NONDISJUNCTION AND CROSSING OVER ON Drosophila melanogaster

Genetics Class D
Study Program of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Jember University
Kalimantan Streat number 37, Kampus Tegalboto, Jember 68121

ABSTRACT
One of the topics in genetics practicum is Nondisjunction and Crossing over which discusses about
several disorders that occur due to chromosome displacement or mutations in living things. There are
movements that have positive and negative impacts on the survival of living things. Such as crossing over is an
event of exchanging segments of non-sibling chromatids from a homologous pair of chromosomes, which has
the benefit of increasing biodiversity in plants and animals with the emergence of new recombinant genes.
Meanwhile, Nondisjunction (Failure to separate) is an event that does not separate a pair of chromosomes during
cell division (meiosis). This occurs during gametogenesis, which is during meiosis. The chromosome pairs or
homologous chromosomes in gametangium stem cells will normally separate so that the gamete has half of the
number of chromosomes that an individual has. Nondisjunction can bring some negative impacts such as Down
syndrome, Turner syndrome and clinifelter syndrome for the impaired.

Keyword :Monohybrid, Dihybrid, Dominant, Recessive, Mendel

INTRODUCTION or mitosis. When nondisjunction occurs, during

Correct segregation of chromosomes during
the two successive meiotic divisions is essential for
the formation of haploid gametes. At least 10% of
human pregnancies produce aneuploid embryos
with too many or too few chromosomes, the
majority of which are lost during pregnancy. If
they survive to term, many have severe congenital
defects and developmental and intellectual
disability. Thus, meiotic nondisjunction is the
leading cause of pregnancy loss and birth defects in
humans and an important limiting factor in
women’s reproductive life span (Chernus et al,
2019 : 2).
Nondisjunction (Failure to separate) is an
event that does not separate a pair of chromosomes
during cell division (meiosis). This occurs during
gametogenesis, which is during meiosis. The
chromosome pairs or homologous chromosomes in
gametangium stem cells will normally separate so
that the gamete has half of the number of
chromosomes that an individual has. However, the
anaphase I phase may occur when the chromosome
pair does not separate due to certain influences so
that they remain together as a pair. This event is
called a nondisjunction which usually occurs in the
anaphase I phase (Nusantari, 2015 : 79-80).
Nondisjunction the failure of sister
chromatids to separate properly during mitosis or
meiosis. the result of nondisjunction is a pair of
aneuploid daughter cells, where one cell contains
two copies of a chromosome and the other cell
posseses zero copies (Bhat & Wani, 2017: 33).
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous
chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis
meiosis I or meiosis II, gametes are created that
either contain an extra chromosome or lack a copy
of a choromosome. Several syndromes arise from
this situation, such as Down Syndrome, Turner
syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. Drosophila
melanogaster is often chosen as the model
organism in research. There are several reasons
why this organism was chosen in this study, such as
it has a short life cycle and easy to culture in
laboratory conditions. Moreover, studies of D.
melanogaster and humans indicate several
similarities in nondisjunctional mechanisms in the
two species (Putri & Fauzi, 2017 : 154 - 155).
For X kromosom nondisjunction in
drosophila female meiosis, all of the normal
progeny survive, while nondisjunction eggs
produce viable progeny only if fertilized by sperm
that carry tue appropriate sex chromosome. the rate
of nondisjunction has traditionally been estimated
by assuming a binomial process and doubling the
number of observed nondisjunctional progeny, to
account for the inviable classes (ScholarlyEdition,
2012 : 535).
Crossing over is the exchange of chromatid
segments between homologous chromosomes and
with other chromosomes. When a cell performs
meiotic division, the homologous chromosomes
approach each other and automatically the
chromatids are also close together. In this process it
is possible that there are chromatids that stick
together or cross in one place, where these
intersections are called chiasms. Where the chiasm
of the two chromatids can be cut off and connected
again, but they are connected not to the original
segment but to the segments of the other
chromatids (non-sister chromatids) which are also
cut, so crossovers occur. Cross-switching may
occur between two sibling or sister chromatids or
non-sibling chromatids, even with chromatids from
other non-homologous chromosomes. Cross-
crossing between sibling chromatids is genetically
not interesting because the genetic information is
the same, so there is no effect on the offspring
(Irawan, 2011 : 152-153).
Chromosome linking and crossing over is a
genetic concept that emerged after scientists made
use of crossover using D. melanogaster. Even
though it was not originally developed through D.
melanogaster, other concepts, such as multiple
alleles and chromosome mapping can also be
studied through D. Melanogaster. The phenomena
of Mendelian ratio deviations that will be shown in
this study are crossovers and sex links. Through the
phenomenon of crossing over, recombinant type
chicks can appear in crosses involving two
different traits, even though they are on the same
chromosome. Through the sex-linked phenomenon,
the F2 ratio at the cross of one or more different
traits will not show the general Mendelian ratio due
to the absence of a particular gene on one of the sex
chromosomes of one of the parental ones (Fauzi &
Corebima, 2016 : 278).
Most genetic studies have used
recombination as the primary tool to assess the
fidelity of the meiotic process. Such studies have
either directly measured changes in recombination
frequency or relied upon the fact that genome wide
reductions in exchange can increase the level of
nondisjunction, providing an easy read-out for
recombination failure (Hughes et al, 2018 : 877).
Drosophila melanogaster, is an organism
that is very useful for conducting research. It is
relatively easy to culture, has a conveniently short
lifespan, consists of mostly post-mitotic tissues
(except for the reproductive system and a small part
of the gut), and has a fully sequenced genome and
well-characterized genetics. This insect uses many
mitochondrial transporters homologous to the
human carriers, as well as the same mechanisms for
transporting several metabolites from cytosol to
mitochondria and vice versa. Furthermore, it offers
a variety of powerful molecular genetics methods
for studying transporters, many of which would be
difficult to test in mammalian models (Curcio et al,
2020: 1).
The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) is
known to have undergone many mutations that
produce intraspecific genotypic variations called
strains. Apart from normal conditions (N), several
strains were found which were the result of
mutations and produced mutants that were different
from normal conditions. The differences are mainly
related to eye color, eye shape, and wing shape.
Some types of mutations in Drosophila
melanogaster that can be seen from the phenotype
are eye color, eye shape, wing shape, and body
color mutations so that various strains of
Drosophila melanogaster are known, including
white (w), sepia (se), eyemissing (eym), curled
(cu), taxi (tx), dumpy (dp), and vestigial (vgl). The
differences in phenotypes that appear are due to
changes in the genotype from normal conditions. In
addition to having an impact on the phenotype,
changes in the genotype will cause physiological
changes such as the reproductive process (Taufika
et al, 2020: 50).
Drosophila has different morphological
characteristics between males and females. In
males Has a smaller body size when compared to
females. Has three segments on the abdomen and
has a genital comb. Whereas in females the size is
relatively larger, has six segments in the abdomen
and does not have a genital comb. Drosophila
melanogaster is a winged, small animal. Therefore,
observing the morphology of these animals can use
tools such as loops and microscopes. In Drosophila
melanogaster, 4 pairs of chromosomes are found.
In general, males and females are the same, but
there is a slight difference, namely that on one of
the male chromosomes there is a curve like a hook.
Meanwhile, regarding the sexual age of females for
mating in Drosophila melanogaster, various
information is obtained. There are several opinions
which state how old Drosophila melanogaster
female reaches sexual maturity (Suparman et al,
2018: 41-42).
RESEARCH METHODS
This research was conducted on October 22,
2020, through Zoom media with laboratory
assistants and lecturers from the Study Program of
Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training
and Education, Jember University. To carry out
crosses of fruit flies with different strains, it is
necessary to prepare the medium, the cross stock,
and the cross table.
To make medium, mix banana, tape, and
brown sugar in a ratio of 7: 3: 1 with added water.
Blend until completely smooth and adjust the
thickness so that it is not too runny and not too
runny. Cook until boiling. Then, put the hot
medium that has been cooked in the culture bottle
and immediately cover the bottle with foam. After
the medium is warm, sprinkle with 5-7 fermipan
grains. Wait for it to cool and put in the pupation
paper and immediately close it again.
Stock preparation, by preparing Stock
Drosophila melanogaster according to the specified
strain. After the pupa appears, the mother or adult
flies are transferred to another bottle (to be
rejuvenated). The pupa in the old bottle is isolated
in an ampoule tube to produce virgin males and
females.
 Crossing Over crosses, after getting male The first observation is the observation of
and female virgin, select female strain bcl with crossing over with parental male flies strain N and
male strain N along with the reciprocal. Male N female flies strain bcl.
strains with female bcl strains to be crossed in jam
♀ Strain N → KKMM
bottles, each jam bottle contains only 1 pair of
- Brownish yellow body color (KK)
Drosophila melanogaster flies. Then, wait for the
- Red compound eye color (MM)
pupa to appear. After the pupa is formed, the pupa
- The wings completely cover the body / abdomen.
ampoule is placed in the tube to observe F1. Cross
P2 by crossing strain N berina with male strain bcl. ♂ Strain bcl → kkmm
Heterozygous N strains from F1 crosses and bcl - Black body color (kk)
strains were obtained from stocks instead of F1. - Brownish compound eye color (mm)
Record the results of F2 obtained from the crosses - The wings completely cover the body / abdomen.
in the table.
Parental Crosses 1
RESULT AND DISCUSSION P1 : ♀ Strain N >< ♂ Strain bcl
The purpose of carrying out this practicum : KKMM >< kkmm
is to practice making crosses to prove the
occurrence of Crossing over and Nondisjunction in G1 : KM >< km
Drosophila Melanogaster and to calculate and F1 : KkMm (Normal Heterozygous)
observe the results of crosses of F1 and F2 Parental Crosses 2
offspring. P2 : ♀ Strain N (F1) >< ♂ Strain bcl (Stock)
The tools and materials used include, : KkMm >< kkmm
Drosophila melanogaster Strain N, w/wa/we,
bcl/bdp serves as an experimental object. A large G2 : KM, Km, kM, km >< km
hose and a small tube for suctioning and picking up F2 :
fruit flies, and transferring flies to culture bottles.
♀♂ KM Km kM km
Gauze, to cover the end of a small hose. Pupation
paper, to take pupae from the cross media. Jam km KkMm Kkmm kkMm kkmm
bottles, as culture bottles and placement media.
Banana, tape and brown sugar, as ingredients in a - KkMm (Brownish yellow body color, Red
ratio of 7: 3: 1, for the maintenance of Drosophila compound eye color) = N : 1
melanogaster. Small brush. Foam plug, as a cover - Kkmm (Brownish yellow body color, Brownish
for culture bottles. Fermipan / Yeast, for the compound eye color) : 1
manufacture of fruit fly media, which functions to - kkMm (Black body color, Red compound eye
provide air space in the medium. Scales, to measure color) : 1
the composition of the medium used. Mixer, to stir - kkmm (Black body, Brownish compound eye
the fruit fly medium that is made. Foam, as a cover. color) = bcl : 1
Label paper, label each bottle and hose.
Crossing over is an event of exchanging In parental crosses 1, female flies with strain
segments of non-sibling chromatids from a N were crossed with male flies strain bcl. The
homologous pair of chromosomes. Cross-crossing results obtained were filial (F1) where all flies had
events are very common at the time of gamete a brownish yellow body (Normal heterozygous)
formation in most creatures. Cross-moving occurs strain of N (Normal heterozygous) and red
at the end of prophase I or the beginning of compound eyes with the KkMm genotype. After
metaphase I which occurs when a chromosome has obtaining F1, a second parental cross (P2) was
doubled into two chromatids. Cross-moving carried out from a female F1 fly of Strain N
generally occurs in the middle chromatids, namely (heterozygous) with a male fly Strain bcl from the
the second and third chromatids of the chromatid stock. This is done for the testcross test, by
tetrad. However, it does not rule out the existence crossing F1 individuals with individuals who are
of cross-crossing in other chromatids. homozygous recessive (bcl).
Nondisjunction (Failure to separate) is an From the results of crossing parental 2, it
event that does not separate a pair of chromosomes can be seen that there are 4 kinds of genotypes and
during cell division (meiosis). This occurs during phenotypes, which are KkMm (brownish yellow
gametogenesis, which is during meiosis. The body, red compound eyes) and kkmm (black body,
chromosome pairs or homologous chromosomes in brownish compound eyes) are parental types while
gametangium stem cells will normally separate so kkMm (black body, red compound eyes) and
that the gamete has half of the number of Kkmm (brownish yellow body, brownish
chromosomes that an individual has. compound eyes) is a type of recombination that
results from crossing over. The phenomenon of
crossing over, recombinant type puppies can appear namely XXXw is super female, lethal. XXY is
in crosses with 2 different traits, even though on the male, sterile. Xw0 is female sterile, white. Y0 is
same 1 chromosome. male, lethal. Meanwhile, in 2 parental crosses, the
With the crossing over it can produces new event of Nondisjunction in male flies causes the
combinations of traits. Through crossing over formation of 2 types of F1, each of which has a
segments of homologous chromosomes are percentage of 50% with its genotype and
interchanged and hence provide origin of new phenotype, namely XXwY is male sterile, white. X0
characters and genetic variations. Crossingg over is a female sterile. In the Nondisjunction event, if
plays a very important role in the field of breeding the puppy (F1) has the same genotype as the
to improve the varieties of plants and animals parental, it is called Normal, whereas if the F1
The second observation is the observation of genotype is the opposite of parental it is called
Nondisjunction (NDJ) events in Drosophila experiencing Nondisjunction.
melanogaster. Observations were carried out by The occurrence of nondisjunction events can
crossing male flies strain W (XwY) with strain N result in abnormalities in their offspring. such as
(XX) berina flies and their recipients. some syndromes that arise, namely Down
syndrome, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
♀ Strain N → Normal (XX)
and several other effects.
- Red compound eye color
Nondisjunction in Drosophila melanogaster
- Brownish yellow body color
are influenced by several factors. Among them are
- The wings completely cover the body / abdomen.
external factors and internal factors. External
♂ Strain W → White (XwY) factors that influence the occurrence of NDJ
- White compound eye color daintaranta include high radiation energy, carbon
- Brownish yellow body color dioxide, certain chemicals and temperature. While
- The wings completely cover the body / abdomen. internal factors that influence the occurrence of
NDJ, among others, are mutant genes, age, and
Parental Crosses 1 (Female NDJ) other factors related to abnormalities in genetic
P1 : ♂ Strain W >< ♀ Strain N behavior.
: XwY >< XX
CONCLUSSION
G1 : Xw >< XX → Female NDJ
Y 0 Crossing over is an event of exchanging
F1 : segments of non-sibling chromatids from a
♀♂ Xw Y homologous pair of chromosomes. In crossing
over, you will get F1 offspring in the form of a
XX XXXw XXY combination of the genes of the two parents.
0 X 0
w
Y0 Meanwhile, when the cross-test was carried out by
crossing female F1 with male flies that were
- XXXw (25%) : Super female, Lethal homozygous rssif, there were 4 types of offspring
- XXY (25%) : Male, Steril that had different genotypes and phenotypes, each
- Xw0 (25%) : Female sterile, White with a percentage of 25%.
- Y0 (25%) : Male, Lethal Nondisjunction (Failure to separate) is an
event that does not separate a pair of chromosomes
Parental Crosses 2 (Male NDJ)
during cell division (meiosis). This occurs during
P1 : ♂ Strain W >< ♀ Strain N
gametogenesis, which is during meiosis. The
: XwY >< XX
chromosome pairs or homologous chromosomes in
G1 : XwY >< X → Male NDJ gametangium stem cells will normally separate so
0 .X that the gamete has half of the number of
F1 : chromosomes that an individual has. In a
nondisjunction cross, if an NDJ individual is a
♀♂ X wY 0 female parent, 4 types of offspring will be obtained
X XX Y
w
X0 which have different genotypes and phenotypes and
each has a percentage of 25%. Meanwhile, if the
X XX Y
w
X0
one experiencing nondisjunction is a male parent,
- XXwY (50%) : Male steril, White there will be two kinds of offspring that have
- X0 (50%) : Female Steril different genotypes and phenotypes, each with a
percentage of 50%.
In parental crossing 1, the event of REFFERENCES
Nondisjunction in female flies causes the formation
of 4 types of F1, each of which has a percentage of
25% or 1: 1: 1: 1 with the genotype and phenotype,
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