1 [Type the document title]

Nature of Inquiry and Research

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. share research experiences and knowledge;

2. explain the importance of research in daily life;
3. describe characteristics, processes, and ethics of research;
4. differentiate quantitative from qualitative research;
5. provide examples of research in areas of interest (arts, humanities, sports, science, business, agriculture and
fisheries, information and communication technology, and social inquiry).
Curiosity triggers you to find the true meaning of knowledge. Satisfying your curiosity is one way to experience
research. Research develops your skills in investigating, analyzing and synthesizing new information from various
sources.
Research Experience
The research experience is essential in the process of research. Roberts (2007) considers the research experience in
terms of emotions, the biography of the researcher, researcher identity and insights that the research “adventure” can
bring in relation to the researcher’s self.
Emotional Aspect of Research
It examines the personal side of research and how the researcher manages the research difficulties. Roberts (2007)
further explains that personal elements in research can take many forms, ranging widely in their origin and nature, from
guilt and fear, to delight and euphoria, and all the feelings in between! Submission dates and deadlines including
personal pressures to complete the research usually affect the research itself.
Researcher’s Involvement
The research subject is commonly based on the researcher’s background and interests. As a researcher, you usually
choose a research theme that is close to your heart, belief or well-being. Hence, it is unavoidable that along the process
of research you make certain sacrifices on your personal life. The research that you take in becomes a personal
importance. Your involvement in research is a flattering feeling of being an expert or an authority on a particular issue.
Research Adventure
Roberts (2007) likened research to a journey by the researcher; it is a process that demands planning, forethought,
commitment and persistence. And like any journey, it needs to be managed, navigated, and negotiated from early
conception to final destination. In other words, there is an excitement in the quest of something new. It can be
painstaking at first, but definitely rewarding in the end.
Research Knowledge
Research leads to knowledge and insights, which are sources of competitive advantage(Augustin & Coleman, 2012).
Research enthusiasts start as critical readers of research projects. Then, they develop their knowledge by realizing the
usefulness of those research outputs by employing the systematic process of research.
Definition of Research
Dempsey and Dempsey (in Casela& Cuevas, 2010) define research as an orderly process of inquiry that involves
purposeful and systematic analysis and interpretation of data (units of information) to gain new knowledge or to verify
already existing knowledge. Research has the ultimate goal of developing an organized body of scientific knowledge.
Good (in Calderon & Gonzales, 2008) defines research as a careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and
method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution
(or both) of a problem.
Hence, research is indeed a systematic, purposive and responsible process of gaining new knowledge for every scholar.
Scope of Research
Research aims to answer or solve specific issue or problem. In fact, it focuses on research outputs that are potentially
useful to a particular group of people or institution. Casela and Cuevas (2010)classified the areas of research and their
respective purposes for your reference.

Importance of Research in Everyday Life

Everything started in research and the end can be seen with the help of research. Everyday, people are adapting and
constantly demanding new things and new ways to do things. Research has brought the human race farther.
Research must be contextualized to realize its genuine significance or practical value in a particular field. Hence, it is
necessary to see the place of research in school, office, and the community, as it provides new knowledge and further
explains existing ones to improve practices and policies (Casela& Cuevas, 2010).
Good and Scates (in Calderon & Gonzales, 2008) list down the purposes of research for good life:
• to provide fast and comfortable land, sea, and air means of transportation
• to maximize the wonders of electricity like the radio, telephone, air conditioning, light in the
homes, movies, running machinery for industry, the computer, etc.
• to create potent drugs that promote health and prolong life
• to satisfy man’s craving for more understanding
• to improve human judgment and power
• to relieve human suffering

Course Module
 • to increase satisfactions in countless ways
Characteristics of Research
The unique characteristics of research permit the researcher to have a clear understanding of research and differentiate
it from problem-solving and other investigating process to avoid false thought.
Hence, Casela and Cuevas (2010) enumerates the distinct characteristics of research:
• Research begins with an unanswered problem or question.
• Research divides the major problems into sub-problems.  Research is guided by specific problem
or question.
• Research follows a logical procedure and data collection.
• Research requires interpretation of data.
• Research is a cycle.
Process of Research
Research could be overwhelming in the start but the researcher needs focus to start the process. A good research is
systematic; it needs a scientific method. Treece and Treece (in Calderon & Gonzales, 2008) explain the sequential tips
to achieve it:
1. Determine (recognize) the problem. A researchable problem must be original, interesting, significant,
practical and measurable (Casela, 2010);
2. Form a hypothesis. It is usually a declarative sentence or a statement suggested by knowledge or observation
that is yet to prove or disprove.
3. Do the library search. This is not only limited to books, journals, periodicals, theses, dissertations and
abstracts; multi-media forms are potential sources such as videos, films, documentaries, internet, etc. Take note of
the details of the materials you will use for the research such as the author(s)’ complete names, title, publisher
including its date and place of publication. All of these information are necessary in building the reference or
bibliography.
4. Design the study.It can be a qualitative or a quantitative research. The details will be in the next discussion.
5. Develop the instruments for collecting data.Instruments aid the observation, interview processes, and
experimentation (Casela, 2010).
6. Collecting the data. It can be in the form of observation, interview, documentary analysis, survey
questionnaire and experimentation (Casela, 2010).
7. Analyze the data. It must be free from biases and impartiality. All results must be recorded and interpreted
accordingly and objectively.
8. Determine the implications and conclusions from the findings. Implications are the proposition of the
researcher to address the given findings, while conclusions are the summary of all the findings.
9. Making recommendations for further research.It is necessary to suggest continuous exploration on other
related subjects to develop new results.
Ethics of Research
Humans are often the main participant or respondent of research and sometimes their rights are not compromised in the
process of research. So, in the 1974 Belmont Report (in CTSI, n.d.), there are three basic ethical principles relevant to
research involving human subjects:
1. Respect for persons. Individuals should be treated as autonomous agents. The investigator must ensure
that the subject has received a full disclosure of the nature of the study, the risks, benefits and alternatives, with
an extended opportunity to ask questions. Persons with diminished autonomy (e.g., prisoners, students, children,
etc) should not be coerced to participate in a research.
2. Maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms.The investigator should give forethought to the
maximization of benefits and the reduction of risk that might occur from the research.
3. Observe justice. Justice occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without good
reason or when some burden is imposed unduly. This includes fairness in distribution and equitable selection of
participants.

Meanwhile, Lo ( in CTSI, n.d.) selected ethical dilemmas in research:

• Informed consent. Researchers must be responsible and polite to ask permission from their
research informants or participants before they collect data from them.
• Misconduct in research. Data collected must not be altered, manipulated or favored. Researchers
must be honest and accurate in recording the data gathered.
• Conflicts of interest. It is generally recommended that the investigator should not participate as a
research subject in his or her study.
• Authorship. Misrepresentation of any form is wrong in scientific research. Authorship requires
“significant intellectual contribution”.
 3 [Type the document title]

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Research design is classified into two kinds: qualitative and quantitative method. Taylor and Trumbull (in Taylor, 2005)
clearly distinguished and tabled their similarities and differences. Either or both can be utilized by researchers depending
on the use. Thus, the quanitative method is used when clarity, reliability and validity are sought and qualitative method is
used when richness, complexity and data are not translated in numerical scale.
Qualitative Researches
1. Case Study. It is an in-depth investigation focused on one social unit or an individual. It may use interviews,
observations and review of records or other documents describing the different angles of the group or a person in a
natural environment.
2. Individual experiences. The research is focused on exploring a personal or extraordinary experience of a
person or group.
3. Perspective Taking. It focuses on how different people perceive and event, behavior or activity.
Quantitative Researches
1. Historical Research. It is designed to portray a complete and accurate description of historical events. It
attempts to summarize significant past event s or principles valuable in assisting human kind to profit from past
mistakes and planning appropriately for the future (Taylor, 2005).
2. Descriptive Research. It analyzes the trends that are developing, as well as the current situations. The data
derived from this research can be used in diagnosing a problem or in advocating a new or approved program
(Taylor, 2005).
3. Correlational Research. It shows the relationships between two or more variables. They are classified as
negative or positive and tend to show strong and weak relationships. These relationships assist the researcher in
explaining, controlling, and predicting phenomena (Taylor, 2005).

Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Describe the characteristics and strength of qualitative research;

2. Illustrate the importance of qualitative research across fields.

You learned the importance of research experience and knowledge. In this module, you will understand how these two
components meet the concrete social reality. And this is where qualitative research often begins.
Qualitative research studies social sciences. Social sciences

Focus on the everyday life of humans. Brinkmann (2012) explained that social science began with the emergence of
modern, industrial society when individuals were conceived as separate entities, and when this separation was seen as
problematic, resulting in disintegration, anomie, and the modern malaises (such as excessive individualism, loneliness and
neuroses). In other words, the word “social” was developed from the everyday life of man.

Qualitative research is relative to the everyday life of the researcher including his/her meditation on daily activities and
experiences.

Furthermore, Brinkman (2012) said that the everyday life objects are thus those that the researcher in question
appropriates and uses in his/her daily living (e.g. consumer products, technologies, pieces of art), and everyday situations
and events are those the researcher experiences in his/her life (e.g. conversations, parties, work, rituals).

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Let us discuss further the uniqueness of qualitative research. The unique nature and purpose of qualitative inquiry bring
in with a distinctive set of attributes, all of which impact the design of qualitative research one way or another (Roller &
Lavraks, 2015).

1. Absence of absolute “truth”. Although it might be said that an absolute truth is intangible in all forms of research, the interactive, personal and
interpretive approach in qualitative inquiry extinguishes the notion that the outcomes represent an absolute truth. Instead of truth, per se, the qualitative
researcher strives to collect information from which some level of useful knowledge can be gained (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
2. Importance of context. The data and the researcher’s interpretation of the data – hinge greatly on the contexts from which the data are
obtained (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
3. Importance of meaning. It derives meaning from data of multiple sources. Within any research event (e.g. observations, group discussion),
researchers evaluate any number of variables to make sense of the data. These variables include the context, the language, and especially in narrative

Course Module
research, social linguistics; the impact of the participant researcher relationship; and the potential for participants’ and researcher bias (Roller & Lavraks,
2015).
4. Researcher as the data gathering instrument. Qualitative research places the researcher at the center of the data-gathering phase, and indeed
the researcher ultimately is the “instrument” by which information is collected (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
5. Participant-researcher relationship. The participants and the researcher share the “research space” in which certain conventions for
communication (knowingly or not) may be formed that in turn shape the reality the researcher is capturing in the data (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
6. Skill set required of the researcher. Qualitative research requires the researcher’s skills that go beyond the usual qualities of organization,
attention to detail, and analytical abilities that are necessary for all researchers(Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
7. Flexible design. It is designed to match the dynamics of the evolving research process (Klenke, 2008). It can be modified or changed depending
on the need to measure the issue or the phenomenon under study.
8. Types of issues or questions effectively addressed by qualitative research. It is uniquely suited to address research issues or questions that
might be difficult, if not impossible, to investigate. It effectively tackles sensitive or personal issues (such as domestic violence, pregnancy among teenager,
drug addiction, etc.); multifaceted, intricate topics (such as personal histories and corporate re-organization); and contextual issues (example in-store
observations of shopping patterns) (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).
9. Messy analysis and inductive approach. The analysis of qualitative research is multilayered involving process that continually builds upon itself
until a meaningful and verifiable interpretation is achieved. A large contributor to the messiness of the analytical process is the inductive approach (Roller
& Lavraks, 2015). It tends to let the data lead to the emergence of concepts; the opportunity for interweaving detailed empirical study with some set of
concepts and theories (Yin, 2016).
10. Unique capabilities of online and mobile qualitative research. Online and mobile technology offer unique enhancements to qualitative research
designs. The opportunity to select the time and place for participation empowers online and mobile participant. Online and mobile participants can also
enrich their text responses by attaching files, images, links to websites, and voice response via VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) and the mobile phone
device (Roller & Lavraks, 2015).

Strengths of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is friendly to amateur researchers since their individual perspective and its impact on the research
are an integral part of the process. Hence, the everyday life of any researcher is an accurate reference to begin a
qualitative research.

• The researcher is seen as involved in the object of inquiry (Maffesoli in Brinkmann, 2012). He/She writes from his/her participating stance in the
world. Qualitative research is the means of the researcher to be closer to the world of his/her participants.
• Everyday life research is focused on human experience in a broad sense (Maffesoli in Brinkmann, 2012). Qualitative method is focused on the
authentic experiences of the participants and their critical voices. They become a source of empowerment from the filtered reality of their local, historical,
contextual, and multiple lenses.
• The theme of everyday life demands conceptual audacity so that descriptions and analyses of mundane life can be intellectually interesting and
challenging. A conceptual audacity is a tool that enables us to see new and perhaps surprising aspects of the everyday lives that we lead. This may in turn
generate new forms of human action (Maffesoli, in Brinkmann, 2012).

Importance of Qualitative Research across Fields

It has been emphasized that qualitative research is designed to explore the human elements of a given topic, where
specific methods are used to examine how individuals see and experience the world. Qualitative methods are best for
addressing many of the “why” questions that researchers have in mind when they develop research projects. Qualitative
approaches are typically used to explore new phenomena and to capture individuals’ thoughts, feelings, or
interpretations of meanings and process (Given, 2008). This means that qualitative research is not only applicable for
social sciences but to other disciplines.

• Qualitative methods are central to research conducted in education, nursing, sociology, anthropology, information studies, humanities, and
health sciences (Given, 2008).
• The range of methods available is very broad (e.g. personal interviews, observation, diaries, and journals), and projects are informed by various
methodologies (e.g. phenomenology, discourse analysis) (Given, 2008).
• It is important that both novice and established scholars understand the language, culture, paradigmatic approaches used in qualitative
research, especially the interdisciplinary projects increasingly link researchers across varied fields of study (Given, 2008).
Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Daily activities are the routine activities that you do everyday. You are very familiar doing them regularly in public and
private places such as commuting, eating, shopping, sleeping, and so on. These regular activities can be a significant
object for analysis for improvement, or on these ordinary activities, prevalence of something extraordinary could be a
reason for qualitative research.

Research Project Related to Daily Life

The strengths of qualitative research (as discussed previously) are the considerations in choosing the daily life as a
research project. Here are the descriptions and specifications of everyday life as a research project as explained by Robin
Boylorn (in Given, 2008).
 5 [Type the document title]

• Everyday life is a methodology which examines and uncovers the realization of daily life and how they are communicated and interpreted by an
observer and/or a participant.
• Everyday life is a participatory action research method embedded in people and situations.
• Everyday life research focuses on the details and seemingly insignificant occurrences that collectively contribute to how a situation,
phenomenon or incident is interpreted and experienced.
• Exploring everyday life requires the researcher to focus on details, make connections and associations between emergent and repetitive
themes, focus equally on sameness and difference (what happened today that did not happen yesterday and how that influences the research topic or
focus), and make comparisons between the researcher’s experience and the topic being studied.
• Everyday life is often written in a first or third-hand person voice and relies on rich descriptions, sharp detail, creative construction, and
comparative analysis.
• This approach is useful in analyzing qualitative data because it requires the researcher to consider and negotiate ubiquitous themes that occur
in everyday life, from work to play.
• Everyday life as a research approach encourages diversity; it is widely used among marginalized groups to privilege their personal perspectives
and viewpoints that might otherwise be silenced or misinterpreted.

Formulating the Research Title

The title embodies substantive words or keywords or phrases that describe one’s research study. The title must also
reflect the variables under study.
Independent variables are factors or stimuli that directly affect or cause changes to the independent variables.
Dependent variables are factors affected or changed by the independent variable(s). In other words, the independent
variable is the cause, while the dependent variable is the effect. A well-formulated title must state both variables in a
clear, concise, and precise way (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Purpose of Research
The perspective of daily life becomes a study of social interaction in a natural environment that shows extraordinary
happenings while situating the ordinary events of life. Basically, you must determine the purpose of the research you
intend to investigate. Here are some guide questions that you wish to answer to clearly define your research purpose.

• Do you intend to convince the people about the practices which would lead them to make their
own judgment based on the data presented in your study?
• Do you intend to discuss issues which would allow people to decide and act on the results of the
research?
• Do you intend to analyze incidents by determining the causes and effects or the nature of the
condition?
• Do you intend to explain interventions done to treat the affected data in order to see other
outcomes?

Formulating the Research Questions

The purpose of research leads to the construction of research questions. Basically, this part has the statement of the
problem. There should be a general statement of the problem which narrows down to sub-problems or specific
questions.
The major problem governs the entire study. It is usually in a statement form that introduces the general problem of the
research.
The specific questions must contribute to development of the whole research problem or topic. The number of specific
questions should be enough to cover the development of the entire study. They must be clear and free from double
meanings. It must give precise answers that will determine the difference or relationship, or implication of the variables
under study. Avoid rhetorical questions (answerable by yes/no) for they only elicit either of the two responses and may
result to vagueness.

Example: Statement of the Problem

In this study, the researchers explored how parents of children aged 3-5 years old who have poor eating habits, view their
experiences with the child’s health condition.

Specifically, the study will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. What kinds of food do children aged 3-5 years old avoid to eat?
2. How do children aged 3-5 years old develop poor eating habits?
3. What is the experience of the parents of 3-5 year-old children who have poor eating habits?

Course Module
Scope and Delimitation of Research

This section discusses the focus or concern of the study in terms of the specific areas to be included and to be given
emphasis or concentration so that relevant data will be obtained. Moreover, the scope identifies the possibilities to
which to which the study becomes manageable in terms of issues, respondents, and time. Moreover, this part
distinguishes the constraints of the study by delimiting the topic in terms of time, measurability, availability of subjects,
resources and ethical considerations. The limitation and delimitation is purposefully indentified and anticipated by the
researcher. Delimitation refers to the areas which the researcher does not intend to include in the study. Whereas,
limitation pertains to the restrictions identified by the researcher that may affect the outcome of the study but over
which he/she has little or no control, but are anticipated Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Content of the Scope and Delimitation (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008)

• A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

• The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
• The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.
• The population or universe from which the respondents/participants were selected. This must be
large enough to make generalizations significant.
• The period of the study which includes the time, either months or years, during which the data
were gathered.
• Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher.
The weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.

Example of Scope (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008)

This investigation was conducted to determine the status of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A as
perceived by the teachers and students in science classes during the school year 1989-1990. The aspects looked into
were the qualifications of teachers, their methods and strategies, facilities forms of supervisory assistance, problems and
proposed solutions to problems.
General purpose: To determine the status of the teaching of science.
Subject matter: The teaching of science.
Topics (aspects) studied: Qualifications of teachers. Their methods and strategies, facilities, form of supervisory
assistance, problems and proposed solutions to the problems.

Population or universe: teachers and students Locale of the study: High schools of province A. Period of the study: School
year 1989-1990.

Example of Delimitations

Limitations for this study include possible sampling bias. All students volunteered to participate in the study, and those
who volunteered may have already been comfortable with Web – based instruction. Awarding continuing education
credit may not have been an effective incentive for undergraduate student to participate in the study. Awarding
academic credit may have reduced attraction over the course of the study (Frith & Kee, in Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Research Benefits and Beneficiaries

Research benefits and beneficiaries are mentioned in the significance of the study. This section identifies the people or
institution who will benefit from the findings of the study. They may be directly involved in education such as students,
instructors, curriculum developers, educational administrators, or in the profession such as experts or practitioners,
personnel, and they may be members of the community who have directly or indirectly experienced the problem such as
individuals, their family or even organizations and agencies. Further, this section indicates the specific benefits which will
be gained from the results of the study. The significance relates to the growth of knowledge, to the verification or
validation of existing knowledge or practice to the development of new knowledge (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Calderon and Gonzales (2008) noted that this part must contain explanations or discussions of any or all of the following:

1. The rationale, timeliness, and or relevance of the study. The rationale gives reasons for the beneficiaries of the
study. Timeliness is the suitability of the study to the beneficiaries. All of these go around the relevance of the study
to the beneficiaries.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions. It must also explain how the
beneficiaries will understand the problem of the study and will soon maximize the recommendations of the study in
the end.
 7 [Type the document title]

3. Beneficiaries and how they are going to benefit. Beneficiaries are individuals, groups or communities who may be
placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study. It may include future plans or interventions to
correct the weaknesses or strengthen the purpose of the study.
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge. Beneficiaries are also sources of knowledge which is anticipated
and considered by the researcher.
5. Possible implications. Implications are the possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the
problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. It can also be the good points of a system which out to
be continued or to be improved if possible.

Example of Significance of the Study

Research Title – Psychological Stress – Related Health Problem of the Elderly in the Home for the Aged (in Casela &
Cuevas, 2010)

This study is particularly beneficial to the following:

• The institution and other organizations can be informed of the causes of these health problems.
They may develop new programs that can help prevent health problems of the elderly.
• The elderly may trace the causes of their health problem and may determine if they themselves
can contribute to its prevention since they are the ones experiencing the health disorders.
• Families of the elderly will be informed of the psychological sufferings and health problems the
elderly experience after they were brought to the institution.
• Future researchers will benefit from this study because they can get sufficient information that
would qualify them to take bigger steps and conduct further on the subject.

Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Select relevant literature;

2. Cite related literature using standard style (APA, MLA or Chicago Manual of Style);
3. Synthesize information from relevant literature;
4. Write coherent review of literature;
5. Follow ethical standards in writing related literature;
6. Present written review of literature.

When we take an interest in how people obtain knowledge about their everyday lives, we are beginning to address what
is usually called as qualitative inquiry. Human inquiry is qualitative when it concerns the how of our lives: How do we
experience the world? How do we accomplish everyday acts such as producing or consuming objects, or educating the
young? Qualitative methods throw light on the qualities of experience, actions, and emotions (Brinkman, 2012).
Relevant Literature
Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. These materials
are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other
publications classified from local (printed in the Philippines) to foreign (printed abroad). On the other hand, related
studies are researches, inquiries or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or
has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses and dissertations
classified as local (conducted in the Philippines) or foreign (conducted abroad) (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

Reliability and truthfulness of related materials must not be compromised in any research inquiry. Hence, Calderon and
Gonzales (2008) list down the necessary considerations in surveying related literature and studies.

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. The social, economic, scientific, and technological changes
are rapidly developing, so the findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing
lifestyle of the people.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one sided, either
political or religious, etc. which may lead to distorted generalizations.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or similarity to the
research problem at hand should be reviewed.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based on genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and
reliable. For the purposes of evaluating credibility and usefulness of resources you it is advisable to use the library
and internet resources. Since many students depend on the internet, clear evaluative criteria must be observed.
Some internet sources are easily alterable where anyone can construct and publish a web site. On the other hand,

Course Module
 some print materials found in the library can be self-published as well. The best way to find the most reliable
perspectives for your research is to search and compare diverse types of sources.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many. They must only be sufficient enough to give insight into the
research problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend on the
availability of related materials.

Types of Sources (Miller-Cochran& Rodrigo, 2014)

• Static. They are only published once, although they may be redeveloped as other editions.
Examples: books, paintings, films and basic html coded web sites.
• Syndicated. They are released over time under the same general title. Examples: periodicals
(magazine and journals), television shows, blogs and podcasts.
• Dynamic. They are never permanently published in a final form. If there are repeat performances
or publications, they are different every time. Examples: play and other live performances, wiki
publications; and field research (observations, interviews, and surveys).

Standard Styles of Related Literature

A well-written research paper is not only backed up with relevant literature but also correct, complete and proper
citation of its sources. Researcher must respect the intellectual property and effort of other researchers or writers by
acknowledging their works in correct format.

There are three reasons to cite the materials you use (Lipson, 2011):

1. To give credit to others’ work and ideas whether you agree with them or not. When you use their words, you must
give them credit by using both quotation marks and citation.
2. To show readers the materials on which you base your analysis, your narrative or your conclusion.
3. To guide readers to the materials you have used so that they can examine it for themselves. Their interest might be
to confirm your work, to challenge it, or simply to explore it further.

Chicago Manual Style

(CMS) Modern Language Association (MLA) American

Psychological

Association (APA)

Used by history scholars Two types:

• One designed for humanities

• One designed for social sciences Used in humanities, literature and languages Used in
social sciences, psychology, education, and business

Three Major Citation Styles (Lipson, 2011)

Decide the appropriate citation style for your research. Make sure you use this particular style in your in-text citation and
full bibliographic citation. Every idea, quotation and piece of information that you take from another source should be
included in your in-text citation. While, the end page of your research paper, the reference page or bibliography, must
have a list of references, or works cited list. This will provide information and resources for your readers in case they
would like to follow up and discover more information about your topic for themselves.

For the citation details and specific format of these three citation styles, you may view their complete comparison by
Purdue OWL: Citation Style Chart at https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/949/01/

Synthesizing the Relevant Literature

Gathering and collecting the relevant and credible materials for the related literature could be overwhelming for young
researchers like you. Hence, Casela and Cuevas (2010) explain specific guidelines to produce a coherent related
literature.

1. Organize the surveyed information in terms of importance by determining the highly relevant to the least essential
points.
 9 [Type the document title]

2. Classify and identify the appropriate categories, relationship, similarities, of both local and international studies.
3. Present the literature according to chronological or logical order, from the most recent to the earliest time of
development.
4. Analyze their respective content, facts, findings, methods, concepts and implications. Cite properly all relevant
literature into a meaningful whole.
5. Summarize and/or paraphrase through synthesizing the information Do not simply narrate or report the studies
over the years; do not simply
Trace the development or reiterate the writer’s ideas. Instead, summarize by indicating the implication of the literature
to one’s problem.
6. Avoid misinterpretation or distortion of the writer’s original meaning by direct quotation.
7. Apply in-text citation for paraphrased or quoted sources. Refer to the citation style chart presented earlier.
8. Synthesize into holistic body of content or in one relevant discussion.

Writing the Review of Related Literature

Writing starts from the moment you start the surveying the related literature for your research. It is expected that while
you are reading, collecting, and synthesizing them, you are actually writing all the important information including the
ones needed for the citation and bibliography. In doing this, you must focus on the focus and argument of your research,
not on the related literature that you are collecting.

In this part, you need to shape a logical and effective report of a literature review. This must be done systematically to
achieve coherence and understanding in explaining further the topic of your research.
1. Introduction. The introduction should identify the topic, its significance, and the thesis statement that outlines what
conclusion you will draw from your analysis and synthesis of the literature. If your literature review is part of a
larger work, explain the importance of the review to your research questions. In other words, engage in a dialogue
with the literature; do not just provide a summary.
2. Body. In the body, discuss and assess the research according to specific organizational principles (refer to the table
below), rather than addressing each source separately. Most of the paragraphs here should discuss more than one
source. Avoid addressing your sources alphabetically as this does not assist in developing the themes or key issues
central to your review.

Organizational Principles

A. Chronology- This is used to explain historical changes or perspectives. The literature is written according
to the dates of the studies or findings, from the oldest to the most recent.
B. Theme -This is used to explain ideas according to their respective premise. Issues are classified based on
their closest relevance to the research topic.
C. Sector -This is used to connect the
Research topic to different backgrounds (i.e. political, methodological, geographical, literary). Interdisciplinary discussion
becomes more comprehensive through this principle.
D. Development of ideas-This is used to discuss the stages of ideas that are developing in the research topic
or inquiry. This illustrates the development of ideas like a snowball.
E. Combination of all-This is used as per the discretion and analysis of the researcher. Some research topics
need the combination of all of these principles to organize the related literature.

1. Conclusion. It should provide a summary of the findings from the literature review. Explain what your analysis of the
material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature; what it provides; and where it is lacking.

Ethical Standards in Writing the Review of Related Literature (RRL)

Ethics in research was discussed previously but specific concerns on the ethical standards in writing the RRL needs to be
discussed separately. Generally, researchers are expected to be honest and responsible in reporting their research
findings. They must avoid misrepresent, misinform, mislead, and/or intentionally misinterpret the content of their
related literature. In doing this, they need to give appropriate credit when using other people’s work. Apparently,
researchers today are challenged by issues on ethical standards particularly the protection of privacy in light of advances
in technology and internet capabilities.
Research Misconduct

According to the Office of Research Integrity (U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services), research misconduct means Fabrication, Falsification, or Plagiarism (FFP) in proposing, performing, or
reviewing research, or in reporting research results.

A. Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

B. Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or
results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
C. Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving
appropriate credit.
Course Module
This is discussed further by Sharma and Singh (2011) which is usually involving the use of writings belonging to others.

• Self-plagiarism is copying of part of own previous published study by a

scientist/expert/researcher/writer without appropriate citation. It is not tolerable in academic writing
because authors are supposed to mention closely related previous work in appropriate manner.
• The work already published by an author becomes a property of scientific medical literature in
actual sense and cannot be duplicated.
• The use of sentence/s from published medical literature with minor modification in word structure
without attribution is also plagiarism.
• Using published photos or images without written permission is also considered as plagiarism. Easy
availability of private computers and the internet has increased the use of copy and paste method of
writing by young authors.
• Any statement that contains a fact that is not universally known or contains factual details should
be referenced.
• Scientific misconduct (fabrication and falsification of data) is now beginning to be considered
similar to other criminal offences and often committed by the same offender.

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically

Collect Data

Data are what researchers are searching for. They are subjected to analysis, statistical procedures, and interpretation so
that inferences, principles and generalizations are drawn. Data also reveal unsatisfactory conditions that need to be
improved. The application of newly discovered facts and principles to remedy unsatisfactory conditions becomes the
basis of human progress and the improvement of the quality of human life (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).

Qualitative Research Design

A research design is basically a research plan similar to a blue print which serves as a guide in conducting a study. Some
describe it as the overall strategy that a researcher chooses to incorporate the different components his/her study. It is
written in a coherent and logical way to ensure that the research problem will effectively be addressed.

Qualitative research designs consist of many components and can be based on basic design. Flick (2007) characterizes a
good qualitative research design.
• Clear focus on the research questions

• Manageable in resources and time

• Clear in decisions about sampling and particular use of methods
• Well-linked to the theoretical background and based on the research perspective of the study
• Reflective to the aims of generalization and the audiences of the study
• Sensitive, flexible, and adaptive to conditions in the field
• Open to new insights from the start or during the progress of the research.

Five Approaches of Qualitative Research Design according to Creswell (2013)

1. Narrative Research. As a method, it begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals.
The procedures for implementing this research consist of focusing on studying one or two individuals, gathering
data through the collection of their stories, reporting individual experiences, and chronologically ordering the
meaning of those experiences.

Types of Narratives

Biographical study is when the researcher writes and records the experiences of another person’s life.

Autoethnography is written and recorded by the individuals who are subject of the study (Ellis; Muncey,
in Creswell, 2013). It contains the personal story of the author as well as the larger cultural meaning for
the individual’s story.
A life history portrays an individual’s entire life, while a personal experience story is a narrative study of
an individual’s personal experience found in single or multiple episodes, private situations, or communal
folklore (Denzin, in Creswell, 2013).
 11 [Type the document title]

An oral history consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their causes and effects from one
individual to several individuals (Plummer, in Creswell, 2013).

2. Phenomenological Research. It describes a common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a
concept or a phenomenon. The researcher then collects data from the persons who have experienced the
phenomenon (i.e. insomnia, anger, undergoing organ transplant), and develops a composite description of the
essence of the experience for all the individuals.

3. Grounded Theory Research. Its intention is to move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory, a
“unified theoretical explanation” (Corbin & Strauss, in Creswell, 2013) for a process or an action. The researcher
generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, and action, or an interaction shaped by the views of a large
number of participants.
4. Ethnographic Research. An ethnography focuses on an entire culturesharing group. Typically, it involves many
people who interact over time (such as teachers in an entire school or a community social work group). “The
researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs and language of a
culture sharing group (Harris, in Creswell, 2013).”

5. Action Research. It seeks action to improve practice and study the effects of the action that was taken (Streubert &
Carpenter, in Nieswiadomy, 2008). Solutions are sought to address problems in a particular setting. In action
research, the implementation of solutions occurs as an actual part of the research process. There is no delay in
implementation of the solutions (Nieswiadomy, 2008).

The Sample and Sampling Procedures

Sample is a representative of the population, that is, the characteristics of the sample are characteristics of the
population. Therefore, the data is obtained from the sample only, but are applied to the entire population. The members
of the sample are identified as respondents, participants or subjects who will meet the criteria for subject selection and
will provide necessary data or information (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Study population is the entire group of elements that you would like to study. This is often a group of individuals (such as
firefighters in New York, OFW’s in Middle East, etc.), but it can also be composed of a larger units such as families,
institutions, communities, countries, etc. The study population is entirely defined by the researcher, based on the study
objectives (Guest, et.al., 2013).

Sampling frame is a list of all elements in a study population. It is always defined by your study population. For example,
your study population is vendors in market X, then your frame would be a list of all vendors in that market. It is often not
easy to obtain in field research (Guest, et.al., 2013).

Sampling unit is the thing (person, place, event, etc.) that is selected for inclusion in the study. If you are sampling high
school students, your sampling unit would be one (Guest, et.al., 2013).
Data Collection Procedure in Qualitative Research Description

1. Observation -The researcher records the events that he/she has seen. He/She focuses on respondents to capture a
particular aspect of their behavior. He/She may or may not directly participate in the activities of the research
investigation. He/She may or may not have any background (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

2. Interview-The researcher asks a set of wellconstructed questions and may

Even make follow up questions to gather the necessary data. He/She establishes rapport in a face-to-face interview to
yield highest response rate. He/She resorts to telephone interview when less time and less expenses are being
considered (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

3. Documentary Analysis -The researcher uses existing or available information such as health records or reports and
other documents of organization or institution (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) -The researcher obtains in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of
a group. He/She facilitates the group members discussing the topic among themselves (Guest, et.al., 2013).

5. Visual Data -They refer to the recording, analysis and communication of social life through photographs, films, and
videos (Harper, in Boeije, 2010). The choice of this method is most useful when observing spaces, places, the
environment, and objects. The same applies when photography or video is used to collect data, for example
everyday life of community members, like video-taping a playground in a school for the deaf to learn about hearing-
impaired culture (Alexander, in Boeije, 2010).

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

Course Module
Data analysis is another challenging part of any research. The researcher should be systematic so he/she will not be
daunted by the bulk of data he/she gathered. Although some computer software can also do the analysis of the research
data, it is still necessary for the researcher to interpret and describe the results.

These techniques are very useful to your research process so you will be able to maximize the materials and data that you
collected which will lead you to produce a creative and meaningful work or research.

Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic Approaches (Grbich, 2013)

1. Iterative/hermeneutic approach involves seeking meaning and developing interpretive explanation through the
process of feedback. This involves a series of actions: defining the question, going out of the field, examining the
data collected, adjusting the question/sampling approach/design aspect/data collection tools in light of emerging
issues and current literature, subjecting this data to a critically reflective process of data analysis to determine
“what is going on” in order to build up a picture of data and going back to the field to find out more. These
processes are repeated until the accumulated findings indicate that nothing new is likely to emerge and that the
research question has been answered.

2. Subjective approach is focused on the researcher, and what takes place within his/her own thoughts and actions in
specified context. The researcher needs to maintain a detailed and critically reflective diary record and be prepared
to subject himself/herself to regular periods of debriefing with a supervisor or colleague. When the researcher’s
experiences are the sole or partial target of the target, he/she occupies a dual role – that of a researcher and
researched.

3. Investigative semiotic approach involves the uncovering information relating to languages within cultural contexts.
The understanding of signs and symbols is central to this approach, in particular their mythical strength, and the
embedded power of particular discourse which the researcher need to disentangle the reveal the original elements
as well as to identify arguments that have been marginalized.

4. Enumerative approach involves listing or classifying of items by percentages, frequencies, ranked order, or
whatever is useful to the research question. This approach involves the researcher in the production of “objective”
accounts of the content of the verbal, written or visual texts, the development of codes and categories often prior
to analysis, and the definition and measurement of units of analysis. Flow charts, logical reasoning processes, the
seeking of links between antecedents and outcomes through identification of ordered (ranked) word frequency, key
words in context, and incidence counting.

Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for Analysis (Grbich, 2013)

Transcription of Interview

Researcher’s Notes

Q: Tony, now that you have been a male primary caregiver for a year, how

• Transcription of data. It involves getting the dialogue or narrative of the devices on which the
researcher has recorded it and into a document so there is a clear researcher defined column for notes,
as seen below.

Do you think others view you in this role?

A: It’s the perception of the division between the male and female roles that I find a key to most of the injustice I’ve
encountered during this past year. When it comes to the crunch, most males prefer to be breadwinners; they see this as
the more important role. This has also to do with money and title and status.

I remember when my wife graduated from Medical School, among the group she was part of, what struck me as odd
even then was that men all looked forward to their future as doctors and that’s natural enough, but there was never a
question that they wouldn’t work full time. Several were in stable relationships and their partners had started their
careers of their own. But none of the graduates male or female every questioned who would stay home should they start
a family. There was no question of whose career was expendable. As soon as they children, both the wives of doctors and
the female medical graduates would give up work and retire to the house.

Source: Grbich, data set: Primary caregivers male

• Preliminary data analysis. It is an ongoing process that is undertaken every time data is collected. It
involves a simple process of checking and tracking the data to see what is coming out of it, identifying
areas that require follow up and actively questioning where the information collected is leading/ should
lead the researcher. It is a process of engagement with the text, not so much to critique it or to
 13 [Type the document title]

summarize what is emerging from it, but more to gain a deeper understanding of the values and
meanings which lie therein.

Interview segment of a transcript analyzed using preliminary analysis

Interview Segment Preliminary Data Analysis

Q: Tony, now that you have been a male primary caregiver for a year, how do you think others view you in this role?

A: It’s the perception of the division between the male and female roles that I find a key to most of the injustice I’ve
encountered during this past year. When it comes to the crunch, most males prefer to be breadwinners; they see this as
the more important role. This has also to do with money and title and status.

Injustice – what injustices has he experienced? *I need to check this aspect with him and with other participants.

Do all men prefer to be breadwinners? *I need to check this with the group.

This fits in with the societal

I remember when my wife graduated from Medical School, among the group she was part of, what struck me as odd
even then was that men all looked forward to their future as doctors and that’s natural enough, but there was never a
question that they wouldn’t work full time. Several were in stable relationships and their partners had started their
careers of their own. But none of the graduates male or female every questioned who would stay home should they start
a family. There was no question of whose career was expendable. As soon as they children, both the wives of doctors and
the female medical graduates would give up work and retire to the house. View of the nurturing role of women. It also
matches with Talcott Parsons’ views of instrumental (male) and nurturing (female) societal roles.

Did Tony have different earlier socialization experiences than the others in order to be a father at home? *I need to
follow up with him and the others about this.

*Note to self

• Face sheets. This is a cover sheet that is attached to the front of the data transcription and
identifies the study question, time and place of interview/observation and summarizes the main
outcomes for the preliminary analysis.

Face sheet: Interview with “Tony” data identifiers

Research question: How do men experience the role of primary caregivers?

 Participant profile: age, status: “Tony”, 42

 Interview/observation/ document date: 24/04/7
 Time: 10:00 AM – 12:45 PM
 Place of interview: Tony’s home
 Comments: Daughter Chrissy, 18 months, was present for the first hour before being put to
bed.

Issues emerging from the interview that need to be followed up by the researcher:

1. Do all these men experience a sense of injustice?

2. Does working part-time make a difference to perceptions of injustice?
3. Do all men prefer to be breadwinners?
4. Do all women prefer the “at home” role?
5. Do some/all these men prefer the home role to the breadwinner role?
6. Investigate the early socialization of these men.

Regardless of whether the data collected comes from written observations, transcriptions of interviews or the perusal of
existing documents, you should undertake this process in order to highlight emerging issues, to allow relevant data to be
identified and to provide directions for seeking further data (Grbich, 2013).

Finding Answers through Data Collection

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

Course Module
1. Collect data through observation and interviews.

You learned the many ways to collect data for a qualitative research. This lesson focuses on the two most feasible ways to
gather data from your recruited participants: through observation and interviews. You will understand the specific
purposes and steps to employ and facilitate these methods.

Observation is a research method that enables researchers to systematically observe and record people’s behavior,
actions and interactions. The method also allows researchers to obtain a detailed description of social settings or event in
order to situate people’s behavior within their own socio-cultural context (Hennink, et.al.,2011).

During an observation the researcher is systematically watching, listening, questioning, and recording people’s behavior,
expression, interactions, as well as noting the social setting, location or context in which the people are situated. The
focus and location of the researcher’s observation are often guided by the research questions or the purpose of the
observation. In any social situation many things occur and conducting an observation may seem like watching an
unfolding drama, with characters, events, and a storyline (Hennink, et.al.,2011).

Key Points in Conducting Observations (Ritchie, et.al, 2013)

• Observational approaches are particularly useful for addressing research questions which seek to
understand phenomena in their natural context and which go beyond participants’ accounts. This may
include research focusing on behaviors (which may be subconsciously enacted or which individuals might
be uncomfortable verbalizing), complex social interactions, and how people engage with physical space
or activities.

• Observed data are inherently subjective. What is observed may be influenced by the presence of
the researcher, and they make active choices about their level of involvement in the observed setting.
Researchers are very directly involved in data generation through decisions about what to observe and
what and how to record. Their own experience of the observed interaction is an important part the
dataset, something that stimulates further analysis and adds to the richness of observation as method.

• Observation is used as a single qualitative method rather than in longer term ethnographic studies
and is more commonly used in multi-method designs. Here, it may be the central method or may be
used to inform the design and later stages of research, provide greater understanding of the
phenomenon being studied, to verify other findings or to provide additional explanation.

• Careful decisions are needed about what to observe, where, when and how often, even the
familiarization with the cites is crucial here. A range of different features is likely to be observed such as
the way physical space is organized, who is present, what they do, and how they interact with others.

In some cases, researchers become one of the participants in the research context. They try to learn the life like a
participant but remains to the limitations of a researcher. This method is called participant observation.

According to Mack, et.al (2005), participant observation is a qualitative method with roots in traditional ethnographic
research, whose objective is to help researchers learn the perspectives held by study populations. Qualitative researchers
accomplish this through observation alone or by both observing and participating, to varying degrees, in the study
community’s daily activities. It takes place in community settings, in locations believed to have some relevance to the
research questions. The method is distinctive because the researcher approaches participants in their own environment
rather than having the participants come to the researcher.

General Categories of Information in Participant Observation

(Mack, et.al,2005)

Category Inclusions Notes for Researchers

Appearance Clothing, age, gender, physical appearance Anything that might indicate membership in groups or
in subpopulations of interest to the study, such as profession, social status, socioeconomic class, religion, or ethnicity

Verbal behavior and interactions Who speaks to whom and for how long; who initiates interaction; languages
or dialects spoken; tone of voice Gender, age, ethnicity, and profession of speakers; dynamics of interaction

Physical behavior and gestures What people do, who does what, who interacts with whom, who is not interacting
How people use their bodies and voices to communicate different emotions; what individuals’ behaviors
indicate about their
 15 [Type the document title]

Feelings toward one another, their social rank, or their profession

Personal space How close people stand to one another What individuals’ preferences concerning personal
space suggest about their relationships

Human traffic People who enter, leave, and spend time at the observation site Where people enter and exit;
how long they stay; who they are (ethnicity, age, gender); whether they are alone or accompanied; number of people

People who stand out Identification of people who receive a lot of attention from others The characteristics of
these individuals; what differentiates them from others; whether people consult them or they approach other people;
whether they seem to be strangers or well known by others present

Interview is another way of collecting data that can be conducted online or on the telephone. Still, face-to-face
interviewing is proven to provide a more valid data because physical cues of body language or facial expression could be
a pointer for probing.

In-depth interview is a one-on-one method of data collection that involves an interviewer and an interviewee discussing
specific topics in depth. Indepth interviews may be described as a conversation with a purpose. The researcher’s purpose
is to gain insight into certain issues using semistructured interviewee guide (Hennink, et.al.,2011).

In-depth interview may be conducted to identify (Hennink, et.al.,2011):

• How people make decisions

• People’s own beliefs and perceptions
• The motivation for certain behavior
• The meaning people attach to experiences
• People’s feelings and emotions
• The personal story or biography of a participant
• In-depth information on sensitive issues
• The context surrounding people’s lives

Principles in Formulating Questions (Ritchie, et.al, 2013)

1. Open Questions. These are standard tool of in-depth interview. They put the onus (responsibility) on the participant
to supply the content of the answer, in contrast to dichotomous or closed questions that require yes/ no answer or
a single word or phrase (Patton, in Ritchie, et.a., 2013).

Example: ⨯ Did you see the winning numbers on television?

√ What did you do when you saw the winning numbers on television?

2. Non Leading Questions. It can also be important to watch for your own responses as a researcher, to what you have
heard, trying to make sure that reaction does not influence the way you formulate a question, and aiming to ask
questions that are phrased in an open, non-judgmental manner. Researchers should be alert to how their responses
may influence the research interaction or inadvertently lead the interview in a helpful way. This influence can be
introduced by physical responses such as sharp intake of breath, laughter, a look of surprise or skepticism, just as
much as by verbal responses in the way questions or responses are phrased or worded.

Example: ⨯ (leading question) Did that make you feel furious?

√ (non-leading question) How did you react when he said that?

3. Asking Clear Questions. The most effective questions are short and clear, leaving the interviewee with no
uncertainty about the sort of information being sought. Double questions should be avoided. Example: How did you
hear about the service and what made you decide to use it? Avoid questions that are too abstract or theorized. The
interviewer must be sensitive to the language and terminology used by people, and to reflect it back to them –
without going too far as to parody or lose authenticity.

4. Asking Mapping Questions. A series of follow up questions should be asked in response to the answer given. These
questions allow the interviewee to address the key dimensions of the topic as it pertains to them, and provide the

Course Module
 structure and framework of the interview. The researcher needs to decide how to structure the interview to explore
each of these key dimensions.

Stages of the Interview (Ritchie, et.al, 2013)

Stage 1 : Arrival and Introductions • Establish an initial rapport

• Host the interaction by taking responsibility for making it friendly and positive

Stage 2: Introducing the Research • Seeking informed consent: aims, objectives, voluntary,
confidential

• Scope of the interview: but the participant is in control of what they disclose

• No right and wrong answers,

Hearing their perspective in their

Own words

Stage 3: Beginning the interview • Contextual background information: for reference in interview and to set the
tone

Stage 4: During the interview • Breadth and depth of coverage

Stage 5: Ending the interview • Give some advance notice

• End on a positive note:

Suggestions and recommendations

Stage 6: After the interview • Thank for participation: value of their contribution

• How the information will be treated and used

• Be prepared to stay to help the change of mode back to the everyday

• Listen out for “doorstep” data – final reflections or new informations

These are additional considerations in conducting an in-depth interview according to Hennink, et.al., (2011):

1. Get acquainted with the interviewee through small talk.

2. Establish rapport and create a safe, comfortable environment for the interviewee.
3. Pose questions in an open, unthreatening way and in a friendly colloquial manner.
4. Listen and respond to the interviewee by asking follow up questions and probing.
5. Show empathy towards the interviewee.
6. Motivate the interviewee to tell their story in detail.
7. Take note of the social context, and observe the environment of the interviewee.
8. Observe the body language and subtle reactions of the interviewee.
9. Be sincerely interested in hearing about the life of the interviewee.
10. Have respect for the beliefs and lifestyle of the interviewee.
Analyzing the Meaning of the Data and Drawing
The data collected from interviews and observations are transcribed in text form for further analysis. These are raw data
where meaning and conclusions will be drawn.
Content analysis usually refers to analyzing text (interview transcripts, diaries or documents) rather than observation field
notes. This refers to any qualitative data reduction and sense-making effort that takes a volume of qualitative material
and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings. Case studies, for example, can be content analyzed (Patton,
2015).
Patterns are the basis for themes. The core meanings found through content analysis are patterns and themes. The
process of searching for patterns and themes may be distinguished as pattern analysis and theme analysis, respectively.
The term pattern refers to a descriptive finding, for example, “Almost all participants reported feeling fear when they
rappelled down the cliff”, while a theme takes a more categorical or topical form, interpreting the meaning of the
pattern: FEAR. Putting these terms together, a report on wilderness education study might state,
 17 [Type the document title]

The content analysis revealed a pattern of participants reporting being afraid when rappelling down cliffs and running
river rapids; many also initially experienced the group process of sharing personal feelings as evoking some fear. Those
patterns make dealing with fear a major theme of the wilderness education program experience (Patton, 2015).
Techniques for Discovering Themes in Texts (Ryan & Bernard, 2003)

1. Word repetitions. Word repetitions, key-indigenous terms, and keywords-in-contexts (KWIC) all draw on a simple
observation—if you want to understand what people are talking about, look at the words they use. Word
repetitions can be analyzed formally and informally. In the informal mode, investigators simply read the text and
note words or synonyms that people use a lot. A more formal analysis of word frequencies can be done by
generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting the number of times each occurs. Computers can
easily generate wordfrequency lists from texts and are a quick and easy way to look for themes.
2. Indigenous category. Another way to find themes is to look for local terms that may sound unfamiliar or are used in
unfamiliar ways. Understanding indigenous categories and how they are organized has long been a goal of cognitive
anthropologists. The basic idea in this area of research is that experience and expertise are often marked by
specialized vocabulary.
3. Key words in context (KWIC). Key-words-in-context (KWIC) are closely associated with indigenous categories. KWIC
is based on a simple observation: if you want to understand a concept, then look at how it is used. In this technique,
researchers identify key words and then systematically search the corpus of text to find all instances of the word or
phrase. Each time they find a word, they make a copy of it and its immediate context. Themes get identified by
physically sorting the examples into piles of similar meaning. Word-based techniques are typically a fast and
efficient ways to start looking for themes. We find that they are particularly useful at early stages of theme
identification. These techniques are also easy for novice researchers to apply. Nothing, however, beats a careful
scrutiny of the texts for finding themes that may be more subtle or that don’t get signified directly in the lexicon of
the text. Scrutiny-based techniques are more time-intensive and require a lot of attention to details and nuances.
4. Compare and contrast. The compare and contrast approach is based on the idea that themes represent the ways in
which texts are either similar or different from each other. Researchers compare pairs of texts by asking “How is this
text different from the preceding text?” and “What kinds of things are mentioned in both?” They ask hypothetical
questions like “What if the informant who produced this text had been a woman instead of a man?” and “How
similar is this text to my own experiences?”

5. Social science queries. Besides identifying indigenous themes—themes that characterize the experience of
informants—researchers are interested in understanding how textual data illuminate questions of importance to
social science. Spradley (in Ryan & Bernard, 2003) suggested searching interviews for evidence of social conflict,
cultural contradictions, informal methods of social control, things that people do in managing impersonal social
relationships, methods by which people acquire and maintain achieved and ascribed status, and information about
how people solve problems.

Querying the text as a social scientist is a powerful technique because investigators concentrate their efforts on searching
for specific kinds of topics – any of which are likely to generate major social and cultural themes. By examining the data
from a more theoretical perspective, however, researchers must be careful that they do not overfit the data – that is, find
only that for which they are looking. There is a trade-off between bringing a lot of prior theorizing to the theme-
identification effort and going at it fresh.

6. Searching for missing information. Instead of identifying themes that emerge from the text, investigators search for
themes that are missing in

The text. Much can be learned from a text by what is not mentioned. Of all the scrutiny-based techniques, searching for
missing information is the most difficult. There are many reasons people do not mention topics. In addition to avoiding
sensitive issues or assuming investigator already knows about the topic, people may not trust the interviewer, may not
wish to speak when others are present, or may not understand the investigator’s questions. Distinguishing between
when informants are unwilling to discuss topics and when they assume the investigator already knows about the topic
requires a lot of familiarity with the subject matter. In addition to word- and scrutiny-based techniques, researchers have
used linguistic features such as metaphors, topical transitions, and keyword connectors to help identify themes.

7. Metaphors and analogies. The observation that people often represent their thoughts, behaviors, and experiences
with analogies. The object is to look for metaphors in rhetoric and deduce the schemas, or underlying principles,
that might produce patterns in those metaphors.

8. Transitions. Another linguistic approach is to look for naturally occurring shifts in thematic content. Linguistic forms
of transition vary between oral and written texts. In written texts, new paragraphs are often used by authors to
indicate either subtle or abrupt shifts in topics. In oral speech, pauses, change in tone, or particular phrases may
indicate thematic transitions. In two-party and multi-party speech, transitions occur naturally. Conversation or

Course Module
 discourse analysts closely examine linguistic features such as turn-taking and speaker interruptions to identify
transitions in speech sequences.

9. Connectors. A third linguistic approach is to look carefully at words and phrases that indicate relationships among
things. For example, causal relationships are often indicated by such words and phrases as, because, since, and as a
result. Words such as if or then, rather than, and instead of often signify conditional relationships. Time-oriented
relationships are expressed with words such as before, after, then, and next. Typically negative characteristics occur
less often than positive characteristics. Simply searching for the words not, no, none, or the prefix non may be a
quick way to identify themes. Investigator can discover themes by searching on such groups of word and looking to
see what kinds of things the words connect. Investigators often use the linguistic features described above
unconsciously. Metaphors, transitions, and connectors are all part of a native speaker’s ability to grasp meaning in a
text. By making these features more explicit, you sharpen your ability to find themes.

10. Unmarked texts. One way to identify new themes is to examine any text that is not already associated with a theme
(Ryan, in Ryan & Bernard, 2003). This technique requires multiple readings of a text. On the first reading, salient
themes are clearly visible and can be quickly and readily marked with different colored pencils or highlighters. In the
next stage, the search is for themes that remain unmarked. This tactic–marking

Obvious theme early and quickly—forces the search for new and less obtrusive themes.

11. Pawing. It is highly recommended through texts and marking them up with different colored highlighter pens. In this
method, you get a feel for the text by handling your data multiple times. Researchers have been known to spread
their texts out on the floor, tack bunches of them to a bulletin board, and sort them into different file folders. By
living with the data, investigators can eventually perform the interocular percussion test—which is where you wait
for patterns to hit you between the eyes.
12. Cutting and sorting. It is particularly useful for identifying subthemes. The approach is based on a powerful trick
most of us learned in kindergarten and requires paper and scissors. You first read through the text and identify
quotes that seem somehow important. You cut out each quote (making sure to maintain some of the context in
which it occurred) and paste the material on small index cards. On the back of each card, you then write down the
quote’s reference—who said it and where it appeared in the text. Then, you lay out the quotes randomly on a big
table and sort them into piles of similar quotes. Then, you name each pile. These are the themes. This can be done
with tag and search software, but you find that nothing beats the ability to manually sort and group the cards.

Indeed, identifying themes and patterns is one of the basic tasks in qualitative research. The techniques presented can be
helpful to any qualitative data analysis. From the quick word counts to the laborious, indepth, line-by-line scrutiny, some
may work well for short answers to openended questions while others are more suitable for loaded, multifaceted
narratives. Novice researchers and professionals may find some techniques easier than others. No single technique does
it all; these techniques are simply tools to help you do better research.

Ways to Display Qualitative Data Findings (Yin, 2011)

A. Narrative data about the participants in a qualitative study. The narrative could present the voices of the
participants, who portray in real-world events, through the use of use of extensively quoted material. They can be
shorter or longer, and they can contain limited or extensively quoted passages. Each will require different amounts
of data; each will require field records with different levels of detail.

B. Tabular, graphic and pictorial presentations. Some qualitative studies augment their narratives with other modes of
presentation that will appear as exhibits or figures, including tables, graphics and pictures. Each alternative presents
a distinctive opportunity for displaying data, potentially making the data more understandable than when
constrained by narrative descriptions alone. The other modes also can create images in a reader’s mind to make a
study’s data more vivid.

Three Modes for Displaying Qualitative Data

Type of Display Illustrative Examples

1. Word Tables and Lists • Summary of findings, placed into a matrix of rows and

Columns

• Chronology

• Aggregate characteristics of people studied or interviewed

 19 [Type the document title]

• List of individual people in a study and their study characteristics (not necessarily routine
demographic characteristics)

2. Graphics • Geographic map; census tract map

• Spatial layout of a study area • Hierarchical chart (e.g. organizational chart)

• Flowchart (e.g. sequence of events over a time line)

• Family trees and other schemes

4. Pictures • Photographs

• Reproductions (e.g. of artwork or of others’ drawings or pictures)

C. Conversion of materials into slides. The findings of the research can become objects presented to an audience once
you exhibit them in slides. Relative to exhibits, slides need to use larger typeface, be simpler in concept, and be
more quickly understandable. A more creative way of presenting abstract concepts, such as matrices or even lists,
involves embedding them within a geometric shape, such as pyramid. Again, slides remain a supplementary tool;
you and your performance still occupy the center stage.

Reporting and Sharing the Findings

The conclusion should clarify concepts defined within the scope of the study.

Moreover, it should explain the relationship of the variables under study.

Most importantly, it should answer all questions raised by the researcher.

Ethically, the researcher should give the true findings of his/her study. He/She is not supporsed to fabricate results to
achieve the desired conclusions. Instead, the researcher should prove or disprove the relationship of the variables based
on the findings of the study (Casela & cuevas, 2010).

Drawing and Verifying Conclusions

Drawing conclusion involves deciding what the identified themes and patterns mean and how they help to answer the
research questions (Hair, et.al., 2016). Hence, Hair, et.al (2016) suggest ways to draw and verify conclusions for a
qualitative research.

• Memoing happens when qualitative researchers begin write their initial conclusions and
observations, sometimes after every focus group, interview or observational event. These conclusions
are initially preliminary, subject to revision as the project proceeds. Interim analyses may suggest new
questions for future interviews and different types of participants to sample.

• Verification involves checking and rechecking the data to ensure the initial conclusions are realistic,
supportable, and valid.

• Credibility is qualitative researchers’ term for trustworthiness and reliability. Reliability in

qualitative research is the degree of consistency with which the same researcher assigns similar
observations and interpretations at different times.

Guidelines in Writing the Conclusion (Calderon and Gonzales, 2008)

1. Conclusions should be logically written presenting the valid outgrowths of the findings. Conclusions should have
inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations
based on the findings.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in the
order they are given under the statements of the problem.

Course Module
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However, no conclusions should be
drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet the study as required by the specific
questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated categorically. They should be worded as
if they are 100% true and correct. They should not give any hint that the researcher has some doubts about their
validity and reliability. The use of quantifiers such as probably, perhaps, maybe, and the like should be avoided.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the research paper. They may be
recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they should convey the same information as
the statements recapitulated.

Formulating Recommendations Based on Conclusion

Recommendations are suggestions for solution, improvement, revision, validating of existing practices and for future or
additional research on issues about daily life. They should be specific, realistic and achievable. They can identify the areas
which need further research, which can be replicated or which can be validated (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations (Calderon and Gonzales, 2008)

1. Recommendations should not aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in the investigation.

2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that matter, that has not been discovered or
discussed in the study. Recommendations for things not discussed in the study are irrelevant.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or system, or even recommendation for
its improvement. This is to ensure a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe involved.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideals but they must be feasible, practical, and attainable. It is useless to
recommend the impossible.
5. Recommendations should be logical and valid.

6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or offices who or which are in a position
to implement them.
7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other places to verify, amplify, or
negate the findings of the study. This is necessary so that if the findings are the same, generalizations of wider
application can be formulated.

Listing References

At the end of any research work, a page must be provided to list down the references used during the research writing.
Researchers need to acknowledge all the sources with their complete and correct information and format. It was
mentioned previously, the citation and references must follow consistent style, whether they are in MLA, APA or Chicago
format.

References include a complete list of all quoted and paraphrased works that the researcher actually used in completing
the study. While bibliography includes a complete list of all works related to the study, but are not directly contained in
the report. However, citing them is also important to provide a list for suggested or further reading which other
researchers may use for their own research (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Reference list allows readers to locate and use the sources you have cited. Reference information must be complete and
accurate by including the following information in the reference entry: author’s name, year of publication, title of the
work, and the publication information (Leedy and Ormrod, in Casela & Cuevas, 2010).

Presenting the Written Research Report

The final report is the document that ultimately represents the research. The report is the record of the research content,
process, and analyses as reported by the researcher. It also serves as the scientific contribution a researcher make about
what is known about the social world. It can also act as a catalyst for further research (Kirby, et.al, 2006).

The following considerations are important in presenting the written research report according to Kirby, et. Al.(2006):

• While the content will always be essentially the same for each audience, the emphasis on specific
points and the way in which they are expressed will be different depending on the target audience.
• This report need not to be substantially different from drafts, except where participants have
indicated that change is necessary.
• It should begin with the restatement of the beginnings of the research project and end with a
summary section.
 21 [Type the document title]

• The summary section provides a description and explanation of the new knowledge discovered or
the unique contribution that this research makes. Not too much detail is needed here – simple answer
the research questions, and draw the conclusion.
• The final report can suggest some potential directions for further research and possibly what kind
of policy or individual or group action might be recommended.

• The readers must be informed why this research counts and why is it important.

The Best Research Design

For beginning researchers, a qualitative research is advisable because the setting where it is commonly conducted is
accessible. The natural settings such as schools, hospitals, residences, and the likes do not require altering the situation
or controlling the behavior of the participants. The simplicity of the design indicates measurability and attainability of the
research in terms of natural setting, willing participants, adequate time and cost. This approach will make the researchers
more involve in the society that they live with everyday.

“Some people who conduct qualitative research do not appear to select one particular approach but follow general
principles that include hearing the voices of those studied, using the researcher as the conduit for the information,
studying things in naturalistic manner, looking at the whole things, and avoiding testing hypotheses. Results rely heavily
on words, and often quotations from those studied are included in the document. It is clear that there is not a general
agreement about which approach represents the best qualitative design. The variety of approaches to qualitative
research presents a challenge both to the novice and experienced researchers (Lichtman, 2013).”

Parts of the Written Research Report

1. Title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the population involved, and the period
when the data were gathered or will be gathered (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).
2. Introduction is a generalized discussion which should lead to actually stating and clearly articulating the research
problem. It provides a background that creates a favorable impression about the study. The background establishes
the problem by describing its nature and narrating its development, occurrence or existence. It describes also the
setting where the problem is conceived. Lastly, it explains the rationale of the problem (Casela and Cuevas, 2010).
3. Statement of the Problem is a direct, clear statement of the principal and sub-problems to be investigated.
4. Significance of the Study classifies the people or organization who will who will receive the full advantage of the
research.
5. Scope and Delimitation emphasizes on the extent of the information to be discussed in the study and the limits of
the discussion.
6. Review of Related Literature is the foundation of proposed study for it guides the researcher in pursuing his/her
research venture (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).
7. Methodology discusses the research design to be used, the sample and sampling procedure, and the process of the
data collection.
8. Presentation and Interpretation of Data illustrates the data in tabular or graphical form with relative, objective and
critical explanations.
9. Conclusion indicates the favorable or unfavorable research findings and Recommendations possible research
projects to confirm or verify results of the study (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
10. References list down all the sources used in the study particularly the title, author(s), date and place of publication,
arranged in a specific bibliographic entry format.

Course Module