
tively. If this index was also calculated for unwashed WBFA3, a K3
value of 0.82 was obtained, indicating low hydraulic activity for
this ash. The last prediction agreed with both the experimental
data of Fig. 5(a) and (b) and the values of the activity index
obtained for WBFA3 according to UNI EN 450-1 procedure (Section
3.3.3).
3.4. Reuse of WBFA as filler/partial sand replacement material in
concrete
In spite of the good technological properties evidenced by the
blended cements made with washed or unwashed WBFA1 and,
to a minor extent, with unwashed WBFA2, and the related benefi-
cial effects on the environment, the reuse of such WBFAs as min-
eral admixtures in blended cement formulations would be
precluded on the basis of their physical and chemical characteris-
tics (Tables 3 and 5) and the requirements specified in the ASTM C
618 or UNI EN 450-1 standards (Table 4). This is also taking into
account the excessive costs needed for the preliminary treatments
of such fly ashes (ash grinding and washing) as well as for the
treatment of the resulting wastewater, in order to remove the
amount of heavy metals released from fly ash during the washing
step.
According to UNI EN 12620 [54], the studied raw WBFAs, espe-
cially WBFA1 and WBFA2, could be used in concrete mixes as a
partial sand replacement material and, in part, as a filler for unre-
inforced concrete and no requirements category (e.g., ASNR for acid-
soluble sulphates).
The contribution of each ash as a filler was evaluated from the
data in Fig. 1 as the percent cumulative passing on 63 lm sieve.
This contribution resulted to be about 27, 53 and 30 wt.% for dried
raw WBFA1, WBFA2, and WBFA3, respectively.
Considering the highest contribution given by raw WBFA2 as a
filler, this fly ash was selected for the experimentation on concrete
mixes.
As evidenced by Table 2, the dose level of superplasticiser
needed to achieve a fixed workability level (slump = 190 mm; class
S4) for the concrete containing WBFA2 (ash concrete) was signifi-
cantly lower than that needed for reference concrete (0.5 wt.%
against 0.75 wt.%). This was consistent with the results obtained
on cement pastes showing an increase of mix workability by
WBFA2 addition (Fig. 3(b)).
As confirmed by the density measurements, the ash concrete
was characterised by a lower density (2363 kg/m3) as compared
to the reference concrete (2412 kg/m3).
Fig. 7 compares the compressive strength development of ash
and reference concretes.
It can be noted that the average compressive strengths of the
ash concrete were equal to or greater than the ones of the reference
concrete. However, the differences between the compressive
strengths of the two types of concrete were within the variability
 M. Berra et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 286–296
Fig. 7. Compressive strength development of concrete containing WBFA2 or
powdered limestone as fillers.
range of measurements (variation coefficient value of about 7%).
Anyway, these data proved the suitability of raw WBFA2 for reuse
in concrete as a filler/partial sand replacement material.
As suggested by the results of previous leaching tests on hard-
ened raw WBFA2-PC mixtures [55], the reuse of this fly ash should
not pose environmental problems related to excessive release of
heavy metals.
4. Conclusions
The physical and chemical characteristics of the woody biomass
fly ashes (WBFA) investigated, two samples coming from virgin
wood (WBFA1 and WBFA2) and one from treated wood (WBFA3)
combustion, do not fulfil the ASTM and EN requirements specified
for reuse of coal fly ashes as mineral admixtures in concrete. This is
because of an excessive particle size, an insufficient ‘‘pozzolanic
oxides’’ content and an excessive sulphate and chloride content
of raw WBFAs. Therefore, the studied raw WBFAs could not be
reused as mineral admixtures in concrete, even if the ASTM C618
and UNI EN 450-1 requirements would also be extended to fly
ash samples not derived from coal combustion.
Grinding and water-washing treatments of raw WBFAs may
improve their physico-chemical characteristics, so that two of the
three studied WBFAs were able to meet the ASTM requirements
for Class C coal fly ash. Anyway, the UNI EN requirements were
not fully satisfied.
Exception made for WBFA3 characterised by excessive contents
of sulphates and heavy metals, the other two types of fly ashes,
WBFA1 and WBFA2, behave satisfactorily as mineral admixtures,
in spite of their not fully conforming physico-chemical
characteristics.
In particular, little reduction or increase in the mix workability,
limited setting delay and moderate compressive strength reduc-
tion were observed when ground unwashed or washed WBFA1
or ground unwashed WBFA2 were used at cement replacement
levels of 15 wt.% or 30 wt.%.
As suggested by compressive strength measurements, pozzola-
nicity test results and portlandite determinations on hardened
pastes, as well as by the chemical composition of the studied fly
ashes, the capability of the two virgin wood ashes of contributing
to the mechanical strength development of cement-based materi-
als is principally related to their hydraulic activity and, to a minor
extent, to their pozzolanic activity. In this regard, the highest activ-
ity index (0.94 at 90 days) was obtained for washed WBFA1.
295
On the basis of these technological results, it would be worth
considering whether a European Technical Approval for construc-
tion products is worthwhile in view of reusing virgin wood fly
ashes in blended cement formulations.
The unsatisfactory chemical composition of raw WBFAs repre-
sents only a limitation for their reuse as filler/partial sand replace-
ment material in concrete. Due to their high contents of chlorides
and sulphates, raw WBFAs may be reused only for unreinforced
concrete and no requirements category (low-quality concrete).
The technological feasibility of such a reuse has been demon-
strated in this study. In particular, replacing conventional filler
(ground limestone) and an aliquot of natural sand with raw virgin
wood fly ash (WBFA2) resulted in no modification of the compres-
sive strength development of concrete mixes and in a significant
reduction of the amount of superplasticiser needed to achieve a
fixed workability level. Such a reuse of wood biomass fly ash would
also alleviate waste disposal issues.
Acknowledgement
This research has been funded by the Research Fund for the
Italian Electrical System under the Contract Agreement between
RSE (formerly known as ERSE) and the Ministry of Economic Devel-
opment – General Directorate for Nuclear Energy, Renewable
Energy and Energy Efficiency, stipulated on July 29, 2009 in
compliance with the Decree of March 19, 2009.
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