Miat (Performance) Work Power Consideration

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Agas/Sept 2010 PISTON 2 - 1 1

SECTION B, PAGE 1-39
WORK
AND POWER
CONSIDERATION
DEFINITION OF WORK
• IF FORCE APPLIED TO AN OBJECT AND THE
OBJECT MOVES, WORK IS DONE
• IF FORCE IS APPLIED TO AN OBJECT AND THE

OBJECT DOES NOT MOVES, WORK IS NOT DONE
• WORK (W) = FORCE (F) X DISTANCE (D)

•
• UNIT OF WORK IS
– FOOT-POUNDS (ENGLISH)
– JOULES (METRIC SYSTEM)
UTILISATION OF WORK
• WORK PRODUCED BY AN ENGINE IS USED TO
TURN PROPELLER
• PROPELLER PRODUCES THRUST TO MOVE

AIRCRAFT
• ENGINE ALSO DOES WORK BY TURNING

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR AND HYDRAULIC PUMP
• ELECTRICITY PRODUCE TURN MOTORS OR DRIVE

HYDRAULIC PUMP TO CYCLE LANDING GEAR
POWER
• DEFINE AS TIME-RATE OF DOING WORK
• FORMULA IS FORCE X DISTANCE

TIME
• UNIT OF POWER
– FOOT-POUNDS PER SECOND (ENGLISH)
– JOULES PER SECOND (METRIC)

HORSE POWER
• FIRST USED BY JAMES WATT TO COMPARE THE
PERFORMANCE OF HIS STEAM ENGINE WITH A
TYPICAL ENGLISH DRAY HORSE
• ONE HORSEPOWER (HP) IS THE AMOUNT OF

POWER REQUIRED TO DO 33,000 FT-LBS OF
WORK IN 1 MIN OR 550 FT-LBS IN 1 SEC
• HORSEPOWER = FORCE X DISTANCE

33,000 X TIME
INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP)
• TOTAL POWER ACTUALLY DEVELOPED IN AN

ENGINE’S CYLINDER WITHOUT CONSIDERING
FRICTION LOSS
• TO CALCULATE IHP, AVERAGE EFFECTIVE

PRESSURE IN THE CYLINDER MUST BE KNOWN
• THIS PRESSURE IS DETERMINED BY MECHANICAL

INDICATING DEVICE, AVERAGE PRESSURE
COMPUTED AND IS TERM INDICATED MEAN
EFFECTIVE PRESSURE OR IMEP
INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP)
FORMULA FOR IHP IS = PLANK/33,000

P = IMEP
L = LENGTH OF STROKE
A = AREA OF PISTON HEAD
N = NUMBER OF POWER STROKE PER MIN
FOR ONE CYLINDER
K = NUMBER OF CYLINDER
FRICTION HORSEPOWER
• POWER REQUIRED TO
OVERCOME THE
FRICTION AND
ENERGY LOSSES
• MEASURED BY
DRIVING AN ENGINE
WITH CALIBRATED
MOTOR
POWER LOST IN THE ENGINE
TO RUN ACCESSORIES
AND GEARS
BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP)

• THE ACTUAL AMOUNT OF
POWER DELIVERED TO THE
PROPELLER SHAFT
• IHP - FHP = BHP
• MEASUREMENT OF AN AMOUNT OF POWER DELIVERED

TO THE PROPELLER SHAFT
ENGINE’S BHP INVOLVES A

QUANTITY KNOWN AS
TORQUE AND EXPRESSED
IN LBS-INS OR LBS-FT
BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP)

CAN BE MEASURE BY
AN INSTRUMENT
CALLED PRONY BRAKE
DYNAMOMETER
MODERN ENGINE IS AMOUNT OF POWER DELIVERED

TO THE PROPELLER SHAFT
MEASURE WITH AN
ELECTRICAL OR
HYDRAULIC
DYNAMOMETER
THIS DYNAMOMETER USE THE POWER PRODUCE

BY THE ENGINE TO DRIVE AN ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR OR FLUID PUMP SO THE POWER
OUTPUT
LOW SD/DEC 2008CAN BE ACCURATELY
PISTON 1-8 MEASUURED 12
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• VOLUME OF AIR DISPLACE BY A PISTON AS IT
MOVES FROM BDC TO TDC
• FORMULA = A X L X N
• A = AREA OF PISTON HEAD
• L = LENGTH OF STROKE IN INCHES
• N = NUMBER CYLINDERS
• PISTON DISPLACEMENT OF AIRCRAFT ENGINE

NORNALLY INDICATED AS CUBIC INCHES
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
• ENERGY IS THE CAPACITY TO WORK AND CANNOT
BE CREATED OR DESTROYED
• CAN BE TRANSFORM FROM POTENTIAL OR

STORED ENERGY INTO KINETIC ENERGY
• ENGINE TRANSFORMED POTENTIAL (FUEL)

ENERGY TO HEAT ENERGY
• THEN HEAT ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY BY

MECHANICAL MEANS
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
• ENGINE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION, FUEL TYPE,
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS PLAYS A
PARTS IN HOW EFFICIENTLY AN ENGINE CONVERT
FUEL’S POTENTIAL ENERGY
• SEVERAL FACTORS MUST BE EXAMINED TO

DETERMINED HOW EFFICIENT AN ENGINE
• THIS INCLUDE AN ENGINE’S THERMAL,

VOLUMETRIC AND MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• A RATIO OF THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY
CONVERTED TO USEFUL WORK TO THE AMOUNT
OF HEAT ENERGY CONTAINED IN THE FUEL USED
TO SUPPORT COMBUSTION
• IS THE MEASUREMENT OF INEFFICIENCY

EXPERIENCED IN CONVERTING

EXAMPES, TWO ENGINES THAT PRODUCE THE
SAME AMOUNT HP BUT CONSUME DIFFERENT
AMOUNT OF FUEL
THE ENGINE THAT CONSUME LESS AMOUNT OF

FUEL HAS HIGHER THERMAL EFFICIENCY

• THERMAL EFFICIENCY CAN BE CALCULATED BY
• HORSEPOWER X 33,000
F X BTU X K
• HORSEPOWER = AN ENGINE’S BRAKE OR

INDICATED HP
• 33,000 = NO. OF FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK PER

MINUTES IN ONE HORSEPOWER

• W = WEIGHT OF FUEL BURNED PER MINUTE
• BTU = HEAT VALUE OF FUEL BURNED MEASURE IN

BTU (1 LB OF AVIATION GASOLINE CONTAINS
20,000BTU OF HEAT)
• K = CONSTANT REPRESENTING THE NO. OF

FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK EACH BTU IS CAPABLE OF
DOING WORK IN ONE SECOND (1 BTU IS CAPABLE
OF DOING 778 FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK)

• TE CAN BE CALCULATED USING EITHER BRAKE
OR INDICATED HP
• BRAKE HP GIVES BRAKE THERMAL EFFECIENCY

(BTE)
• INDICATED HP GIVES INDICATED THERMAL

EFFICIENCY (ITE)

• MOST TE ARE BETWEEN 30% TO 40% EFFICIENT
AS POWER OUTPUT
• 15% TO 20% IS LOST IN COOLING
• 5% TO 10% LOST IN OVERCOMING FRICTION
• 40% TO 45% IS LOST THROUGH EXHAUST

VOLUMETERIC EFFICIENCY
• RATIO OF VOLUME OF FUEL
AND AIR ENGINE TAKES INTO
THE CYLINDER TO THE TOTAL
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• DENSITY VARIES WITH
CHANGE OF ATMOSPHERIC
CONDITION TDC
• VE IN NORMALLY ASPIRATED TOTAL PISTON
ENGINE IS LESS THAN 100 % DISPLACEMENT
• VE ON TURBOCHARGED
BDC
ENGINE CAN EXCEED 100 %
FACTOR THAT AFFECT

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
 PART THROTTLE OPERATION
 LONG, SMALLER DIAMETER INTAKE PIPES
 INDUCTION SYSTEM SHARP BEND
 HIGH CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE
 INCOMPLETE SCAVENGING
 IMPROPER VALVE TIMING
 INCREASE IN ALTITUTE
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
• RATIO OF BRAKE HORSEPOWER TO INDICATED
HORSEPOWER
• REPRESENT THE PERCENTAGE OF POWER

DEVELOPED IN THE CYLINDER THAT REACHES
THE PROPELLER SHAFT
• FRICTION HAS THE GREATEST EFFECT ON

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
• ME IS HIGHEST WHEN ENGINE IS RUNNING AT AN

RPM THAT MAXIMUM BHP IS DEVELOPED
FACTORS AFFECTING POWER

 MANIFOLD PRESSURE
 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION
 COMPRESSION RATIO
 IGNITION TIMING
 ENGINE SPEED
 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
 ALTITUTE
 FUEL/AIR RATIO
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
• CHANGE OF MANIFOLD PRESSURE AFFECT THE
AMOUNT OF POWER AN ENGINE CAN PRODUCE
FOR A GIVEN RPM
• EXCESSIVE PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

SHORTEN LIFE OF ENGINE BY OVERSTRESSING
CYLINDER, PISTONS, CON-RODS, BEARING,
CRANKSHAFT JOURNALS, AND VALVES
• CONTINUE OPERATION PAST UPPER LIMIT WORN

ENGINE PARTS, DECREASE POWER AND LOWER
EFFICIENCY AND WORSE, ENGINE FAILURE
DETONATION AND PRE-IGNITION

• FUEL/AIR MIXTURE BURNS IN A VERY CONTROL
AND PREDICTABLE WAY IN NORMAL COMBUSTION
• MIXTURE START TO BURNS ON IGNITION AWAY

FROM PLUG UNTIL ALL COMSUMED
DETONATION AND PRE-IGNITION

DUAL PLUG ACROSS EACH OTHER PROMOTE EVEN
BURN FROM PLUG IN A WAVE FORM TOWARD
CENTRE OF CYLINDER
THIS CAUSES SMOOTH BUILDUP OF TEMPERATURE

AND PRESSURE SO THAT MAXIMUM FORCE IS
APPLY TO PISTON AT EXACTLY THE RIGHT TIME IN
THE POWER STROKE
DETONATION
• DETONATION IS UNCONTROL EXPLOSIVE
IGNITION IN THE CYLINDER
• CAUSES HIGH TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE THAT

LEADS TO ROUGH RUNNING
• DAMAGE OR EVEN FAILURE OF PISTON,

CYLINDER OR VALVE CAN HAPPEN
DETONATION
HIGH TEM. AND PRESSURE COMBINE WITH HIGH
TURBULENCE GENERATED, CAUSE “HAMMERING”
OR “SCRUBBING” ACTION ON PISTON AND
CYLINDER THAT CAN BURN A HOLE COMPLETELY
THROUGH PISTON AND CYLINDER IN SECONDS
CAN BE DETECT AS A “KNOCK” IN THE ENGINE

DURING NORMAL COMBUSTION, WHEN DETONATION OCCURS, THE

FUEL/AIR MIXTURE BURNS EVENLY, FUEL/AIR CHARGE BURNS IN AN
PRODUCING A STEADY FORCE SIMILAR EXPLOSIVE FASHION CAUSING A RAPID
TO THE EVEN PRESSURE OF SOMEONE INCREASE IN PRESSURE THAT PRODUCES
PUSHING DOWN ON THE PISTON A HAMMERING ACTION ON THE PISTON
NORMAL AND DETONATION IN

THE CYLINDER
LOW SD/DEC 2008 PISTON 1-8 31
DETONATION
• CAUSING CONDITIONS:
– USING LOWER GRADE FUEL THAN
RECOMMENDED & ALLOWING ENGINE TO
OVERHEAT
– WRONG IGNITION TIMING
– HEAVY ENGINE LOAD ON LOW RPM

– COMPRESSION RATIO OF 12:1 OR HIGHER ALSO
A POSSIBLE CAUSE OF DETONATION
PRESSURE CHART ILLUSTRATES

PRESSURE CREATED
PRE-IGNITION
• PRE-IGNITION TAKES PLACE WHEN FUEL/AIR
MIXTURE IGNITES TOO SOON
• HOT SPOT IN CYLINDER CAN BE SOMETHING

SIMPLE SUCH AS:
– A CARBON PARTICLE
– OVERHEATED VALVE EDGE
– SILICA DEPOSIT ON SPARK PLUG, OR
– RED HOT SPARK PLUG ELECTRODE
• CAUSE BY:
– POOR ENGINE COOLING
– DIRTY INTAKE AIR FILTER
– SHUTTING DOWN ENGINE AT HIGH RPM
PRE-IGNITION
WHEN ENGINE CONTINUES RUNNING AFTER
IGNITION IS TURN OFF, PREIGNITION MAY BE THE
CAUSE
DETONATION AND PREIGNITION CAN OCCUR

SIMULTANEOUSLY AND ONE MAY CAUSE THE
OTHER
HARD TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THEN BUT BOTH

CAUSE ENGINE ROUGHNESS AND HIGH
OPERATING TEMPERATURE
COMPRESSON RATIO
• DEFINED AS THE RATIO OF CYLINDER VOLUME
WHEN THE PISTON AT THE BOTTOM OF ITS
STROKE TO THE VOLUME WITH THE PISTON AT
THE TOP OF ITS STROKE
• RATIO IS EXPRESSED IN FRACTION FORM, Eg. 7:1

A CYLINDER
COMPRESSION RATIO
COMPRESSION RATIO
• DETERMINES THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY
THAT IS CONVERT TO USEFUL WORK
• HIGH COMPRESSION RATIO ALLOWS THE FUEL/AIR

MIXTURE TO RELEASE ENERGY RAPIDLY AND
PRODUCE MAXIMUM PRESSURE INSIDE THE
CYLINDER JUST AS THE PISTON BEGIN THE
POWER STROKE
• GENERALLY, HIGHER THE COMPRESSION RATIO,

THE GREATER THE ENGINE’S POWER OUTPUT
COMPRESSION RATIO
ONLY CAN BE INCREASE BY ALTERING THE
ENGINE DESIGN, SUCH AS
- LENGTHENED CRANKSHAFT “THROW” THUS STROKE

LENGTH
- SHAPE CYLINDER HEAD’S MATING SURFACE
- INSTALLING DOMED PISTONS

COMPRESSION RATIO
• CHARACTERISTIC OF AVAILABLE FUEL
DETERMINES THE PRACTICAL LIMITS OF
COMPRESSION RATIO THAT CAN BE USED IN
ENGINE DESIGN
• ABOVE A FUEL’S CRITICAL PRESSURE,

DETONATION MAY OCCUR
• THUS MANUFACTURER DETERMINED GRADE OF

FUEL TO USE BASED ON COMPRESSION RATIO
COMPRESSION RATIO
TURBO CHARGE ENGINE, THE DEGREE OF
TURBOCHARGING LIMITS THE ENGINE’S
COMPREESION RATIO DUE TO INCREASE
OPERATING TEMPERATURE
THIS MAY CAUSE DETONATION TO OCCURS

IGNITION TIMING
• CHANGE IN ENGINE IGNITION WILL ALSO EFFECT
THE ENGINE POWER
• TO ENSURE COMPLETE COMBUSTION ,THE ENGINE

MUST BE TIME PROPERLY
• EARLY IGNITION CAUSES LOST OF POWER DUE TO

MAXIMUM PRESSURE IN THE CYLINDER BUILT TOO
EARLY , AND EXPANDING GAS OPPOSED THE
ROTATIONAL INERTIA BECAUSE THE PISTON IS
STILL MOVING UPWARD
IGNITION TIMING
LATE IGNITION CAUSES GAS PRESSURE ON
PISTON HEAD DOES NOT BUILD UP TO EXPECTED
LEVEL DUE TO INCREASE VOLUME
ALSO DOES NOT ALLOW ENOUGH TIME FOR

COMPLETE COMBUSTION
THE BURNING GAS ENGULF VALVE, INCREASE

TEMP AND LEADS TO DETONATION OR DAMAGE
DUE TO OVERHEATING
ENGINE SPEED
• STATED IN SIMPLE TERM, THE FASTER AN ENGINE
RUNS, THE MORE POWER IT PRODUCES
• BUT THERE IS A LIMITATION TO ITS MAX. SPEED
• LIMITATIONS SUCH AS:
– IGNITION TIMING
– VALVE TIMING
– THE INERTIAL OF RAPIDLY MOVING PISTONS
• CAUSES VALVES “FLOAT”
• OVERSTRESS CRANKSHAFT JOURNAL
– PROPELLER TIP SPEED
TYPICAL PROPELLER TIP

SPEEDS
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

• SFC IS A NUMBER OF POUND OF FUEL BURNED
PER HR TO PRODUCE ONE HP
• IF AN ENGINE BURN 12 GALLONS WHILE

PRODUCING 180 BHP THEREFORE BSFC IS .4
• CALCULATION 7.2 X 12 = 86.4
• 86.4 DEVIDE BY 180 = 0.48

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
MOST MODERN ENGINE HAVE BSFC OF BETWEEN

.4 TO .5 LBS/BHP/HR
AN ENGINE’S BSFC VARIES WITH ENGINE SPEED,

ENGINE DESIGN, VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY AND
FRICTION LOSSES
BEST BSFC FOR MOST ENGINE OCCURS AT

CRUISE POWER SETTING WHEN PRODUCING 75%
POWER
ENGINE MOST
EFFICIENT SPEED
REQUIRES 0.51
BSFC
A TYPICAL CHART OF
BSFC
ALTITUTE
• ANY TIME ENGINE IS OPERATED ABOVE SEA

LEVAL LESS AIR IS DRAWN INTO THE ENGINE
THUS RESULTING IN DECREASE ENGINE POWER
OUTPUT
• DENSITY ALTITUDE IS A TERM GIVEN TO

DESCRIBE THE DENSITY OF AIR AT GIVEN
ALTITUTE
ALTITUTE
EVEN THOUGH THE ACTUAL ALTITUTE DOES NOT
CHANGE, BUT DENSITY ALTITUTE CAN CHANGE
CONSTANTLY DUE TO CHANGE IN AIR
TEMPERATURE THUS DENSITY
CAN BE OVERCOME BY THE USED OF

TURBOCHARGER
FUEL/AIR RATIO
• STOICHIOMETRIC MIXTURE IS A PERFECTLY
BALANCED FUEL/AIR MIXTURE OF 15 PARTS OF
AIR TO 1 PART OF FUEL
• RICH MIXTURE MEAN MORE FUEL LESS AIR SUCH

AS 14 : 1
• LEAN MIXTURE MEAN MORE AIR LESS FUEL SUCH

AS 16 : 1
• COMBUSTIBLE FUEL AIR RATIO RANGE BETWEEN

8 : 1 TO 18 : 1
CONTROL OF MIXTURE
• LEANING MIXTURE CAN RAISE ENGINE

OPERATING TEMPERATURE WHEREAS
ENRICHING PROVIDES COOLING EFFECT
• LEANING MIXTURE IS NECESSARY AS ALTITUTE

INCREASE BECAUSE THE MIXTURE WILL
BECOME RICHER DUE TO LESS AIR AT ALTITUTE
CONTROL OF MIXTURE
BEST POWER MIXTURE DEVELOPS MAX. POWER

AND IS USED DURING TAKE OFF
BEST ECONOMY MIXTURE PROVIDES THE BEST

SPECIFIC FUEL COMSUMPTOION THUS SAVE FUEL
AND INCREASE OPERATING RANGE
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
• CONSIDER THE AMOUNT OF POWER AVAILABLE
TO THE FUEL COMSUME, AN AIRCRAFT ENGINE IS
FAIRY INEFFICIENT MACHINE
THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWER IN 14 GALLONS OF AVIATION

GASOLINE WHEN COMSUMED BY A TYPICAL 200 BHP ENGINE 55
FULL THROTTLE
ON
1 = CRUISE DYNAMOMETER
POWER
SETTING
2 = BSFC
3 = ENGINE WITH
PRODUCE 118 PROPELLER
BHP LOAD
COMSUMPTION
IS .51 X 118 =
60.18 LBS/HR
A TYPICAL POWER CURVE OF A FOUR

CYLINDERS AIRCRAFT ENGINE

Miat (Performance) Work Power Consideration

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Miat (Performance) Work Power Consideration

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Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Agas/Sept 2010 PISTON 2 - 1 1

SECTION B, PAGE 1-39

• IF FORCE IS APPLIED TO AN OBJECT AND THE

• WORK (W) = FORCE (F) X DISTANCE (D)

• PROPELLER PRODUCES THRUST TO MOVE

• ENGINE ALSO DOES WORK BY TURNING

• ELECTRICITY PRODUCE TURN MOTORS OR DRIVE

• FORMULA IS FORCE X DISTANCE

– FOOT-POUNDS PER SECOND (ENGLISH)

– JOULES PER SECOND (METRIC)

• ONE HORSEPOWER (HP) IS THE AMOUNT OF

• HORSEPOWER = FORCE X DISTANCE

INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP)

• TOTAL POWER ACTUALLY DEVELOPED IN AN

• TO CALCULATE IHP, AVERAGE EFFECTIVE

• THIS PRESSURE IS DETERMINED BY MECHANICAL

INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP)

FORMULA FOR IHP IS = PLANK/33,000

BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP)

• IHP - FHP = BHP

• MEASUREMENT OF AN AMOUNT OF POWER DELIVERED

ENGINE’S BHP INVOLVES A

BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP)

MODERN ENGINE IS AMOUNT OF POWER DELIVERED

THIS DYNAMOMETER USE THE POWER PRODUCE

• A = AREA OF PISTON HEAD

• L = LENGTH OF STROKE IN INCHES

• PISTON DISPLACEMENT OF AIRCRAFT ENGINE

• CAN BE TRANSFORM FROM POTENTIAL OR

• ENGINE TRANSFORMED POTENTIAL (FUEL)

• THEN HEAT ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY BY

• SEVERAL FACTORS MUST BE EXAMINED TO

• THIS INCLUDE AN ENGINE’S THERMAL,

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• IS THE MEASUREMENT OF INEFFICIENCY

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

THE ENGINE THAT CONSUME LESS AMOUNT OF

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• HORSEPOWER = AN ENGINE’S BRAKE OR

• 33,000 = NO. OF FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK PER

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• BTU = HEAT VALUE OF FUEL BURNED MEASURE IN

• K = CONSTANT REPRESENTING THE NO. OF

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• BRAKE HP GIVES BRAKE THERMAL EFFECIENCY

• INDICATED HP GIVES INDICATED THERMAL

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TE)

• 15% TO 20% IS LOST IN COOLING

• 5% TO 10% LOST IN OVERCOMING FRICTION

• 40% TO 45% IS LOST THROUGH EXHAUST

• VE IN NORMALLY ASPIRATED TOTAL PISTON

ENGINE IS LESS THAN 100 % DISPLACEMENT

FACTOR THAT AFFECT

 LONG, SMALLER DIAMETER INTAKE PIPES

 INDUCTION SYSTEM SHARP BEND

 HIGH CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE

 IMPROPER VALVE TIMING

• REPRESENT THE PERCENTAGE OF POWER

• FRICTION HAS THE GREATEST EFFECT ON

• ME IS HIGHEST WHEN ENGINE IS RUNNING AT AN

FACTORS AFFECTING POWER

 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION